JOURNAL OF ARABIC AND RELIGIOUS STUDIES
Volume 15
December, 2001
Published by:
The Department of Religions,
University of Ilorin,
Ilorin, Nigeria.
ISSN 0794-3636
PATH TO AFRICAN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY OF INCULTURATION
Pius Oyeniran Abioje Ph.D
Introduction
Theology means talk about God. It is traditional described as fides quarerens
intellectum - faith that is seeking understanding. That means that our faith must continue to
seek understanding, particularly in the face of every new situation, circumstance, and culture
The implication is that Africa should consider every aspect of Christian doctrine and practice
from her own perspective. In other words, Africa should contextualize Christianity - make
Christianity relevant to African context and situation. In this light, African Christian theology
of inculturation is rightly described as a contextual theology that seeks to incarnate
Christianity in Africa, to make Christianity an African-thing. For, it is rightly believed that
unless Christianity becomes part and parcel of African culture, it will remain a foreign
religion, in which Africans can only play-act Teresa Okere describes the prevalent situation
in many African communities, when she writes that
Christianity is almost synonymous with attending Mass,
especially on Sundays. saying the Rosary, going to the
sacraments and doing one's Easter duty. Christianity thus
emerges as a set of external and imported practices to be
performed rather than as a way of life to be adopted and lived
(Cf. Rom. 6: 1-23. Acts 9:2). This conception of Christianity
also militates against seeing our Christian faith as being
essentially commitment to a person, Jesus of Nazareth (Cf. Jn.
6:29). Yet as Ignatius of Antioch noted long ago. Jesus himself
is the Good News whom we must receive, live and proclaim.1
There are two points worthy of consideration raised in this quotation from Okure. The first
underscores the fact that main African Christians have been playacting, partly because
Christianity is not well-integrated into their (African) culture The other point refers to the fact
that the person and way of life of Jesus Christ should be distinguished and set-apart from
Western mores, so as to distinctly Africanise Him. As Donal Murray observes, "The first
Christian profession of faith was startling in its simplicity "Jesus is Lord'." Quoting from the
1972 Pastoral of the Irish Bishops. Murray further writes that "Jesus is the unchanging
answer, the absolutely reliable and final word of God to man." To that he adds his own
assertion that "The perfection of a creature consists in the degree to which it reflects the
divine perfection,”2 Thus our perfection does not consist in how we imitate the EuroAmerican and Arabic customs, but how much we try to be holy as our heavenly Father is
holy. Nowadays, the word holy is better understood not primarily as a ritualistic concept, but
as a word that has socio-political and economic implications also. This clarification is
important, even though our major concern is to stress that Christian inculturation is essential,
necessary, and legitimate with reference to particular cultures, provided the inculturation is
Christocentric. Hence, Pope Paul VI told African Bishops, in Kampala, in 1969.
"You can and you must have an African Christianity."3 This statement would seem to
have its root in the teaching of the Second Vatican Council, over which Pope Paul VI
presided after the demise of Pope John XXIII. The Council teaches that the work of
"implanting the Church in a particular human community reaches a definite point when
the assembly of the faithful, already rooted in the social life of the people and to some
extent conformed to its culture, enjoys a certain stability and permanence." (Ad Gentes,
n. 19).
As a matter of fact, there can hardly be any measure of Christian stability and
permanence, unless the Church reckons with the culture of a given people. Aside from
the invasion by Islam, part of the reason given for the disappearance of Christianity
from most parts of North Africa, where it previously flourished, is that Christianity had
not become a way of life for the people, due largely to the fact that little or no
inculturation was allowed and encouraged. Thus, if there is no serious effort to redeem
Christianity from appearing foreign to Africans, the future may be unpromising
In our day, the Church officially allows and encourages inculturation, but there
are still many obstacles on our way to Christian inculturation in Africa. Ironically, the
greatest obstacle may be that many African Christians, including main members of the
ecclesiastical hierarchy, still look down with suspicion on African traditional culture,
with particular reference to African Traditional Religion, which is a basic element of the
culture.
There are many Africans today who still believe that Africans are truly created
inferior, biologically, intellectually, and otherwise. This inferiority complex reflects in
the attempt by a good number of Africans to change the colour of their skin, the texture
and length of their hair, and even in the lack of appreciation of their natural
environment.
Beyond that, we have Americanized Christian movements which condemn
everything indigenous and traditional to Africa, and the leaders dress only in suit and tie
for their pastoral duties. Anselm Adodo notes that "Many Africans still have it
somewhere at the back of their minds that their cultural traditions are inferior and
primitive and should be de-emphasised."4 As Desmond Tutu notes, however.
Both African and Black Theology have been firm
repudiations of the tacit claim that white is right, white is
best. In their own ways these theologies are giving the black
man a proper pride in things black and African. Only thus
can we ever be able to make our distinctive contributions to
the kingdom of God 5
It has to be appreciated that God has created the black man with dignity as any
other Homo Sapiens. But through imperialistic colonialism and certain Christian and
Islamic missionary approaches, Africans are generally led to lose their anthropological
pride. They have been, as it were, made to lose confidence in their historical
background, when their traditional culture and religion were seriously assaulted. The
African is made to believe that the white man is a superior person that is free from
fetishism, witchcraft, magic, sorcery, and the like.
It is on record that not only some Westerners, but some Arabs also perpetrated
prejudices against black humanity. Joseph Kenny notes how some early Arab accounts
paint a frightening picture of West Africans. He believes that this may have been
motivated by racial and religious prejudice to justify slave raiding or a device of gold
traders to scare off would-be competitors from venturing across the Sahara. Writing
further, Kemn notes that one of the legends repeated by several Arab geographers is the
story of the "curse of Ham", which states that "Ham son of Nuh was a white man with a
beautiful face and shape, but God changed his' colour and that of his descendants
because of his father's curse God multiplied them and increased their number; they
are the Blacks." Kenny believes, and one would share his opinion, that the legend
was based on "a tradition developed from an indirect reference in Qur'an 11: 42-47 and a
forced interpretation of Genesis 9:18-28.”6
Yet, a critical observation of Western and Arab literatures and films indicate
that Africa is not a darker continent than Europe. America and Arabia. As Julius
Nyerere notes, "It is the creation of conditions, both material and spiritual, which enables
man the individual, and man the species, to become his best " 7
The Bible also wonders:
Is there not one Father of us all? Did not one God create
us? Why, then, do we break
faith with one another,
profaning the covenant of our ancestors? (Malachi 2:10).
The Second Vatican Council likewise teaches that all men and women "form but
one community", since "all stem from the one stock which God created to people the
entire earth", and moreover all human beings "share a common destiny, namely God"
whose "providence, evident goodness, and saving designs extend to all men." (Nostra
Aetate, No. 1) The Church thus officially recognizes no racial superiority, even though
some of her member-agents might have in speech and action created a wrong and
harmful impression. It is then left to Africans to raise their heads erect, and reassert their
human personality with positive pride
If the African personality has been painted blacker than the colour of the skin of
many Africans, then even thing done by Africans is ipso fact painted black, and African
Traditional Religion (ATR). Which is a fundamental element of our culture, cannot be
an exemption. It is also painted black. That is the subject of the next discourse
The Painted Image of African Traditional Religion (ATR)
Traditional Africans were, and are still in many quarters, rated terribly low, such
that they are not supposed to be capable of having an authentic concept of God. Bolaji
Idowu quotes Emil Ludwig as asking, for instance: "How can the untutored Africans
conceive God?... How can this be?... Deity is a philosophical concept which savages are
incapable of framing."8 Unfortunately, this type of teaching has convinced many
Africans who will never see anything good in whatever is indigenous to Africa. Any
good thing found in Africa, whether a material object or an idea, must have, according to
such Africans, come from the Western world.
Some of the reasons for the ignorance of many modern Africans about their
traditional culture can be traced to some historical antecedents, principal among which
were the advent of colonialism and the introduction of both Christianity and Islam.
Susanne Wenger, an Austrian woman who has devoted herself to Yoruba traditional
culture and religion since 1950, and is called by the Yoruba name Adunni Olorisa.
observes that, "The literate Africans, Nigerians were educated to hate and despise their
own culture," whereas, "In Muslim way or Christian or traditional way, there is no
difference for the real African, because religiosity and belief and acceptance of the fact of
God is the same.'" (Adunni means: it is a pleasure or a competition to have; while
Olorisa means a devotee of Orisa - Yoruba traditional divinities).
Ulli Beier reminded Wole Soyinka, in an interview which the latter granted him:
You were living in the Christian school compound, that was
surrounded by a high wall and when the Egungun
masqueraders were passing by outside, you had to ask
somebody to lift you unto the ladder, so that you could
watch the procession going on outside. Your upbringing was
designed to shield you from the realities of Yoruba life
The reality is that many Christians ha\e not liberated themselves from narrow
forms of Christianity. They therefore see life as either white or black, rather than
seeing life holistically, as being both black and white, body and soul, as Soyinka
observes in the interview."
When one mentions Yoruba divinities, some people's mind will not only think of
mysterious beings, but also of evil and devilish beings. For Yoruba traditionalists,
however, every being and everybody comes from God, even a deified person comes
from, and receded his her talents from God, in Yoruba understanding
The
Yoruba traditionalists may not have conspicuous shrines dedicated to God, but that is
not to say they do not acknowledge Him as their Creator and as the Creator and Lord of
every other being. More importantly. God does not absolutely require a shrine or a
special altar for his worship. As Bolaji Idowu already notes, the divinities (or Orisa) are
conceived as God's ministers. l2 Ogun is the minister for iron and steel; Orisa-nla is in
charge of moulding physical bodies, for God to breathe life into; Sango is the minister
for justice and execution of God's anger through lightning and thunder; Orunmila is
the counselor appointed by God for the other divinities and human beings, etc.
In a culture where kings, such as the Alaafin of Oyo, could not be directly
approached, except through his chiefs, it should not be difficult to understand why God is
not worshipped, but through the divinities as Idowu explains. 13 In other words, the
Yoruba cultural background affects their approach to God, for whom they have a very
deep regard. In the Bible, Moses had to speak to God on behalf of the people.. God ordered
Moses: "Go down and warn the people not to break through to look at Yahweh, or many
of them will perish." (Ex. 19:21). Even in Christianity, one still prays through
intermediaries, such as the Blessed Virgin Mary and the saints, notwithstanding the fact
that one can and often do approach God directly.
The Yoruba have no word for angels of God, the divinities are His angels. No
wonder they say angeli, as Christians, and malaeka as Muslims. In sum, God is neither
deus incertus nor deus remains, as Idowu quotes one Diedrich Westernmann as describing
God in African perspective.14 The Yoruba, in the final analysis, are fond of saying:
"I'agbara Olorun" (by God's grace): E je k'a fi gbogbo nnkan le Olorun lowo (Let us
leave everything in God's hands, i.e. God will take care, and ensure things work out as
one wants.) Such Yoruba expressions correspond with St. Paul's teaching that God has
revealed Himself and His will to all human beings, ever since the creation of the world
(Rm, 1:19). Thus, each people will worship God according to their own understanding
and peculiarities
If anybody is doubting the existence of Yoruba divinities. Ulli Beier refers to a
"remarkable reply of an old Olorisa", to whom his grandchild said: "The teacher said,
your Obatala doesn't exist!" The man simply answered: "Only that for which we have
no name does not exist."15 That is reminiscent of the disputed argument for God's
existence, which implies that one cannot dispense with faith, when it comes to spiritual
issues
It is now being realized in many quarters, that it is not prudent to abandon all
our traditional heritage, and live like a river without an origin or a source As Professor
Adeoye Lambo laments:
I think many things were wrong with Nigeria in that
the value system has collapsed, and we've got no other
substitute. We’ve been
dangling
between
the
traditional and the so-called sophisticated Western
mores and value system and we had not even got to the
other end before the traditional one collapsed, so we
are in a total vacuum.16
Some theologians, even some Western theologians, such as Eugene Lapointe,
actually think the situatioti would have been avoided if missionaries had not condemned
en bloc the people traditional religion. Lapointe, for instance, sets St Paul as an
example of a missionarist who condemned only what was bad in the traditional religion of
his mission communities. He also points to the fact that at the beginning of the Church,
Christian continued to go to worship in the synagogues and in the Temple of Jerusalem,
meaning, as he explains, that they did not abandon the Jewish worship although they had
their own peculiar celebrations, such as the baptism and the breaking of the bread (as in
Acts 2).
The Special Assembly for Africa, of the Synod of Catholic Bishops (Rome.
1994) would seem to have taken a very positive step by showing recognition for the
religion of African forebears, as mentioned earlier (above). In his post-synodal apostolic
exhortation, following the special assembly on Africa (1994), Pope John Paul II, notes that
"the Church certainly respects and esteems the non-Christian religions professed by very
many Africans, for these religions are the living expression of the soul of vast groups of
people."18
A Deist. Herbert of Cherbury is said to have, a long time ago, set forth the
principles of natural religion, which he thought were shared by good people everywhere in
the world. According to a quotation by William Platcher, the principles are:
There is a Supreme God. This Sovereign Deity ought to be
worshipped. The connection of virtue and piety… is and
always has been held to be, the most important part or
religious practice. The minds of men have always been filled
with horror for their wickedness. Their vices and sins have
always been obvious to them. They must be expiated by
repentance There is reward or punishment after this life.
Besides, John B. Taylor, a General Secretan of the World Council of Churches, notes
in regard of people holding primal or fundamental world views that while the Church has
simply denounced what has gone before, main Christians feel "we have been too quick to
denounce. Our neighbours with primal views on life, and ways of life have much to
teach us."20 Also, one may borrow a leaf from some commentaries on the 1994 Synod on
Africa:
Today, we realize that there are true values in every culture
and there are also negative elements. Africa has a great
wealth of cultures and values to be shared with other
nations. The great task of Christian Churches in Africa
today is to encourage the members to express their African
and Christian values in a fully African way.21
But, will this not amount to syncretism'1 Let us discuss the reality
called syncretism a little bit.
Syncretism Vis-A-Vis African Theology of Inculturation
Syncretism is not supposed to pose an insurmountable threat, since Christianity
has gone through accretions in Israel and in the Graeco-Roman territories. According to
Schroer, syncretism is reflected in the Bible at even.' stage.
Whether over anthropology or pictures of the world, the
image of the king or the image of God. the origin of the
mythical narrative material or the genres and contents of
love songs, collections of instructions for living or
proverbs, or legal corpora.Even a glance at the specialist
literature will show that there is little that was not
influenced in a complex way by Ugarit, Egypt, Syria,
Assyria or Babylon.22
To further buttress this point, Schroer writes in support of Andreas Feldtkeller
who, in principle, disputes the possibility of an objective use of the term "syncretism,"
and argues that instead one should speak of a dispute over the limits of systems. One
would add that instead of syncretism as such, one should speak of limits and interrelatedness of systems. The whole of life is, after all, inter-related. As Schroer further
notes, "both the faith of Israel and the faith of the first Christian generations arose
through processes of inculturation and went through some 'syncretism'." And, on the way
to Europe, the Bible, according to Schroer, "had to be inculturated for us, too, in a
tremendous missionary effort."23
Then, there are theologians who wonder whether Christianity has made any
ethical improvement on Africans themselves. Justin Ukpong quotes one Diedrich
Westernmann, for instance, who observes in a book he wrote in 1937, that:
When Europeans who have lived in Africa are asked:
Are African Christians distinguished from their pagan
fellows by greater honesty, reliability, and thrift? In the
majority of cases the reply will be in the negative... Some
will go so far as to say that Christian and mission natives in
general are worse than any others. This is obvious
exaggeration, the truth in it is that through contact with
Western civilization natives are losing their balance; they
are severed from their tribal life without being really at
home in the white man's spiritual world.24
That was in 1937. Writing as late as 1997, Luke Mbefo notes that questions are arising
about the salvivic claims of Christianity. The questions bother, according to Mbefo, on
the fact that after nearly two thousand years of Christian history, the world has remained
unredeemed and unchanged. That is the case, continues Mbefo. to the extent that people
still behave and react to situations exactly as ancient human documents narrate it since the
dawn of written literature and as far as oral tradition can remember It seems to be
constant that: "There have always been good and bad guys", concludes Mbefo .25
Of course, there have been some changes, both positive and negative, since
Christianity came to Africa. One of the most remarkable changes is that twins are no
longer thrown away, as it used to happen in such places as Calabar, where the
missionary Mary Slessor preached vigorously against the practice. Yet, that feat
appears drowned by the current spate of abortion and crimes, which include ritual
murder, in our day.
At any rate, Christianity must dialogue with African culture, particularly with
African Traditional Religion (ATR). This is because many African traditional religious
ideas are not only progressive and illuminating, when viewed objectively, but have also
coloured, a priori, the vision of most Africans, directly or indirectly. Most Africans,
therefore, look outward through the lenses*of ATR, and they perceive intelligibility in
accordance with their African native sense, whether they are born directly or
indirectly into the African traditional worldview. Thus, if Christianity is to gain a deep
foothold or incarnate in Africa, it has to dialogue with ATR, since most grass-root
Africans are psychologically and perceptively oriented to the African traditional
religious perspective.
What dialogue would involve, at this idealistic level, is finding correspondences
in Christian and African traditional beliefs, doctrines, tenets, and ideas. Many theologians
have emphasized that religious studies directed by Christians in Africa should invariably
include studies in ATR. Theologians, such as Mercy Oduyoye. observe that Christian
theology can benefit from a knowledge of African traditional statements concerning God.
nature and human nature, to state the affirmations that Christianity has been groping for
Such knowledge would come, according to Oduyoye. from "in-depth studies of the
religious components of our oral traditions, myths and legends." She rightly thinks that
African Christians would benefit more from the foregoing than from Greek metaphysical
philosophy.26
One could present an example of what Christian theology can benefit from an
indept knowledge of African traditional expressions about God, human life, and the
universe as a whole. I take the example from a section of my Ph.D. thesis. The section is
titled:
The Place of Iwa in Yoruba Culture
In Yoruba culture, as in many other cultures, possibly, neither earthly wealth
nor personal beauty counts without iwa, which is often used to mean good character,
conduct and behaviour. With regard to earthly wealth, the Yoruba would say: Owo fun,
ko to eniyan -money is highly valuable, but not as valuable as fellow human beings. That
bothers on good neighbourliness, which cannot exist without good conduct and
behaviour (iwa). To buttress the fact that human beings surpass earthly wealth in
importance, the traditional Yoruba would tell an arrogant benefactor/benefactress: Ka eni
re k'Olorun o te tire - roll up your mat, and let God spread His own. They would say:
Olowo kii se Olorun, asiri re le bo - A wealthy person is not God, he/she is only
fortunate.
With regard to personal beauty, the Yoruba hold that: Iwa I 'ewa omo eniyan Good conduct is the beauty of a human being.
Some traditional Yoruba songs
teach, for instance, that it is disastrous to marry a beautiful but mannerless lady, while
a beautiful and well-behaved lady constitutes an inestimable jewel. Good conduct iwa rere (sometimes referred to simply as iwa) relates to interpersonal relationships.
Thus, human beings are both the subjects and the objects of iwa. Ultimately, however,
everything goes back to the Adakedajo - the silent Judge, who is no other than the
Creator Himself. He is the final judge of human conduct, behaviour and character.
Everybody is expected to learn, cultivate, imbibe, and effect good conduct (iwa
rere). Gutierrez says, in an interview with Teofilo Cabestrero. that the greatest task of
the Christian is to live the faith "as a praxis, as a behaviour, as a love for fellow
humans."'2' Thus iwa, more than anything else, determines who is a good person in Yoruba
understanding. Iwa rere I 'oso eniyan - Good conduct is humanity's greatest treasure. It is
the most precious stone for which a person should be ready to sacrifice everything
he/she possesses. For whoever has good conduct has everything, and will lack nothing
for long.
At this juncture, one would like to present some sources of African
Christian Theology of inculturation, as identified by some expert theologians. They
rightly think that Christianity has bases to incarnate in African.
Sources of African Christian Theology of Inculturation
It is generally held that the term "African theology"' came into theological
vogue in the mid-fifties and early sixties.'" That is relatively a long time, but because
main African theologians have been trained overseas or by Western (or Westernized)
theologians, theological concepts have remained in foreign categories for the African
faithful. Yet, theologians who are concerned about indigenizing the faith have always
insisted that African Christian theology must have its own distinct identity, based on
African peculiarities, including linguistic, cultural, and socio-rehgious realities. Because
Africa has been culturally distorted and blacklisted, many African theologians now
patronise inculturation theology, if only because Christianity will remain fundamentally
foreign to Africans if it is not shown to be compatible with the African authentic culture.
In pursuance of that, and in the light of the erstwhile discussions (above), a
number of sources have been identified for African theology of inculturation. First of
all, there is the Bible, as translated into African languages, and commentaries on the
Bible, emanating from Afirican perspectives. Secondly, there is African culture,
including aspects of ATR, and traditional African expressions, which come-in, in
deference to what J.S. Mbiti calls African personality and authenticity. 29 Included as an
addition and summary, one may quote the Catholic Bishops of Africa, in their
objection to the theology of adaptation, at tiie Roman Synod of 1974, where they
insisted that ''Our theological thinking must remain faithful to the authentic tradition of
the Church and. at the same time, be attentive to the life of our communities and
respectful of our traditions and languages, that is of our philosophy of life."30
In 1974, in Rome, at the International Synod on Evangelization, African
Bishops rejected as out of date, "the so-called theology of adaptation", in favour of
theology of incarnation. Theology of adaptation involves merely translating and adapting
theological texts emanating from the Western world, while theology of incarnation refers
to a theology that is based on an indigenous background.
The African Bishops must have been informed by the teaching of the Second
Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), for the Council urges young churches to build on "the
economy of the incarnation", and "borrow from the customs, traditions, wisdom, teaching,
arts and sciences of their people everything which would be used to praise the glory of
the Creator, manifest the grace of the Saviour, or contribute to the right ordering of
Christian life." (Ad Gentes 22).
Incarnating the Gospel in Africa, and African Christian theology of inculturation
are synonymous. The word inculturation is favoured, principally because of the
centrality of culture in human life. As Anto Karokaran notes, for instance, from the
second half of the twentieth century, one can notice "a drastic change in the understanding
of culture and faith's relation with it." Writing further, he observes that
Ever since Vatican II, the Church has shown an increasing
awareness of the social character of human beings. centrality
of culture in human life, the inherent existential
specificity of various cultures and the fundamental
differences between them.31
Due to perceptible fundamental differences among cultures, one is justified in talking
specifically about African Christian Theology of Inculturation.. As a matter of necessity,
this theology embraces the liberational thrust also. The Afro-Christian culture of justice,
fairplay, compassion, mercy, and fraternity must be patronised and advocated by African
theologians The liberational thrust is advocated because Africans need liberation from
all that oppresses and exploits them, including the selfish political and economic
predators. Africa is still exploited by international and local imperialists. Conscientious
Afro-Christian theologians must direct their theological researches toward the
establishment of a better socio-political, economic, and religio-cultural order. The Father
of our Lord, Jesus Christ, must be patronised as an Avenger against injustice, corruption,
and all forms of wicked acts. That is an essential part of what the African Christian
theology of inculturation should entail. After all, Jesus Christ was sent to set captives
free, and give sight to the blind. African theologians should, likewise, defend the weak
against the powerful, be voice for the voiceless, and uphold a fundamental option for the
defence of the poor, the marginalized, the oppressed, and the impoverished, so as to be
good children of our Father who art in heaven.
Conclusion
Christianity has a lot to gain from inculturation in our highly pluralistic world.
What is important is to distinguish between what is sinful or harmful in itself, and what is
merely cultural, but beneficial. In other words, every authentic culture and tradition has
something to contribute to human knowledge and advancement. As Richard Viladesau
observes:
Man's desire to unify experiences exposes us to the perpetual
temptation to determine everything in life as the function of
a single principle (in this case, "modernity'), instead
effacing the complexity of the actual world. But such a
reductionism would falsify our perception of reality and
lead to a narrowing of horizons.32
Following from that, one would hold that a mature Christian should be able to
share knowledge and experience with people of other faiths, without losing his or her
Christian identity. The watch word should be caution and discernment. Bernard
Haering puts this pungently, when he writes that, "More than ever, we have asked the
question, "Whom shall we follow?' The emphasis on reciprocity of consciences makes
discernment regarding ourselves and our partners an important aspect of a mature
conscience."33 One would conclude by emphasizing that maturity of conscience is
indispensable on our way to Christian theology of inculturation in Africa. Otherwise, a
poison may feel guilty where there is no sin involved. For instance, some Christians
would feel guilty for taking an African traditional drug against malaria. But, is that really
sinful'7 What is necessary' is a good knowledge of both the authentic Christian and
African cultures, without prejudice. Then a good inculturation can start to take place.
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. Teresa Okere, "Inculuration in the New Testament It? Relevance for the Nigerian
Church" in Inculturation in Nigeria. Proceedings of Catholic Bishops '
Study Session, November, 1989. p. 50.
2. Donal Murray, Jesus is Lord: An Introduction to Christian Theology, Cahill & Co.,
Limited. 1975. Pp. 9-10.
3. Quoted by Teresa Okure, op. cit., p. 43.
4. Anselm Adodo, Herbs for Healing: Receiving God 's Healing Through Nature
(Ilorin, Diocese of Ilorin, 1999), p. 6.
5. Desmond M. Tutu, "Black Theology and African Theology – Soulmates or
Antagonists?" in John Parratt, (ed.), A Reader in African Christian
Theology, (London: SPCK, 1987), p. 53.
6. Joseph Kenny, O.P., The Spread of Islam Through North to West Africa, 7th to 19th
Centuries: A Historical Survey with Relevant Arab Documents,
Dominican Publications, Lagos, 2000p. 75.
7. Julius Nyerere, "The Church's Role in Society" in John Parratt, (ed.). p 1 18
8. E. Bolaji Idowu, Olodumare: God in Yoruba Belief. London, Longman Group Ltd .
1977, p. 88.
9. In the interview she granted Soji Adeniyi, Nigerian Tribune, Tuesday 24. November.
1998, p. 6.
10. Tempo, (a Nigerian weekly), November 6. 1997, p.8.
11. Ibid.
12. Idowu, E.B., op. cit. Pp. 54-106.
13. Ibid, Pp. 141-143.
14. Ibid, p. 140.
15. Tempo (as in note 10).
16. The Punch. Wednesday. September 25, 1996, Pp. 12-13.
17. Lapointe, E., "Basotho's Ancestral Veneration and Christian Worship" in
Makobane M., Sithole, B. and Shiya, M., (eds.) 1995, The Church and
Africa Culture: Conference Papers, Mazenod Institute, Lumko.
Germiston, Pp. 47-49.
18. John Paul II, Ecclesia in Africa, n. 47.
19. Platcher, W.C., A History of Christian Theology, Philadelphia, The Westminster Press,
1983, p. 242. '
20. Taylor, J.B.. Primal World Views: Christian Dialogue with Traditional
Thought Forms. Daystar Press. Ibadan, 1976. p. v.
21. AMECEA Pastoral Department, (ed.). The African Synod Comes Home: A
Simplified Text (of John Paul II's Ecclesia in Africa), Nairobi, Paulines
Publications Africa, 1995. p. 25.
22. Schroer, S., "Transformations of Faith. Documents of Intercultural Learning in the
Bible" in Gremacher, N. and Mette, N., (eds.), Christianity and
Cultures, London, Longman Group. 1994, p. 4.
23. Ibid. Pp. 3-4.
24. Ukpong, J.S., "African Theologies Now: A Profile" in Spearhead No. 80,
Kenya, GABA Publications. 1984, p. 13.
25. Mbefo, L. N., The Liturgical Year in Action, Onitsha, Spiritan Publications,
1997, p. 9.
26. Mercy Oduyoye, (ed)., The State of Christian Theology in Nigeria, Ibadan, Daystar
Press, 1986, Pp. 6 &7.
27. Cabestrero, T. Faith: Conversion with Contemporary Theologians, Maryknoll, New
York, Orbis Books. 1981. p. 104.
28. Cf, for instance, Gwinyai H. Muzorewa. 77?^ Origins and Development
of African Theology. New York: Orbis Books, 1985, p. 2.
29. John S. Mbiti, "Theological Impotence and the Universality of the Church", in
G.H. Anderson & FT. Stransky, (eds).. Mission Trends No. 3, New York:
Paulist Press. 1978, p. 11.
30. Quoted by Aylward Shorter. African Christian Theology, London:
Geoffrey Chapman, 1975, p. 50.
33. Anto Karokaran, "Faith and Culture. Individual Conversions or Evangelization at
the level of Totality?" in Jacob Kavunkal and F. Hrangkhuma, (eds.),
Christ and Cultures, Bombay: St. Pauls. 1994, p. 55.
32. Viladesau, R. The Reason For Our Hope: An Introduction To Christian
Anthropology, New Jersey, Paulist Press, 1984, P. 5.
33. Haering, B. Free and Faithful In (Christ: Moral Theology For Priest and Laity,
Vol. 1, General Moral Theology, Middlegreen, Slough St.
Paul Publications, 1985. P.p. 255 - 256.