Contents
Editorial
Notes on Contributors
Engineering and Teacher Education in Nigerian Universities:
Costs, Variants and Some Implications. Dr. A. Adelokun
Basic General Management Functions.
Prof. J. A. Aghenta
Absenteeism.
A Review and Critique of Reid's Studies in School
Dr. A. Chukwu
Comparative Analysis of the Internal Rates of Return to Full
Time and Sandwich Bachelor of Educational Degree
Programmes in Nigerian Universities. Dr. D. O. Durosaro
Capital Investment Decision Problem: A Theoretical
Approach to Investment in Higher Education.
Dr. John O. Fadipe
An Investigation into the Problems of Teacher Management in Kwara State Secondary Schools
Dr. (Mrs.) Yetunde Ijaiya
Cost-Benefit Analysis of Primary and Secondary Education in the South West Province of Cameroon
Dr. Fritz Ndiva Mbua
An Analysis of Methods of Data Collection for Educational
Planning in Midwestern (Edo-Delta) States of Nigeria.
Dr. Mon Nwadiani
An Assessment of Principals' Perception of Parental Inputs to Secondary Schools in Oyo State. Dr. Peter K. Ojedele
3
4
5
13
23
32
41
49
59
71
80

The School Administrator's Many Hats: A New Conception of Leadership Roles and Responsibilities.
Dr. (Mrs.) Okorie
A Study of the Frequency of Occurrence of Student Offences in Kogi State Secondary Schools. Dr. A. A. Olagboye
The Impact of Teachers' and Students' Participation in
Decision-Making on their Attitude Towards School Work in
Jos-North Local Government Area of Plateau State.
Dr. Ephraim Egbutu Oluchukwu
Group Dynamics and Educational Goals in Secondary
Schools. Dr. Oyedeji N. B.
The Impact of Environmental Pressure on the Nature and
Style of Educational Management. Dr. G. O. Oyesola
Notes to Contributors
88
97
105
115
124
133

Studies in Educational Planning and Administration (SEPA) ISSN: 1119-3239
Journal of the National Institute for Educational Planning & Administration, Nigeria
Copyright © 1998 NIEPA (NIGERIA) Vol. 2(1) 32-39
D.O. Durosaro
Abstract
Despite the low absorptive capacity of the economy to employ the graduates of
Nigerian Universities, there is the desire for progress and academic advancement among teachers. This study presents a humble attempt to assist teachers to take sound decision on the choice of mode of study to adopt in obtaining Bachelors degree in their field of specialisation using the rate of return calculation approach. The study sampled two thousand graduates of five selected Nigerian Universities running both full-time and sandwich B.Ed, degree, programmes. With the aid of data collected through the use of-a questionnaire, average private coy, average, private benefits and the internal rate of returns to both modes of study, were computed to provide answers to the research questions. Based on the findings, some recommendations were made.
Introduction
Generally in Nigeria, education at all levels is viewed by parents as a wise investment. An investment is money, effort and material expended on something with the hope of future returns. Since the last few decades the discussion of education as either consumption or investment had been initiated by scholars like Schultz, 1961; Mill, 1968;
Michael, 1982 and Dennison, 1987. The Nigerian nationals are still developing and we are yet to arrive at the stage where people would get education simply as a consumption commodity. Our nation is greatly plagued by unemployment, high poverty level, shortage of food, shelter and health facilities. The quantity and quality of these necessities of life that an individual would get depends to a large extent on die level of education attained.
Against this background of education viewed as an investment, there seems to be a high demand for education of all types and at all levels of the educational system in
Nigeria. It was observed that enrolment at primary level increased to four times its original size between 1975 and 1980 while enrolment at secondary' level also rose eleven times and Higher education institutions in the country had their enrolment raised by thirty times the original size during same period (Adesina, 1983).

Comparative Analysis of the Internal Rates of Return to Full Time and Sandwich Bachelor of Education Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities 33
However, owing to the contemporary world economic recession and its resultant
Feet on the Nigerian economy there is low capacity to absorb the products of the educational system. Thus there is the need to assess very critically the chances of employment in whatever field of education one wants to enter.
Also, there is the need for the individual to weigh the cost and benefit derivable from whatever education to be embarked upon. To be able to estimate the benefits derivable from any form of education, the rate of returns approach provides a sound basis especially where the need for comparison arises.
For the sake of clarity, rate of return is defined as the sum of all benefits derived over the working life span of a person (less the cost of getting the education) expressed as a percentage of the cost of getting education. The cost of education is sum total of investment in education over a given -period of time. The benefit of education could be seen as the sum total of returns or earnings derived from an individuals education.
For the entrants into the teaching profession in Nigeria, the National Policy on
Education has prescribed the National Certificate of Education (NCE) as the minimum qualification required: Presently, quite a good proportion of our teachers particularly at the secondary level of education possess the NCF qualification. But to qualify to teach beyond the Junior Secondary level they must obtain a bachelors degree in their areas of specialization. The employers are very reluctant to release the teachers for full time degree programmes and the teachers are: afraid of resigning to go in for a full-time degree programme because they may not get re-employed quickly: Thus, the only option left is to settle for a sandwhich programme. To be able to decide wisely giving consideration-to and experiences of the teachers involved, there is the need to attempt an estimation of the internal rate of return derivable by the individual from both the full time and the sandwich bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree programmes as mounted by the
Nigerian University
While the extent of benefits derivable from undertaking a course shows the profitability of the choice between it and another course or a differently packaged programme of the same course, a wise decision can only be made if the internal rates of return are computed and compared.

34
The Problems
STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
A good number of our NCE holders are still in the dilemma of making a choice of how to advance in their education. The questions that usually cross the minds of such teachers include:
1. Which of the two programmes (Full-time and Sandwich B.Ed.) is likely to be more profitable to the individual?
2.
3.
4.
What will be the cost of both to the individual?
What will be the returns derivable to the individual from both programmes and
What are the internal rates of return to the individual from both programmes?
Literature Review
Blaug (1965) studied the rate of returns on investment in education in Great
Britain. A major contribution of this study is in the area of highlighting underestimation of such returns. For instance, he pointed out that in estimating social rate of return there is the tendency to underestimate non pecuniary alternatives taking the form of fringe benefits while he discovered that there is the tendency to overestimate other areas in the sense that no allowance is made for depreciation of the education stock embodies in the labour force.
Krueger (1972) studied the education attainment and the wage structure in
Turkey and he discovered that private rate of return to higher education is highest while the social rate of return is highest for secondary level of education.
Okedara (1978) investigated the rates of return to formal and non formal education in Nigeria. He found that the private and social rates of return to primary education was higher than those of both secondary and higher education levels. He also discovered that the private and social rates of return to non formal education such as adult literacy projects are higher than that of their corresponding educational levels in the formal educational setting.
Also, Hinchcliffe (1973) studied the rate of return to each level of education in the formal Western State of Nigeria. He found that primary education had the highest social return of 23% tertiary education followed with 17% and secondary education with
12%.
Adesina and Johnson (1981) investigated the private and social rates of return to education by levels in Ibadan municipality. They found that the private rate of return to primary education was 19.2%, secondary 11.3%, and university education had 21.2%.
The social rate of return was discovered to be 15.1% for primary education, 9.3% for secondary education, and 15.5% for university education.

Comparative Analysis of the Internal Rates of Return to Full Time and Sandwich Bachelor of Education Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities 35
Akangbou (1985) studied the efficiency of secondary education system in Bendel state of Nigeria, where he found that the rates of return on both general and technical education were relatively high when compared with the alternative rate of 5% for other levels In a similar study Fadipe (1986) studied the rates of return to education in two universities in Nigeria. The universities are the University of Ibadan and the Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. He discovered that the life time earnings of, the graduates of both increased progressively as the qualification gets higher. He found that the higher the entry qualification the greater the life time earnings and vice versa.
Samuel (1987) investigated the rates of return to technical education at the tertiary livel. His study showed among others, that the determinants of the level of profit from technical education include the entry level and the type of course offered.
These review had shown that quite a number of scholars had attempted studies in the calculation of rates of return to the various levels of education. However there seems to the a need for a comparative approach used in the present study. This is to provide a framework for decision making in education for the Students in dilemma and the policy makers in problems
Research Questions
(i)
The following research questions were raised to guide the study.
What are the cost of both full time and sandwich Bachelor of Education degree programmes to an individual in Nigeria University?
(ii) What are the internal rates of return to the same individual from both types of
Bachelor of Education degree programmes in Nigerian University?
(iii) What are the internal rates of return to the same individual from both types of
Bachelor of Education degree programme in Nigerian University/
Methodology
The rate of return calculation approach is a known and unique approach in educational planning. Various scholars in the past have adopted it in providing useful frame work for a rational choice among programmes in the educational system. (Hamsa
1963; Woodhall, 1969; Okedara, 1978; Akintayo, 1986; Samuel 1989 and Fadipe, 1984).
Since the study was carried out post facto the cross sectional data was collected on the subjects used. Data were gathered on cost and benefits derivable from time of graduation till retirement from teaching. A questionnaire divided into two major parts was designed by the researcher. The instrument was an adaptation of the one used by previous researchers like Fadipe, 1984; Samuel, 1987 and Okedara, 1978. The first part focused on collecting data on private cost of University education in Nigeria while the second part concerned collecting data on the Age-education-earnings of teachers sampled. The instrument was administered on One thousand sandwich B.Ed degree products and One

36 STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION thousand full time B.Ed degree products from five randomly selected universities out of the Nigerian Universities offering the B.Ed. Sandwich programme.
Results and Discussion
The data collected were duly collated and the average private cost were computed by level of courses for both the sandwich and full time degree students. In a similar way, the average personal benefit were computed and the rates of return to both modes of university education were also computed. To guide the discussion of the findings, the research questions raised earlier on were taken up one after the other as follows:
What are the cost of both full-time and sandwich Bachelor of Education degree programmes to an individual in Nigerian Universities?
The relevant data to answer these questions are presented on table 1 below:
Table 1: Private Cost of both full-time and Sandwich Bachelor of Education degree
Programmes in Nigerian Universities.
____________________________________________________________________
Level/ SANDWICH FULL-TIME
Years of Average Private Average Private
Cost Cost
Average Earning Total for foregone full-time
____________________________________________________________________
100 (1 st year) 9373.73 11674.57 12880.00 24554.57
200 (2 nd year) 8296.65
300 (3 rd year) 6498.00
400 (4 th year) 7239.00
500 (5 th year) 7766.00
9993.92
7598.10
7985.00
11668.00
13582.00
16334.00
21661.92
21180.00
24319.00
Total 39173.38 37251.59 54464.00 9171559
____________________________________________________________________
The table shows that for the 100 level or first contact session of sandwich course, the average private cost is W9,373.73 while the average private cost-of the full-time programme is N24,554.57. The latter include the average earning foregone of N12.880.00 per annum per student. At the 200 level or second contact session of sandwich programme, the private cost to the sandwich programme student is N8,296.65 while for the full-time student it is N421,661.92. For the 300 level or third contact session of sandwich, the private cost to sandwich programme student is N6,498.00 while the cost to a full-time student is N21,180.10. At the 400 level of full-time or fourth contact session of sandwich programme the cost are W7,239.00 and N24,319.00 respectively. The

Comparative Analysis of the Internal Rates of Return to Full Time and Sandwich Bachelor of Education Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities 37 sandwich programme (being part-time in nature) lasts for five contact sessions. At the fifth contact session the private cost is $47,766.00.
What are the returns derivable to an individual from the two modes of obtaining
Bachelor of Education degree in Nigerian Universities?
Table 2:
Nigerian
Private returns for both Sandwich and full time B.Ed. Programmes to
Universities’ graduate over the working life-span
______________________________________________________________
B.ED B.ED
Benefits Full-Time Sandwich
______________________________________________________________
Basic Salary
Rent Allowance
1,042,691.00
534,487.78
924,801.00
468,416.00
Transport Allowance
Utility Allowance
Meal Allowance
Official Car facilities
122,796.00
22,960.00
51,354.11
23,216.88
1 03,212.00
20,560.00
45,050.00
23,216.88
Total Benefits
____________________________________________
1,797,505.77 1,585,255.00
Taxation 66,064.00 50,167.00
________________________________________________________________
Post Tax Benefits 1,731,441.77
Discount on benefit 207,920.94
Discounted value of benefit 1,535,520.83
Less Private Cost of B.Ed.
Private Benefit of B.Ed, programmes
91,715.59
1,431,805.24
1,535,088.00
184,210.56
1,350,877.44
39,173.38
1,311,704.06
_________________________________________________________________
To enable the investigator tackle this research question, the age-earning profile of graduate teachers was prepared. The profile for the full-time teacher covered ages 22 to
60 years while that of the sandwich graduates covered 30 years to 60 years. The profile contain items on annual salary, annual rent, transport allowance, utility allowance, meal/entertainment allowance and official car facilities. The pre-tax and post-tax life; earnings were calculated from the prepared age-earning profile. The discount on the total earning was calculated using the average interest rate of 12% for the working life earnings. The total discounted working life earning was also calculated.

38 STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
In this study, the following adjustments were made for both cost and return:
(a) Adjustments were made for? both unemployment and earnings foregone.
(b) On the returns, adjustments were made for taxation and the Denison's two-third alpha coefficient was provided for because the earnings differential associated with different amount of education cannot be solely attributed to differences in education. Other factors like natural ability, economic and social background and occupation could contribute to earnings.
Denison (1962) suggested that only two-third of earnings differentials are associated with different amount of education hence the use of 0.66. In order to obtain the net private benefit of the B.Ed, programmes, the total private cost already calculated was subtracted from the discounted value of benefit for each programme. The data on Table 2 presents the detail on the two B.Ed, programmes. According to the table, the pretax total benefit of B.Ed, programme is found to be Nl,797,505.77 for graduate of the full-time programme and Nl,585,255.88 for graduates of the sandwich programme. The post tax benefits of the graduates of the full-time programme was found to be $41,731,441.77 while that of the sandwich was found to be N41,535,088.00. The discounted value of the benefit to the graduate of full-time programme was found to be Nl,523,520.83 while that of the Sandwich programme graduate was calculated to be $41,350,877 44. The cost of full-time B.Ed, graduate was found to be N491,715.59 while that of the sandwich B.Ed, graduate was found to be N39,173.38. This cost include the earning foregone by full-time graduates while at school. The return derivable by the graduate of a full-time B.Ed programme was found to be N 1,431,805.24 over the working life span while that of a graduate of the sandwich programme was found to be Nl,311,704.06. It could be observed from the table that despite the higher cost of the full-time programme owing to the earning foregone, it is found to yield more benefit to the graduate than the B.Ed sandwich programme.
The next research question tries to find out about the internal rates of return to graduates of both.
What are the internal rates of return to an individual from both full-time and sandwich
B.Ed programmes in Nigerian Universities?
To compute the rates of return to both modes of obtaining B.Ed, degree, the formula used is:
I n
1
ROR = n(
1=0
Bi-C
0
) X 100
C
0
1 that is the summation of benefits minus the cost of education divided by the cost of education multiplied by 100. Based on this formula we also used 38 years as the working life span for graduates of full-time programme and 30 years as working life span for graduates of sandwich programme. Thus for the full-time B.Ed, graduate the rate of

as:
Comparative Analysis of the Internal Rates of Return to Full Time and Sandwich Bachelor of Education Degree Programmes in Nigerian Universities 39 return is:
= 1 (1,523,520,83 — 91,715,59)
38 91,715.59
= 1 (15.61) x 100
38 1
= 41.08%
The private internal rate of return for the sandwich B.Ed, graduate is calculated
= 1 (1,350,877,44-39,173,38) x 100
30 39,173.38
= 1 (33.48) x 100
30 1
= 112%
1
Thus, the internal rate of return of the B.Ed full-time programme to the graduate is 41.08% while that of the B.Ed sandwich programme is 112%.
Conclusion and recommendations
The findings of this study show quite clearly that while the total private cost of the B.Ed, full-time degree is N39.173.38, that of the sandwich programme B.Ed degree is
N91.715.59. It is further revealed that while the returns derivable by an individual product of the full time B.Ed degree is Nl,431,805.24 the return derivable by his similar counterpart on a sandwiched B.Ed, degree is Nl,311,704.06.
However, the findings of this study shows that while the internal rate of return to the individuals investment on the B.Ed, full-time degree is 41.08% the internal rate of return to sandwich degree is found to be 112%. Therefore, based on the finding of this study, it appears more profitable to the individual to choose to obtain the B.Ed degree through the sandwich programme. This is particularly relevant to serving teachers who might be having a problem of choice of mode of furthering their education. Obviously, the sandwich B.Ed degree product gained higher return due to the earning foregone by the full-time counterpart during the period of schooling. Moreover, the sandwich B.Ed, programme student continues to earn while studying and may even get promoted before completion of course and or on completion.
It is pertinent at this juncture to offer some useful suggestions to policy makers, administrators and teachers on how to improve on the existing practice of teacher education in our universities.

40 STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
Since this research findings have shown that the sandwich programme seems more rewarding than the full-time programme to the products, there is need to encourage states to aid their serving teachers to take advantage of such programmes where they exist in universities around them.
There is also the great need to ensure quality control of the course content and delivery at the various universities running the sandwich degree programme. The
National Universities Commission (NUC) should ensure they carry out a proper accreditation of the programmes in the various Universities to ensure they fall in line with the minimum Academic Standards requirement.
Moreover, there is the need to check the over enrolment of the sandwich B.Ed. students in some universities since this produce too large and unmanageable class sizes in some subject areas. The Universities should be discouraged in seeing the sandwich programme as a revenue generating programme.
References
Adesina, Segun (1983): Planning and Educational development in Nigeria, Lagos, Educational Industries
Nigeria Ltd.
Adesina, Segun and Johnson, T.L. (1981): Cost-Benefit analysis of Education in Nigeria. Lagos: University
Press.
Akangbou, S. (1985): The Economics of Educational Planning in Nigeria, India, Vikas Publishing House
PVT Ltd.
Blaug, M. (1965): The rate of return on investment in education in Great Britain, London, Penguin Books.
Dennison, E.E. (1963): Some of the contribution of education to economic growth in Economics of
Education, Conference on the Residual factor and Economic growth, O.E.C.D.
Fadipe, J.O. (1986): Investment in higher education in Oyo state of Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.D thesis,
University of Ibadan.
HichCliff, K. (1973): The practice of manpower forecasting: A collection of case studies, Amsterdam, Else view.
Krueger, A.S. (1972): Rates of return to Turkish higher education, Journal of human Resources vii, 4.
Mill, J.S. (1920): Principles of political economy, London: Longmans Beacon.
Okedara, J.T. (1978): Cost-benefit analysis of formal and non-formal education a case study, The Journal of
Economic and Social Studies 2(1).
Samuel, T. (1987): Economic returns to investment in technological education Lagos State, Unpublished
Ph.D thesis, University of Ibadan.
Schultz, T.W. (1961): Investment in human capital, American Economic Review, Vol. 51.
Woodhall, M. (1972): Educational Cost analysis in Action: Case studies for planners Paris, HEP-UNESCO.