JOURNAL OF TEACHER
EDUCATION AND
TEACHING
A Journal of the
Department of Educational Foundations Ambrose Alii University,
Ekpoma, Nigeria
Volume 4 No. 1 (June, 2000)
[ISSN 1117-4080]
Designed and Printed By:
C & E Publishers, 114, Ujoelen Road, Ekpoma, Edo State.
CONTENTS
Title Page........................................................………………...
Editorial Board............................................…………………..
Editorial Note...................................................……………….
Note to Contributors............................................……………..
Note on Contributors............................................…………….
Contents..........................................................………………...
Inter-Relationships of Job Attitudes, Social
Maturity Status and Levels of Stress among
Selected Secondary School Teachers in Nigeria
A.O.S. Adegoroye…………………………………………….
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vii
1
Sitting Space Utilisation in Nigerian Universities:
A Case Study of University of Benin
J.K. Adeyemi.............................................................I.....…….
12
Nigerian Adolescents' Attitudes Towards
Pre-Marital Pregnancies
I.O.C. Adomeh..................................................................……
24
Family Socio-Economic Status, Drug use and
Depression Among In-School and out-of-School
Adolescents — A.O. Afolabi....................................................
39
Phonological Training: A Requirement for Effective
Teaching and Learning of French in Nigerian Universities
M.E. Aziegbe (Mrs).............................................................….
54
Predictors of Job Satisfaction Among Junior workers in
Nigerian Polytechnics: A Case Study of Auchi Polytechnic
V.A. Dibua & T.O. Agweda................................................…
63
Effect of Personal Characteristics on Secondary School
Teachers' Attitude Towards Population Education in Delta
State. — G.C. Edozie.............................................................…
73
Quality of Resourcing Staff and Academic Plan
Implementation in Federal and State Universities
H.O. Efoghe, (Mrs)....................................................…………
85
Psychological Distress Associated with Condom use
among University Students in Sexual Relationship
I.A. Ehon & S. Enabunene...................................……………
97
The Effects of Guided Instruction in Reading
on Performance of Learning Disabled Children
A.I. Iseguan & M.O. Omo-Ojugo ...............................………. 112
The Place of Video Films in Teaching
Geography in Nigerian Secondary Schools.
R.J. Muhammed (Mrs)..........................................…………… 120
School Counselling as a Panacea to Moral and Social Poverty
in Nigeria — A. I. Ojugo…………………………………….. 131
Basic Concepts of Communication in Educational
Management — A.N. Okorie (Mrs)................................…….. 141
Attitude of Secondary School Management Staff to the
Continuation of Sandwich Programmes in Ekiti State.
T.T. Olofintoye................................................................…….. 153
Analysis of Age, Gender and Participation in Decision
Making on Teachers' Morale in Delta State Primary
Schools. — E.O. Omaregie (Mrs.)........................................… 161
The Demands for the Establishment of Nigeria's First and
Second Generation Universities (Historical Perspective)
E. O. Onoguere................ ...............................................……. 172
Analysis of the Vocational Interests of
Senior Secondary School Students in Edo State.
A.O. Orubu, S.O. Momoh & A.I. Ojugo........................…….. 182
Justice, Education and Teachers in Nigeria
S.D. Osaat (Revd)……………………………………………. 189
Children, Marital Love and Satisfaction among Igbo
People in Imo State. — T. O. Owuamanam (Mrs)………….. 197
Towards Enhancing Scientific Literacy in Nigeria
P.O. Uhumuavbi .............................................................……. 208
Rhetorical Strategies in Okinba Launko’s Minted Coins
A. Uhumuwangho …………………………………………… 222
BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMMUNICATION IN
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
By
A.N. OKORIE
Abstract
This paper examined the basic concepts of communication, its
components, dimensions, barriers and principles for effective
communication in educational institutions.
Communication is a human relations skill which has not ceased
to interest researchers in the area of educational management. There is
no gain saying that the success of any educational system is greatly
dependent upon its quality of communication. Basically, communication
is a two-way process which results in proper sharing of information.
Thus, communication is listening as well as speaking; understanding as
well as being understood.
Introduction
Communication has deep significance for human organizations
since individuals make specialized contributions to the achievement of
the overall goals of the organization. The degree of coordination, ability
to use specialized expertise of members and the degree of group unity are
to an extent a function of the quality of communication. In the most
critical sense, communication is the basis of cooperative effort,
interpersonal influence, goal determination and achievement of human
and organizational growth.
Since almost all teaching and administrative activities or
decisions must eventually be communicated, the extent to which teachers
and school administrators are capable in this regard, is ultimately
associated to their overall effectiveness. It is evident that the ability- of
141
educators and other school executives to communicate with the diverse
constituencies associated with educational institutions - students,
teaching and non-teaching staff, parents and other community members
is essential for educational effectiveness.
Effective communication is a vital element in interpersonal
relations and is crucial for the school success (Ogunsaju, 1990).
Communication links individuals, creates and maintains individual and
organizational perceptions motivates and persuades others. An important
purpose of communication is persuasion. This does not imply a
manipulative use of persuasion. Instead, it is to stress that
communication is most often used to change attitude or engender support
for school programmes and policies (Adewoyin, 1991; Guthries & Reed,
1986). A significant feature of communication is that it is a learned
quality. An individual who desires to improve his or her ability to
communicate can improve by giving proper attention to the task.
Furthermore, an understanding of the communication process and
arrangements under which they can usefully be employed is a requisite
for effective administrators and teachers. Thus, the basic purpose of this
paper is to discuss the concept of communication; its components, forms,
dimensions, channels, barriers and principles for effective
communication.
The concept of Communication
Communication exists in any institution, whether it is a
corporation, family or school system. It is a means by which ideas,
thought, information, opinions., emotions, values and insight are
transmitted from one individual to another through a common medium
viz; language or set of behaviours. The medium can be verbal, nonverbal or written. According to Adewoyin (1991) communication in
education connotes the transmission of information from a teacher to
students, from students to teachers, from students to students, and from
the administrator to the entire staff members of a school system. Thus,
teaching - learning process is a process of communication.
The term communication in the English language is derived from
a latin word communis which means to make “common” or to “impart”.
Communication in this original sense is the process of acting to express
142
oneself in such a way that one is readily and clearly understood. Through
communication a communicator and a communicate establisher a
common purpose. Communication must always take place between two
or more people. For example, if a teacher teaches and no one listens or
understands, communication has not occured. Communication is more
than talk. It is an attempt by the people involved to share their own
feelings, purposes and knowledge, and to understand feelings, purposes
and knowledge of the others. Facial expressions, gesture, space
arrangements and time enter into the interaction (Bojuwon, 1998; Lovel
& Wiles, 1983). Communication in a basic sense is a two-way process, a
sharing of information. It is listening as well as speaking, understanding
as well as being understood.
Kelly cited in Lovell & Wiles (1983) defined communication as
"the process by which one human being can to a degree know what
another thinks, feels or believes. It is the means by which an individual's
need for others can be satisfied. It is the source of all growth except body
building, and the key to human relatedness".
It is clear from this understanding that if the administrator
desires to influence or be influenced by teachers or if the teacher wishes
to influence or be influenced by students, he/she must communicate.
Communication is a way of learning and growth and thus a primary
ingredient of the educator's effort. The facilitation of school
administrator-teacher and teacher-student must become a fundamental
focus of the education system.
Objectives of Communication
The goal of all communication is to change or modify behaviour.
People communicate in order to influence or change and be changed by
their environment. The educator's main job is to positively influence the
learners' behaviour and achieve desired end results. Ogunmilade in
Adewroyin (1991) identified five objectives of communication.
i)
To get things done, whether it is planning or any aspect of
managing for results, communication is indispensable in
deciding what to do and in getting things done.
143
ii)
iii)
iv)
To stimulate participative decision-making and critical
thinking. It encourages participants to air their views before
arriving at decisions.
To enhance morale. Here, it provides an outlet for the
employee/learners' opinion and variety of channels through
which high morale can be maintained.
To develop people. The communication process is indispensable
for a sound personnel development programme. This can be
achieved by providing.
(a)
(b)
(c)
v)
Orientation programme to introduce a new employee to
his/her job.
Training courses to meet every developmental need.
Periodic appraisal interviews where employees are told
how they are doing and their performance and
relationship.
To achieve effective control. Communication is the heart of
control system. It is the instrument for delegation and for
transmission to the lowest level of the organization. It is also
used as necessary weapon to combat rumours.
Principles for Effective Communication
Stated below are some basic principles of communication
highlighted by Ogunmilade in Adewoyin (1991).
i)
The communicator needs to clarify ideas before communicating.
The more systematically the problem or idea to be
communicated is analysed the clearer it becomes.
ii)
Delineate your objectives. Before you communicate, ask
yourself what you want to accomplish with your message. Is it
to change attitude? As much as possible do not attempt to
accomplish too much within each communication.
144
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
Consider the total physical and. human setting whenever you
communicate. Meanings and intents are conveyed by more than
words alone.....The time of communication is also crucial.
Teachers should be sensitive to the feelings of the learners. He
should be able to determine learners' state of readiness.
Be mindful of the overtones as well as basic content of your
message....Choice of language is very important. Words which
have several interpretations should be avoided.
Take into account the interest of those with whom you are
communicating. Students will want to go into dialogue on topics,
issues or matters of paramount concern to them rather than issues
outside their area of interest.
Use reinforcement machanisms. Try to reinforce good behaviour
whenever you elicit responses from learners. Follow up your
communication and give immediate feedback.
Try not to be understood alone, you too should try to
understand. As your try to influence or persuade others, you
too should be ready to be influenced and modified
behaviour wise.
Barriers to Communication
i)
Timing - Determining when a message should be communicated
is referred to as timing, ft is important for teachers and
administrators to determine the most appropriate time to transmit
a message. For instance, a teacher who wants to reinforce a
desired behaviour of a student should do it as soon after, that is,
not before or too long after the desired behaviour.' An
administrator who wants to reprimand a teacher for chronic
lateness would possibly want to speak with the teacher as soon
as possible after the event had occurred.
ii)
Communication Overload: Communication overload occurs
when the sender attempts to present too much information to
the receiver at one time. When excessive information is
provided, a major breakdown in communication can occur.
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iii)
Language:- Breakdown in communication can occur due
to language difficulties resulting from vocabulary and
different meaning being applied to the same word.
iv)
Cultural Differences:- Barriers to communication can occur
because of cultural differences. Communicators, especially teachers
should take this into account whenever they want to communicate. They
should use the symbols and language understood by their learners.
Component of communication
The communication process consists of four major components:
sender, message, medium and receiver (Adewoyin, 1991). It is important
to mention that communication process is incomplete without adequate
feedback loop. This process is explained and diagrammatically depicted
in figure 1.
(ideas)
Sender
(thoughts)
Encoding
Channel/
Medium
(message)
Receiver
(message)
Decoding
(message)
Feedback
Figure 1: The Communication Process.
Source: Guthrie & Reed (1986, P. 326).
Sender: The sender (source) is (lie person or group who has an idea of
message to communicate to another person or persons. The sender must
encode the message to be sent into a set of symbols. Encoding refers to
the transformation of ideas or thoughts into a form that will convey those
ideas or thoughts to an intended receiver. What the sender wishes to say,
the purpose for saving it, cultural backgrounds and\experiences affect the
kind of message being sent.
146
Message: Ajayi (1995) defines message as the symbol of the idea,
information, event or attitude that the sender is using to stimulate the
receiver of the message. Symbols are not perfect representations of
reality. People have to interpret the symbols. As messages become more
complex, meanings and interpretation become more complicated and
more dependent on a common field of understanding between senders
and receivers. The use of symbols to express feelings, emotions or
abstract ideas may not be easy to put in a way that will be understood by
the receiver. Sometimes, senders may need help in finding suitable
symbols to convey intended meanings. The effectiveness with which the
sender encodes the message will affect how well the intended receiver
will understand it. Therefore for a message to be successfully conveyed,
the encoder must!
(a)
Plan adequately what he/she wants to say.
(b)
Choose appropriate symbols for encoding the message.
(d)
Present the message clearly; and
(e)
Ensure that the climate in which the message is being
transmitted is conducive.
Medium:
The medium is the channel through which information is carried.
Teachers have different communication channels that they may use to
transmit information to students. The spoken word can use such method
as face-to-face, film, television, telephone. The senses of sight, touch,
smell and. taste assist in communication. Communication can sometimes
take place without a word being spoken as in soliloquy. Each of these
channels potentially provides a basis for interference or distortion.
Selection of the most effective medium will depend on the speed with
which the message is to be transmitted, the amount of feedback desired,
find a perception of how effectively received the message will be.
Interference or distortion is unavoidable. It can be reduced, however, if
the communication process has a feedback loop.
Receiver:- The receivers are the people or group that are the target of the
message. Their interpretations, (decoding), feelings, understandings and
total reactions to the message are a function of many factors: their
147
understanding's of the symbols used, their perception of the sender and
his/her intent, and their limitation of the physical structure of the
situation, backgrounds and aspirations that may be significantly deferent
from those of the sender.
Understanding is the key to decoding. Communication
effectiveness is determined to the extent that the receiver's decoding
matches the sender's encoding. Based on the meaning of the message, the
receiver will act in response to the communication. This action can be to
ignore the message, perform some task, store information, for future use.
Communication is not a linear process, rather, it is cyclical in nature. It is
incomplete without proper feedback. Communication is important both
to senders and receivers. It is through feedback that the former receive
back the feelings and reactions of the latter to a number of issues
(Bojuwon, 1998; Adewoyin, 1991).
Methods of Communication
Forms of the message can be either verbal, nonverbal or visual.
Verbal messages can be either written or oral. Circulars, memos, books,
minutes of meetings and newspapers are examples of written
communication. Principal's morning announcements, Classroom visits,
telephones, intercoms, and other social situations are examples of oral
communications. Nonverbal communication are: body gestures, facial
expressions, signs and symbols. Visuals include charts, posters, graphics
and slides.
The form of communication used is an important factor in the
effectiveness of the communication. Bojuwon (1998) found that
principals relied more on classroom visits and small group meetings to
communicate with individual teachers. In tertiary' institutions
department.-!! meetings are used most often, to communicate with
academic staff members Ajayi (1995) opinionated that increase in the
size and" complexity of schools made it more difficulty to communicate
effectively.
There is a need for teachers and administrators m schools to
communicate. Hence there is a need to broaden the base of supervisory
behaviour so that more and more teachers perform in the supervisory
behaviour system on an ad hoc basis. This procedure should contribute to
148
the effectiveness of both oral and written communication among teachers
and between teachers and administrators. Procedure such as team
teaching and cooperative evaluation should also help. The idea is to
provide a structure in which teachers and administrators can work
together to improve teaching skills, the content of teaching and the
actualization of instructional process through effective flow of
communication.
Dimensions of Communication
In formal organizations such as schools, communication can
flow downward, upward or horizontal through the hierarchy.
Downward Communication:
This is a process whereby communication flows from people at
the higher level of the hierarchy to those at the lower levels of the
organizations. For example, the directors from the ministry send
information to the principals and principals to vice-principals and on
through the channels to teachers and students. In this configuration,
written memos, reports, announcement between superiors and
subordinates, instructions and policies generally flow one way. Although
such one way communication enhances coordination, it impedes the
interaction necessary for clarification and participation.
Upward Communication
Upward channels of communication is a process whereby
information flow from the bottom of the ladder to the top of the ladder,
that is, from the subordinates to the superiors. Through this plan,
subordinates can convey their grievances, views, opinions on issues that
concern them. Upward channels seem less effective in the educational
organizations but very necessary. It is important for educational leaders
to get feedback from teachers and students. Teachers and students
represent important source of ideas for improvement. It is also necessary
to know how policy statements, directives and other kinds of messages
are being received and acted on. This feedback is an important source of
149
information about teacher satisfaction and dissatisfaction and is, thus, an
important element in teacher motivation. Educational organizations
should
provide opportunities for students, teachers and other staff
members to present their views on matters that affect them.
Horizontal Communication
This refers to a process of communication among peers within
the same group. An example of this is communication between two
colleagues in an office or classroom. There is need to encourage this
pattern of communication in educational institutions to enable peers to
share expertise with each other, learn and get psychological support.
Team-teaching, small group work and cooperative problem solving can
help in the horizontal flow of communication.
Channels of Communication
Two main channels of communication exist:
informal.
formal and
Formal Channel of Communication
Formal channel of communication entails following the protocol.
It is the official route of communication. Formal communication within
an organization helps to reinforce authority structures, defines, clarifies
purposes and coordinates staff efforts.
Informal Channel of Communication
Due to social relationship among staff, considerable
communication occurs outside formal organizational communication
channels. Such communication is known as informal communication and
it serves important purposes too. Informal communication channels may:
i)
Provide a vehicle for obtaining reactions to ideas that are
being considered for organizational policy;
150
ii)
May be used as a guage for employee concerns and
dissatisfactions. However “grapevine”, or informal means of
communication may serve to circulate or perpetuate
rumours. Yet, the grapevine can add to organisational
effectiveness if those in authority increase their
understanding and use of it. The grapevine is fast and most
of the time accurate in information it transmits (Guthriel &
Reed 1986).
Summary
Communication is a means by which ideas, thoughts,
information, opinions, emotions, values and insights are transmitted from
one person to others through a common language or set of behaviours. In
a school situation, it is the transmission of information from a teacher to
students, from students to the teacher, from students to students and from
the administrator to all the staff. People can communicate orally, in
writing, and by easing body gestures. (1) orally; (2) in writing; and (3) by
using body gestures, facial expression, signs and symbols, posture, space
arrangements and other mechanical devices. Communication
effectiveness is determined to the extent that the receiver's decoding
matches the sender's encoding. It is a. two-way process. Feedback
techniques should be used to ensure the accuracy of messages sent and
received.
The success of a school system is dependent upon the quality of
communication in it. Barriers to communication include improper
timing, communication overload, cultural differences and language.
School administrators and teachers can be more effective in
communication if they recognize some of the principles for effective
communication that have been explored.
151
References
Adewoyin, J.A. (1991). Introduction to educational technology. Lagos:
John-Lad publishers Ltd.
Ajayi, J.A. (1995). Influence of principals communication styles on
teachers' Effectiveness in selected secondary schools of Odo-Otin
Local Government. Osun State. Unpublished M.ED Research
Project, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Bojuwon, Y.B, (1998). Effects of principals' communication strategy on
teachers' productivity in schools in Ijumu Local Government Area,
Kogi State. Unpublished M.ED Research Project, University of
Ilorin, Ilorin.
Guthrie, J.W. & Reed, E.J. (1986). Educational administration and
policy. New Jeersey: Prentice-Hall.
Lovell, J.T. & Wiles, K. (1983). Supervision for better schools (5th ed.)
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Ogunsaju, S. (1990). A guide to school effectiveness in Nigeria. Ibadan:
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