SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF MULTIRACIAL DIVERSITY
WITHIN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN POPULATION
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Social Work
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
by
Nia Ridgle
SPRING
2014
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF MULTIRACIAL DIVERSITY
WITHIN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN POPULATION
A Project
by
Nia Ridgle
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Maria Dinis, Ph.D., M.S.W.
Date
ii
Student: Nia Ridgle
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the
Library, and credit is to be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Dale Russell, Ed.D., LCSW
Division of Social Work
iii
Date _________________
Abstract
of
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE OF MULTIRACIAL DIVERSITY
WITHIN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN POPULATION
by
Nia Ridgle
In order to ensure diverse populations receive the best services, social work students
must be aware of diversity within multiracial groups. While there are many different
multiracial subgroups, this research focuses on the African American multiracial
subgroup and the issues and historical context surrounding why it is so important to be
sensitive to the needs of the multiracial African American population. This quantitative
survey research study administered a survey to 136 undergraduate and graduate level
social work students. The sampling method was a non-probability quota sample. Both
Graduate and undergraduate participants overwhelmingly were in agreement that
biopsychosocial assessments must include multiracial questions; this association was
statistically significant in the chi-square test. Implications for social work practice and
policy are discussed.
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Maria Dinis, Ph.D., M.S.W.
____________________________
Date
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1
Background of Problem ...........................................................................................3
Statement of Research Problem ...............................................................................5
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................6
Research Question ...................................................................................................6
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................7
Social Learning Theory…………………………………………...……………….7
Application of Social Theory and Jacobs’s Identity Development in Biracial
Children…………………………………………………………..………...……...9
Definition of Terms................................................................................................10
Assumptions...........................................................................................................13
Justification ............................................................................................................13
Delimitations ..........................................................................................................14
Summary ................................................................................................................14
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...............................................................................16
Historical Background: African American Multiracial Identity ............................17
v
Multiracial Identity Development ..........................................................................23
Force Choice Dilemma of Multiracial People .......................................................27
Multiracial Identity Theory ....................................................................................30
Gaps in the Literature.............................................................................................36
Summary ................................................................................................................39
3. METHODS ....................................................................................................................40
Research Question .................................................................................................40
Study Design ..........................................................................................................40
Study Population ....................................................................................................42
Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................43
Data Gathering and Procedures .............................................................................44
Instrumentation ......................................................................................................45
Data Analysis .........................................................................................................46
Statistical Analysis Plan .........................................................................................46
Protection of Human Subjects ...............................................................................47
Summary ................................................................................................................48
4. DATA ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................49
Demographics ........................................................................................................49
Summary ................................................................................................................68
5. CONCLUSIONS ...........................................................................................................69
Summary ................................................................................................................69
vi
Discussion ..............................................................................................................71
Limitations .............................................................................................................73
Implications for Social Work Practice and Policy .................................................73
Recommendations ..................................................................................................75
Conclusion .............................................................................................................76
Appendix A. Consent to Participate in Research ...............................................................78
Appendix B. Survey Instrument ........................................................................................79
Appendix C. Research Data ...............................................................................................82
References ..........................................................................................................................92
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1.
Table 1 Years of Social Work Experience .............................................................54
2.
Table 2 Racial Identity ...........................................................................................56
3.
Table 3 Classification of Race ...............................................................................57
4.
Table 4 Social Constructionism of Race and Multiracial Identity .........................59
5.
Table 5 One-Drop Rule and Multiracial People of African Descent .....................60
6.
Table 6 Confidence and African American Multiracial Issues ..............................63
7.
Table 7 Diversity within African American Population and Cross-cultural
Courses at Sacramento State University ................................................................64
8.
Table 8 Multiracial and Biopsychosocial Assessment...........................................66
9.
Table 9 Understanding Multiracial Diversity and Social Work Skill Level ..........67
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1.
Figure 1 Participants’ Social work Program Standing Gender ..............................50
2.
Figure 2 Participants’ Social work Program Standing Education Level ...............51
3.
Figure 3 Participants’ Masters of Social work Standing Level .............................52
4.
Figure 4 Prior Work Experience Level .................................................................53
ix
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In the United States, the study of race relations has traditionally focused on the
struggles of people who identify as a single race or racial group (Jackson, 2007).
Increasingly, individuals are identifying themselves with more than one racial, and so it is
imperative that social work students be prepared to work with multiracial diversity within
minority groups. Currently, the California State University, Sacramento Division of
Social work curriculum provides social work students with enriched and culturally
diverse courses, which covers a range of subgroups, including those groups that identify
monoracially and multiculturally. However, the curriculum does not highlight the
complexities of racial diversity within groups such as racial diversity within monoracial
subgroups of African Americans (Dr. Russell, Fall 2010).
Multiracially diverse literature, such as the research in this thesis, is
imperative to large and diversely integrated cities, as in this case, specifically
Sacramento. In 2000, for the first time, the Census allowed respondents to identify with
more than one racial identity. Citing 2000 census data, Jones and Bullock (2012) stated
that Americans who identify themselves as more than one race grew from 6.8 million to
9.0 million. More specifically, Jones and Bullock report that from the 2000 to 2010
census, Americans who identified as being both Black/African American and White grew
by over a million people, or 134 percent. This striking statistic brings up many important
questions, such as “How much of the 134% population increase will affect the African
American multiracial population in Sacramento?” More importantly, “Is the lack of
2
diverse multiracial social work curriculum at California State University, Sacramento,
which is currently unable to provide the education, necessary to work with this newly
emerged multiracial population?”
To better understand race and its relationship to the field of social work, social
work students need to have an awareness of racial diversity within monoracial groups.
According to Jackson (2007) research, participants felt disconnected from traditional
means of accessing race. If my research outcome, in fact, states that social work students
at California State University, Sacramento are not aware of the mixed-race African
American population, it would be beneficial for faculty and staff to consider
implementing issues of multiracial identification topic into the human diversity course.
This research can serve as a point of reference for a social work faculty to utilize when
discussing the importance of racial classification within the social work profession.
Furthermore Jackson (2007) added that it is vital that social workers are aware of
significant environmental factors that contribute to issues experienced by multiracial
people. For example, the study participants indicated that they felt socially disconnected
from their peers due to encountering racism from within their own community and from
peers at school. If social work students at California State University Sacramento are
knowledgeable of this category of diversity and the effects of preconceived notions
regarding race labeling maybe significantly reduced in the field of social work or
between provider and client. Social work students may also increase their knowledge of
cultural competency among this population.
3
In this chapter, the background problem of the research, the research
problem, the study purpose, the research question, theoretical framework, and
definition of terms are introduced. Finally assumptions and delimitations will be
discussed in this chapter along with a summary to conclude the chapter.
Background of Problem
In order to understand why there is an urgent need for awareness of multiracial
diversity within the African American community, social work students must first
understand the social system in which society has historically classified race, as well
as how race is classified by society currently, and how that system affects students’
views on multiracial people. The concept of racial identity has been subconsciously
immersed into our society, which focuses on monoracial identification, through the
passing of laws dating back to the birth of our nation (William, 1980). In 1865 after the
abolishment of slavery (Khanna, 2010), Abraham Lincoln began implementing his plan
for reconstructing the nation; this plan became historically known as the Reconstruction
Era. What is referred to as the “Old South” into today’s society was completely
reorganized. An underlying value of the Reconstruction Plan deemed it unethical and
illegal to own another human being. African slaves were no longer considered material
property or 3/5 of a person. The abolishment of slavery gave African Americans the
freedom to earn a working wage in the United States (Spikard, 1991). New roles of
ascribed status were being established among African Americans and those of multiracial
descent. However, with the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment, multiracial (Mulatto)
individuals of African descent were left without a racial label.
4
Although the Reconstruction Era occurred almost a hundred and fifty-years-ago
many of the racist ideologies still affect what were known as Mullatto people back then
but they are now known as multiracial African Americans today. Racial identity theories
did not specify mixed-race African Americans. It was not until the social movements
such as the Civil Rights and Black Power movement that the concept of “Blackness” and
its connection to the one-drop-rule was acknowledged. The concept of “Blackness” was
redefined and theorist began to recognize multiracial as a separate racial subgroup within
the African American population. Historically researchers assumed Black/White
multiracial people were only a part of the African American population. During the Post
Civil Rights Era there was no need to distinguish between multiracial African Americas
and African Americans. This notion of this thinking derived from the One-Drop-Rule,
which for hundreds of years defined the notion of what “Blackness” was (Brunsma,
Delgado & Rockquemore, 2009). The acknowledgement of distinction created a catalyst
for modern research specifically geared towards the multiracial population
Racial mixing has a long history within the United States. However, legalizing
interracial marriage has been come with an increase of people self-identifying as
multiracial rather than one single race. This is evident in our current multiracial President
Barack, Obama whose father is a native Kenyon and mother is White. The One-drop-rule
utilized to differentiate between Black and Multiracial is now being demolished by the
emergence of people who want to be recognized as multiracially and not monoracially.
As previously stated, the 2000 census data revealed Americans who identify themselves
as more than one race grew from 6.8 million to 9.0 million (Jones & Bullock, 2012). The
5
Census data demonstrates the rapid increase of people identifying with more than one
race.
There is a need for social workers to be knowledgeable about this increasing
population. Sanchez (2009) states, “Racial distinction between different groups has
changed overtime in accordance with the cultural and political climate of the day. The
predominant view among social scientists today is that racial categories are socially
constructed and are not fixed, immutable categories. They point to the fact that variance
within racial groups is much greater than variance between racial groups and that race
cannot account for biological variation” (p. 3). Social work students need to be
knowledgeable of the subgroups within the African American population in order to
properly provide their clients with the proper resources. This historical concept of racially
classifying who is considered African American must be acknowledged within the social
work curriculum.
Statement of Research Problem
Understanding how multiracial clients develop is imperative. To effectively serve
diverse populations, social work students must have the capability to differentiate healthy
identity development from unhealthy identity (Deters, 1997). If social work students at
California State University, Sacramento are not knowledgeable of multiracial theory they
will less likely be capable of assisting multiracial clients through the process of
developing positive racial identities. Gibbs (1989) believes social work practitioners
should have the ability to be sensitive to racial factors, as well as validate feelings
pertaining to biracial identity and its connection to society. It is also essential for
6
practitioners to provide confirmation and assurance to clients by reassuring their feelings
are not illogical. Providing clients with diverse coping skills specific to their multiple
racial backgrounds is also essential diverse practice methods.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research project is to explore the level of undergraduate and
graduate student awareness of multiracial diversity among African Americans in the field
of social work and/or applied to the field of social work in general. This research also
aims to reveal whether the academic curriculum of the Department of Social Work
specifically at California State University, Sacramento prepares undergraduate and
graduate level students to work with this population.
In order to ensure this diverse population receives the best services, social work
students must be aware of diversity within multiracial groups. While there are many
different multiracial subgroups, this research is focused on the African American
multiracial subgroup. The issue and historical context of why it is so important to be
sensitive to the needs of the multiracial African American population will be discussed at
length in subsequent chapters of this thesis.
Research Question
The research question posed for this study is: Do Social work students at
Sacramento State University recognize multiracial diversity among African Americans?
7
Theoretical Framework
Erickson’s Life Span Theory and Jacobs Three Stage developmental theoretical
model of Biracial Children will direct the social learning theory of this research project.
This theory will be described and then applied to the research question.
Social Learning Theory
Many social work students are taught Eurocentric theories to understand the
process of self-identification. Well known traditional theorists, such as Erickson and his
theory of Life Span Development, are used are used in the social work curriculum to give
students an understanding of the identity development process. Erikson’s Life Span
theory examines the process of self-identification through five developmental stages from
birth to late adolescence. The older the child becomes, the more cognitively aware they
are of their racial identity (Erikson, 1980). This cognitive awareness of self is influenced
by the individual’s interaction with relationships, environment, and societal rules and
norms of race. According to Erikson’s theory, as the child grows into late adolescence,
they are able to cognitively develop their own concept of racial classification (Erikson,
1980). While Erickson’s theory has served as a foundation to identify development for
social work students, there are limitations to this theory. According to Jackson (2007),
Erikson’s theory is not specific to the multiracial identity development process and
should not be generally applied to clients. The research in this thesis will discuss the
limitations of Eurocentric theories, such as Erikson’s Life Span Theory, and provide an
alternative theoretical framework, such as Jacobs’s (1992), Identity development in
8
biracial children model, which is more applicable to mixed-race African American
clients.
Jacob’s Identity development in biracial Children theory identifies identity steps
specifically for multiracial individuals. Unlike Erickson’s life span theory, which is
universally applicable, Jacob’s theory highlights the identity stages of children
specifically. Jacob’s theory can help social workers understand that multiracial identity
development is not a linear process but rather a unique unpredictable process that
requires a multiracial parent or parents’ support to assist with the formation of their own
individual identity. Multiracial children will have to differentiate between their ascribed
status and their individual self-definition. Jacob’s third stage highlights these distinctions
that multiracial children will have to make unlike their monoracial peers. Children
between 8 and 12 years will learn that racial categorization or group membership is
related but not determined by their phenotype but rather by the racial heritage of their
parents (Jacob’s 1992). Multiracial children are faced with the obstacle of choosing a
racial identity dissimilar from their parents.
Multiracially specific theory such as Jacob’s multiracial identity model is useful
for clinicians when working with multiracial clients and their parents. Parents can utilize
Jacob’s theory to assist with understanding and normalizing their biracial children and
assisting their children with creating a unique identity. Jacob’s second stage emphasizes
rejection and the importance of ambivalence. If a multiracial child can remain ambivalent
during this stage it is more likely they will be able to progress and develop a unified
identity rather than reject one of their racial identities (Jacob, 1992). Outside influences
9
such as rejection from monoracial could make a negative impact on a multiracial child.
Social work students can assist with guiding multiracial individuals and their parents
through this complicated stage. Social workers can utilize narrative therapy, which allows
multiracial people to explore their own assumptions of racial identity (White & Epston,
1990). This method will also provide the social worker with a perspective of the clients’
conflicts with race.
Application of Social Theory and Jacobs’s Identity development in biracial
Children
The application of Erikson’s Life Span Theory is commonly utilized within the
social work department to demonstrate the life stages of human development from birth
to late adolescence. Students are taught to apply Erickson’s Life Span Theory to future
clients regardless of their ethnic identity. Although Erickson’s theory is utilized, it is not
directly applicable to mixed-race individuals. Multiracial customs and beliefs is a
variable where different social factors may conflict with Erickson’s Life Span Theory.
For example, during the development of Erickson’s Life Span Theory, it was less likely
to have parents from two different racial subgroups participate in research studies. It was
not until the 1960s, the U.S Supreme Court legalized interracial marriages. The 1967
Loving v. Virginia court case ruling made it legal for people of different racial
backgrounds to freely marry (Deters, 1997). After this ruling Black and White interracial
marriages increased, and the1989 U.S Census reported 218,000 interracial marriages had
an increase of 300% in less than 20 years. This increase contributed to an increase in
biracial births by more than 260% since the 1970s and in 1989 over 100,000 multiracial
10
births were reported (Deters, 1997). Despite these statistical findings, Erikson’s Life span
theory did not include specific developmental tasks specific to multiracial individuals.
The introduction of modern theory is needed to distinguish between traditional problemfocused Eurocentric theories which have been recognized as not being conductive to
understanding complexities of multiracial identity.
Due to the racial uniqueness of multiracial identity, this researcher applied
Jacob’s Multiracial Identity theory to the research question. The research question is
specific to the multiracial population within the African American community. Although
Erikson’s Life span theory is more commonly referenced within the social work
curriculum, it does not highlight specific multiracial experiences encountered by
multiracial individuals. Jacob’s theory provides a more information specific to the
multiracial life stage identity development process. Categories of force-choice and
multiracial identity are more applicable to the presented research question and identified
population.
Definition of Terms
It is important to provide definitions of terms commonly utilized throughout this
thesis and social science literature. Specific terms will emerge throughout this thesis
which may appear highly complex due to difficulty distinguishing between terms, and
may appear to have the same definition. For example the terms “mixed-race,” “biracial”
and “multiracial” are terms utilized throughout this thesis to describe a person of mixed
and ethnic heritage (Dhooper, 2003). It should be noted that the terms biracial, mixedrace and multiracial will be utilized interchangeably. Social science terms may have
11
different meanings depending on culture, language, beliefs, and values. These factors
may pose as an obstacle when reading about multiracial identity and the construction of
identity. The terms “social work practitioners” and “social workers” will also be used
interchangeably. Please see terms and definitions provided below:
Betweenness: Leaves multiracial people ‘between’ two or more racial groups without a
single racial group in which to identify (Rockquemore and Brunsma, 2002).
Biracial: An individual with parents from two dissimilar racial groups (Root, 1996, p. ix)
Ethnic Group: An ethnic group of people who share historical traditions, values, and
customs. (Banks, 2004).
Ethnic identity: An individual who has a sense of belonging to a specific ethnic group
and their beliefs. This individual has an ethnic association with the particular ethnic
group (Phinney, 1990).
Miscegenation: A word utilized to describe marriage and sexual relationships between
two people of different racial background. (Daniel, 1992)
Mulatto: Spanish derived word meaning a hyrbrid mule and was used to describe
descendants of White men and African slave women (Graves, Jr., 2005)
Race: Used to distinguish race not by a person's DNA but instead their outside features
was used to base what race he or she was. This was a common practice used to construct
non white individuals. (Jackson, 2007)
Racial Identity Theory: Used to describe the patterns of personal, reference group, and
ascribed identities. (Helms, 1990, p.6)
12
Stereotypes: Unreliable and exaggerated commentary about all members of a race or
group of people. These generalizations does not take into account the individual person as
a whole. (Schaefer, 2011, p. 20, 54)
13
Assumptions
The assumptions to be considered in this study include: 1) the consumer of this
research has knowledge of social work-specific vocabulary pertaining to the subjects of
culture and race, as well as traditional development of models grounded in Western
culture ideology; 2) the consumer is aware of social work practitioners who work with
diverse populations; 3) the reader is aware of the National Association of Social Work
Code of Ethics.
Justification
Jones and Bullock (2012) report that from the census pertaining to the years
between 2000 and 2010, Americans who identified as being both Black/African
American and White grew by over a million people, or 134 percent. The current increase
of individuals identifying as multiracial in preference to monoracial serves as an indicator
that more multiracial-specific literature is required to further diversify social work
literature in effort to meet the clients’ needs effectively. The objective of this research is
to provide the Social work Department at California State University, Sacramento, as
well as the social work student population, with an awareness of multiracial diversity
within the African American community. This research also aims to promote and
encourage diverse cultural sensitivity within the social work field. According to the
National Association of Social work Code of Ethics, it is a social workers obligation to,
“Obtain education about and seek to understand the nature of social diversity and
oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation,
gender identity or expression, age, marital status, political belief, religion, immigration
14
status, and mental or physical disability” (National Association of Social workers, 2012,
p.3). Social workers assist a variety of diverse populations. To enhance social workers
skills to assist the African American multiracial population, this research study and others
alike are critical to the social work profession. Providing students with a knowledge
pertaining to diversity within monoraical subgroups will minimize bias and prepare
students to enter the profession with a more modernized awareness of race.
Delimitations
Delimitations of the presented research does not include qualitative data to further
explore possible factors related to other beliefs systems and attitudes of individual
students that could also contribute to their awareness of multiracial diversity within the
African American population. The data collected is limited to only graduate and
undergraduate students enrolled in the Social work program at California State University
Sacramento. Further long-term data collection would be needed to explore that factor.
Additionally, the researcher only focused on multiracial diversity within the African
American population and did not apply this study to other multiracial groups and subgroups.
Summary
This section demonstrated the significant need for awareness of mixed-race
African Americans. Future social work practitioners can increase their level of sensitivity
if they have an understanding of a multiracial client’s societal barriers, self-esteem, peer
influence, family dynamics of race, and social ideological views of race within their
community. Culturally skilled social workers will increase their level of versatility and
15
have the capability to work within communities they are not familiar with. This level of
skill provides Social work students with the ability to provide services to any type of
client, regardless of their community. This all relates to the social worker familiarizing
him/herself with the historical background of the client whom they are serving.
The purpose of this study was to highlight social work students’ awareness of
multiracial diversity within the African American population. In chapter 2, literary
review will provide background information, a more precise understanding of the
problem, and reference the current research regarding mixed-race African Americans.
The research methods will be discussed in Chapter 3, and Chapter 4 will provide data
results obtained from the administered research survey. Chapter 5 will discuss the
significance of the results, present a conclusion for the research project, and introduce
further future research areas.
16
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Multiculturalism is a more defined way of representing social workers’ awareness
of cultural diversity by demonstrating expressions of empathy, respect and appreciation
for cultural diversity (Jackson, 2007). Multiculturalism symbolizes a point of reference in
social work education that requires a reflection of America’s diversity within staffing,
program curriculum and instructional practices of academic institutions. Historically,
social workers have considered themselves advocates for social justice. To continue that
legacy of social justice, social workers need to recognize the new classifications of
multiracial identity. The profession is aware of the importance of culture and the
influence it has on an individual functioning in society, but it has yet to place emphasis
on multiracial diversity--for example, multiracial diversity among African Americans.
Root’s (1994) research interviewed six self-identified European Americans and
multiracial therapists. The interviews focused primarily on the therapists’ experience in
working with multiracial clients; the research reviewed the therapists’ methods of
working with multiracial clients. The interviews exposed the common issues these
therapists struggled with, such as the lack of formal training to understand the
developmental dilemmas their multiracial clients encountered pertaining to identity
development. The study also revealed that the therapists collectively, at some point in
their careers when working with multiracial clients, felt a sense of helplessness due to
their lack of knowledge about specific issues related to multiracial individuals. These
feelings of helplessness are a consequence of the limited trainings available; however,
17
many of the therapists sought information and advice from other co-workers regarding
their work with multiracial individuals and found it very helpful. In this chapter, the first
section is a discussion of the history of multiracial African Africans, the second section is
multiracial identity development, the third section presents force choice dilemmas, and
the fourth section is gaps in the literature. Finally, a summary of the literature concludes
this chapter.
Historical Background: African American Multiracial Identity
Multiracial identity development differs greatly from monoracial identity
development; therefore, we must look at the historical social construction of race and,
more specifically, its effects on the African American multicultural population. In
America, the concept of race is social rather than biological (Deters, 1997). Historical
records show the first significant interracial relationships between African slaves and
European indentured servants began in Virginia and Maryland in the 17th and 18th
centuries (Williamson, 1980). Due to the increased number of interracial relationships
between these groups, Virginia and Maryland passed anti-miscegenation laws in the
1660s, with the purpose of controlling and discouraging sexual encounters in order to
“keep the white race pure.” These laws became the blueprint of anti-miscegenation
legislation being passed among the southern states.
Although Europeans created laws to discourage interracial relationships, they
continued. This included European slave owners and their black female slaves, whom the
owners either raped or had secret relationships with (Khanna, 2010). While relationships
between Black slaves and European indentured servants were discouraged, interracial
18
relationships between slave owners and female slaves were deemed socially acceptable.
An example of a European slave owner and female slave relationship is President
Thomas Jefferson and his house slave Sally Hemmings, which was confirmed via DNA
testing conducted in the1990s. Historians concluded that the relationship between
Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings continued for more than thirty-five years at
Monticello, Jefferson’s plantation, in Charlottesville, Virginia. President Thomas
Jefferson fathered as many as seven children with Hemmings (WPVI, 2011) According
to historians, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings had one child, Madison, who lived
as an African American (Foner, 2008). Madison’s descendents currently identify as
Black/African American and have had different perspectives of racial identity. Reverend
Doug Banks, of North Wales, Wales a sixth generation grandson of Madison Jefferson
stated, “I’ve known of my ancestry for as long as I can remember. Thomas Jefferson is
part of human history. “He doesn’t define it. I’ve always seen myself a descendant of
slaves that Jefferson owned” (Foner, 2008, p.1). There are more stories like that of
Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings. Reverend Banks is one example of how the past
relationships that occurred during slavery continue to affect a family’s racial identity
generationally. Many multiracial people who are aware of their mixed-race heritage do
not identify as multiracial due to the negative historical context.
The One-Drop-Rule is an important factor in determining multiracial identity and
remains important today (Khanna, 2010). The One-Drop-Rule was established during the
Reconstruction Era. The One-Drop-Rule prohibited multiracial individuals, such as
African Americans, claiming their European ancestry. If a multiracial person of African
19
descent had one drop of Black blood they were considered Black. Ultimately, the ‘One
Drop of Black blood’ rule forced multiracial people of African descent to disown their
white lineage and identify exclusively as Black. Booker T. Washington, a multiracial
person of African descent who identified as Black and was an advocate for the rights of
African Americans, was aware of the injustices placed on multiracial African Americans.
He stated:
It is fact that, if a person is known to have one percent of African blood in his
veins, he ceases to be a white man. The ninety-nine percent of Caucasian blood
does not weight by the side for the one percent of African blood…. The person is
a Negro every time (Zack, 1993, p.83).
This rule divided the African American community by phenotype The strict regulations
of the One-Drop-Rule provided a clear definition of who was considered “Black and who
was considered White,” but there was an unwritten escape clause that forced multiracial
people to deny the existence of one of their racial identities. The unwritten escape clause
determined that any multiracial person who could “pass” for white—that is, have an
outward appearance that resembled that of a person of White descent—they were
privileged with the same rights and opportunities as those of a person who was solely of
White descent. Therefore, the One-Drop-Rule was not applicable to mixed-race African
Americans whose phenotype resembled their white linage. Many mixed-race African
Americans who benefited from this escape clause did so as a means of survival, at times
even utilizing the clause as a way to improve their family social and economic status
20
(Roth, Senna & Whitehead, 2007). This system of racial classification continues to
contribute to the social lens that society utilizes to identify race today.
To understand racial classification, social work students must understand the
historical burden to identify with only one racial identity placed on multiracial people of
African descent. Skin tone for example, is a major factor in the racial identity of a
multiracial person. A research study conducted by Patricia Rockquemore & Arend
(2002) looked at multiracial African Americans’ choice to identify as White. One of their
participants stated:
There were probably about 40 or 50 people, high school seniors, and they were all
black and a few of them, maybe three were mixed and I was just like, I was really
quiet. I felt kinda [sic] uncomfortable…….. and I mean no one was
discriminating…… no one was shunning me or whatever, but I didn’t really have
a good time. It was just very different. It was a lot different from the other
weekends I visited at colleges where it was white, White students mostly (p.56).
According to Rockquemore’s and Arend (2002) the participant, ‘Michelle’,
recognized her experience in predominantly Black environments “as different” than when
she was in all White environments. Because she had more history with Caucasian
environments, she developed a greater connection to that social environment despite her
multiracial connection to African Americans. Michelle added, “I’ve been raised mostly
around white people, in a white neighborhood in white schools, I wouldn’t say that I’m
black. Sometimes I’m also curious, I never really know if people can tell. Sometimes
people will ask, what’s your ethnic background?” (p. 56).
21
The above research suggests that because Michelle’s primary caregiver is a
Caucasian woman, she identifies as Caucasian. The researchers suggest that the primary
caregiver is the most influential factor in a child’s life at this stage of identity
development (Rockquemore & Arend, 2002). Further research is requested by the
researcher to understand a multiracial child’s development of racial identity if the child’s
primary caregiver is African American. Herman (2004) states, “There is evidence that
phenotype affects the level of ethnic discrimination individuals experience particularly in
the job market” (p. 732). Social work students must be aware not to imply or infer a
client’s racial classification based upon the clients phenotype. Understanding multiracial
issues related to phenotype will provide clinicians with an understanding of multiracial
identity issues pertaining to racial identity.
An awareness of family dynamics will also strengthen social work students’
ability to work with multiracial clients and their families. Jackson’s (2007) research
findings reported a significant correlation between social relationships specifically
pertaining to family dynamics. Three of the participants reported having past and present
issues with their mothers regarding their racial identity. Bowles (1993) studied ten
teenagers and young adults from Black/White, multiracial backgrounds. In four cases, the
mothers were Caucasian and the fathers were African American. Of the four cases,
teenagers and young adults identified themselves as white because their Caucasian
mothers did not want them to identify as African American or Multiracial. Each of these
mothers told the same story. They believed their children’s identification should be the
22
same as their own. In fact, two mothers expressed the idea that being white would make
for an “easier life” for their daughters (Bowels, 1993).
In each of these cases, the daughters stated they felt a sense of racial confusion
because they were forced to deny a part of their identity. The participants expressed
feelings of not knowing who they were racially and “feeling false or not being real”. One
of the young women experienced multiple levels of confusion stating:
I am 20 plus years of age and deep down; I don’t know who I am. I am always
fearful that others will not see me as white and that makes me anxious all the
time. My boyfriend asked me why don’t I identify as black or as mixed? And I
fell apart because I cannot be who I am (Bowles, 1993, p.421).
This study highlights racial confusion experienced by multiracial individuals. Bowles’s
study also demonstrated that parents have a very big influence in their child’s racial
identity choice. Social work students need to have an understanding of the roles parents
play in the identity development of their multiracial children. This understanding will
serve as a tool social workers can utilize when collecting information for the assessment
In a research study by Jackson, Kerwin Harris, Ponterotto (1993), they discussed
racial identity among biracial children and addressed the complexities parents commonly
experience when addressing their multiracial children’s racial identity. Their research
finding revealed that the core problem in identity formation for the parents of multiracial
children was racially labeling their children. One African American father participant
stated that not having a racial label meant his children would have to choose one race
over the other. A White father respondent from the same study stated, “Interracial is only
23
a problem because race is a problem.” The research found that many of the participants
in the study expressed distress about filling out census forms that pertained to
racial/ethnic designations for their children. The study revealed that many of the families
who participated in the study had racial labels that varied. Many of the parent participants
in the study preferred to label their children mixed, interracial, both Black and White, and
biracial.
Multiracial Identity Development
Social work students should be aware that racial identity is a process in which a
multiracial individual negotiates their identity with racial guidelines constructed by the
larger society in which they live (Khanna, 2010). An understanding of perception and
how the larger society views multiracial people of African descent will enable social
work students to empathize with the positive and negative influences of multiracial selfidentification. Take for example Tiger Woods; Woods is an example of a multiracial
African American who refused to fit into a constructed category of race by the media.
Tiger Woods is known for his exceptional golf skills, but more importantly he is known
for becoming the first multiracial golf champion. The media attempts to label Tiger
Woods as the first African American golf champion failed. In an interview, Tiger Woods
described himself as a “Cablinasian” to claim his Caucasian, Black, Indian and Asian
ancestry (Eddings, 1997). Although the media defined Woods as the first African
American golf champion, he refused to denounce his multiple ethnic identities. Woods
made it known publicly that he was multiracial. He did not accept being identified as
solely African American.
24
Similarly, President Barack Obama is publicly recognized as the first African
American president of the United States, when in fact he is the first multiracial president.
However, unlike Woods, President Barack Obama chooses to identify himself as an
African American, despite his multiracial heritage. This was made evident in his 2010
U.S Census choice. According to an article written in the Los Angeles Times, President
Obama checked only one racial box under racial category, “Black, African American, or
Negro” (Oscar, 2010). President Obama had the option of checking six different racial
categories, which would include all of his multiracial identities, but he checked only one.
In his book titled Dreams From My Father, President Obama discussed his struggles with
his racial identity. In the book Obama recalled challenges he faced growing up as a
multiracial child raised by a white family, but viewed in society as an African American
male. Obama (2008) stated:
When people who don’t know me well Black or white, discover my background
(and it is usually a discovery, for I ceased to advertise my mother’s race at the age
of twelve or thirteen, when I began to suspect that by doing so I was ingratiating
myself to whites), I see the split second adjustments they have to make, the
searching of my eyes for some telltale sign. They no longer know who I am (p.
xv).
Many multiracial individuals, similarly to President Barack Obama, not only need
to justify their identity to themselves, but they also feel obligated to identify and defend
their choice to society (Sanchez & Shih 2005). Rockquemore and Brunsma’s (2008)
research points out the multiracial experience of “betweenness.” The concept of
25
“betweenness” leaves multiracial individuals discarded by their monoracial subgroups
and without a racial group to identify with. This viewpoint, alongside racial
discrimination against multiracial people of African descent within the African American
community, leaves multiracial people finding themselves a minority twice, due to their
socially constructed double minority status. Mixed-race individuals are viewed as
minorities within larger society and within their minority community due to their (lack of
racial purity) multiple biracial identities (Johnson, 1992). Many multiracial people do not
feel they are fully accepted by any of their racial subgroups and attempt to identify as
multiracial/biracial but remain perceived by others as Black (Rockquemore & Brunsma,
2008).
This research further suggests that social factors, such as feelings of closeness to
other African Americans, must be obtained in order for mixed-race individuals of African
descent to feel a connection with their African American lineage. For example, the same
study stated, “Participants who experienced negative treatment from Black networks
pushed the participants away from developing a Black identity” (Rockquemore &
Brunsma, 2008 p.4). Similarly, within social work racial profiling based on phenotype
can be misunderstood if social work students are aware that many multiracial people with
mixed African heritage can choose to identify solely as African American or multiracial
(Sanchez & Shih, 2005). This awareness on the part of social work students can serve as
a tool to understand the societal barriers that influence a multiracial client’s ability to
navigate within their social system.
26
Multiracial individuals with parents from two different minority groups are
commonly not accepted by the minority racial group considered to have higher social
prestige (Deters, 1997). Multiracial individuals who encounter this type of
marginalization may experience depression, anxiety, and anger (Root, 1994). Both
studies demonstrate a correlation between rejection by society at large and issues of selfidentification. Jaret and Reitzes (1999) examined the importance of race to one’s identity
among 50 Blacks, 48 multiracial and 389 White individuals. Their research found that
racial-self-identity was more important to Black participants than the multiracial
participants and less important to White study participants than to multiracial
participants. This research demonstrates the importance of racial classification within the
African American community. Often multiracial African Americans are rejected by the
African American community due to factors such as their phenotype, customs, and
cultural beliefs.
Melissa Herman’s (2004) research suggested that different levels of
discrimination and self-esteem are two significant contributors to racial identity choices
among multiracial adolescents. The part-Black multiracial participants perceived as much
ethnic discrimination as their monoracial minority counterparts. Her results also
demonstrated that respondents were more likely to report being White if their outside
features appeared White. Self-verification theory suggests people generally have the
desire to be perceived by others accurately.
Other internalized conflicts due to historical factors, such as racial oppression,
influence identity conflict. Quintana (1999) conducted a study on multiracial ethnic
27
students who identified as monoracial. The research findings revealed that multiracial
students identified with the parent who was non-white, basing their choice on the
historical fact that Whites were the oppressors of those who were non-white. The study
also revealed that students’ self- identified as monoracial because they found it less
complex than identifying as biracial.
Force Choice Dilemma of Multiracial People
One of the most critical conflicts multiracial African Americans face is between
self-identification and the racial identification imposed on them by society (Nakashima,
1992). To avoid marginalization of our clients, students studying social work need to be
aware of the self-identification process. Research suggests one of the most common
multiracial obstacles is Force Choice Dilemmas. Force choice dilemmas require
multiracial people to identify with one specific racial identity over the other. According
to Sanchez (2010), this ideology dates back to the foundation of the One-drop-Rule
instituted during the Reconstruction Era. Force-choice dilemmas make multiracial
people feel pressured to reject part of their racial heritage in an effort to feel inclusion by
society or the racial group they phenotypically resemble.
Jackson’s (2007) study found that multiracial participants desired friendships with
peers who shared similar unique cultural experiences. Sanchez (2010) studied 317
individuals (57 males, 260 females) over a 3-month period (July 2006- October 2006).
Participants were asked questions, Based on the following statement, “People have often
told me that I should identify with one single race” (p. 1664). Participants were requested
to respond if they agreed, strongly agree or disagreed. The research findings
28
demonstrated a direct relationship between force-choice dilemmas and depressive
symptoms among Black/White participants. Contributing factors from force choice
dilemmas resulted in participants having symptoms of depression, which was a result of
how society viewed them. This perception resulted in multiracial participants feeling their
multiple racial identities were undervalued. The research also suggests that a more
positive public regard for multiracial individuals could increase their sense of autonomy.
The Consequences of negative regard for multiracial multiple identities resulted in
multiracial individuals rejecting one of their racial identities. Rather than identify as
multiracial participants instead chose to identify monoracially.
Milan and Keiley’s (2000) research results showed that on a five-item measure of
self-worth given to 3, 521 monoracial majority (White) participants, as well as 272
multiracial and 1,941 monoracial minority adolescents in the National Longitudinal
Study of Adolescent Health, multiracial adolescents reported significantly lower levels of
self-worth compared with both monoracial minority and monoracial majority
adolescences. In a similar study conducted, Field (1996) research also found that
monoracial majority adolescents reported higher self-esteem on the Self-Perception Scale
of Adolescents than multiracial adolescents.
In the same study, Sanchez (2010) researched referenced findings from a study
conducted by Townsend, Markus, & Bergsieker (2009). Their research examined identity
denial among multiracial people. Participants were unsystematically allocated racespecific questions. Participants were given multiple choices but were instructed they
29
could only choose one race as opposed to the other group of participants who could
choose all the races/boxes that applied.
The research findings showed that participants who were given instructions to only check
one racial identification box had a decreased level of self-esteem and performance.
Students’ who had only one box to chose from performed poorer on the word-search task
and were more likely to reiterate their multiracial identity (since they were not given the
option to do so). The research findings also demonstrated the relationship between selfidentification and self-esteem. If multiracial people are not given the opportunity to
independently choose their racial identification due to force choice dilemmas, such as the
inability to check more than one race box on a survey or assessment, the result can be
very detrimental to a multiracial client.
Brunsma’s (2006) research findings revealed the importance of identity validation
within society among multiracial individuals. This analysis showed that 75% of the
participants who self-identified as biracial, but who was socially rejected as biracial,
checked “Black” on the 2000 U.S. Census This research demonstrates the influence that
social perception contributes to multiracial self-identification. The census is an example
of force-choice dilemmas that contribute to multiracial clients self-identifying as
monoraical rather than multiracial.
Age also is an important factor in force choice dilemmas. Mary. E Campbell’s
(2006) research findings state that generational differences and age can be factors in
multiracial self-identification. Participants were questioned during an initial CPS survey.
They were required to identify with a single race: White, Black, Latino, American Indian,
30
Asian, or some other race). The research findings suggest that 8% of older multiracial
participants were more likely to identify the force choice option of Black as their racial
identity, and 9% were less likely to choose the option, “some other race” label than those
from recent generations within the last fifty years.
Multiracial Identity Theory
Helms (1990) stated that racial identity theoretical perspectives seek to clarify the
potential of patterns in the personal, reference group, and ascribed identities. These
perspectives also attempt to predict the varied states of mind, thoughts, and/or behaviors
that correspond to differential weightings of components. According to Hutchison (2013),
Eriksson’s psychosocial theoretical framework is one of the most comprehensively
known perspectives to understanding life course development. Erickson’s Psychosocial
Life span Theory focuses on the development stages of identity. According to Jackson
(2009) historically, social scientists have regarded multiracial people as damaged and
confused. Theorists such as Hall’s (2005) Biracial Identity Across the Lifespan theory
and Root’s (2003) Ecological Framework of Racial Identity Development, recognize the
impact of historical, social and environmental stressors that interfere in the identity
process of multiracial individuals. Erikson’s theory does not reference these categories
specific to multiracial people. The use of Eurocentric psychoanalytic development stage
models minimizes the importance of social factors that affect the identity of individuals.
Many of the Eurocentric models tend to have a beginning and an end to identity
development process (Jackson, 2007).
31
Sanchez’s & Shih (2005) research findings revealed that although researchers
such as Gordon, (1964); Root, (1996) and Wardle (1999) have suggested multiple
identity theories. They commonly lack an explanation of multiracial identity, depression,
and anxiety. Their research findings suggest multiracial individuals may suffer internally
with negative feelings within themselves to a greater extent than their monoracial peers.
According to Erickson, the central task of adolescence is developing a stable identity
(Hutchison, 2013). He believed that in order to develop a healthy identity, one must
successfully negotiate a series of developmental tasks. These tasks include developing a
personal identity, identifying a sexual preference, establishing a career, and becoming
independent from one’s parents. All of Erickson’s tasks can be applied to multiracial
individuals as well as monoracial individuals; however, people of mixed-race face
additional developmental tasks, specifically the conflict of negotiating their mixed-race
identity.
According to Erikson the psychosocial struggle in young adulthood is intimacy
versus isolation. This is the time when individuals move from identity division to
confusion to exploration with significant others (Hutchison, 2013). If this stage is applied
to biracial children, this is the stage where biracial children begin to distinguish between
racial subgroups and create their definition of what sub-group they belong to, if any. At
this stage, biracial children are faced with force-choice dilemmas and stereotyping, which
may contribute to low self-esteem and behavioral issues due to the inability to connect
with one or both of their racial sub-groups.
32
However, Deters (1997) points out that Erikson historically constructed his
theories centered on White monocultural experiences and fails to include the experiences
of biracial children. If future social work practitioners solely utilize standard
developmental theory without understanding theoretical bias, he or she runs the danger of
pathologizing the biracial client. To expand options for the biracial clients, Root (1990)
suggests helping the biracial client accept their entire racial heritage, which will provide
them with more self-identity options.
Deters (1997) emphasizes that to assume a biracial person will racially identify
with how they look is subjective. Frequently people perceive biracial people differently
than they perceive themselves. Many people misconceive that biracial people are
privileged to have racial identity choice, but in fact Root (1989) states multiracial people
are commonly forced to battle extensively for the right to exercise their racial
identification choices that are not visually harmonious. This contributes to the
discrepancy between how a biracial person is perceived by society and how they perceive
themselves. To decrease the risk of preconceived notions of race, labeling, and lack of
cultural competence, social work students need to be knowledgeable of diverse theories
such as Jacobs (1992). Root (1990) argues that utilizing theory explicit to biracial
individuals will empower the client to begin to understand negative influences associated
with ignorant and bias views of race when developing their self-identity.
Deters’s (1997) literature review analyzed Jacobs (1992) Three Stage
developmental theoretical model of biracial children, and found the Three Stage model
very valuable when working with multiracial clients and their parents. The First stage is
33
the pre-color constancy stage (under 4 years of age). At this stage the child does not have
a racial label for his or herself. They also do not understand the concept of skin color.
The second stage is the post-color constancy (4-8.5 years). The child at this stage has a
greater understanding of skin color and its meaning in society, and thus the child has
already self-identified with a racial label. During this stage, multiracial children typically
reject their Black identity. Additionally, if, during this stage, the child is not provided the
ability or opportunity to explore their racial uncertainty, he or she will often stop actively
exploring their biracial identity and will feel there is something wrong with their racial
status. The participation of the parent is vital during this stage. Parents should support
their children in exploring their multiple racial identities. The third and final stage is
biracial identity (8 to 12 years). Throughout this stage the child learns that racial group
acceptance is correlated with, but not determined by, skin color, rather it is determined by
their parent’s racial heritage. Children are able to recognize that their parents’ differing
racial heritages, and not their skin colors, define the child as multiracial.
When providing services for multiracial clients, social workers should be capable
of referencing theoretical framework specific to this particular population. Teramoto
Pedrotti, J., Lopez, L. M., & Lopez, (2008) research suggests utilizing narrative therapy
when working with multiracial clients. Edward’s research found that narrative therapy
provides clinicians with the ability to understand their multiracial clients’ individual
needs. The research gives the example of a case of a multiracial girl who grew up in a
diverse community and came to terms with her racial identity by identifying as biracial
rather than denying one of her racial identities. After graduating high school and traveling
34
to a racially homogenous region for college, it became difficult for her to identity as
biracial. She found herself having to explain and describe her biracial classification.
Additionally, the girl found herself struggling with her identity, and thus began to
reevaluate the way she identifies herself racially (Teramoto Pedrotti, J., Lopez, L. M., &
Lopez, 2008). This example highlights the complexities of multiracial identification.
Research suggests Erickson’s Life Span theoretical perspective does not identify
identity development as a fluid process (Jackson, 2007). There are many factors related to
multiracial identity development. Commonly, if multiracial people are not met with
conflicting factors that may make them rethink or reevaluate their multiracial identify
label, they may never encounter an experience such as the above example. Identity
development within the multiracial population is very individualized, thus making the
process very unique and not applicable to linear theoretical perspectives such as
Erickson’s Life span theory. Jacob’s theory highlights the importance of parental support
to reduce factors such as force choice dilemmas. Social work students should be aware
of environmental factors indicated in the above example that may cause a multiracial
African American to self-identify as monoracially rather than multiracially due to their
interactions with their others.
Teramoto Pedrotti, J., Lopez, L. M., & Lopez, (2008) research also notes that
multiracial people find identifying as monoracial rather than multiracial facilitates easier
social relationships in particular environments. Root (1990) found it useful to understand
the multiracial self-identity process as a continuous process and that integration may not
be the only healthy option. A Deters (1997) research participant stated she found, when
35
working with multiracial clients, the concept of ” belonging” was a common theme
among her multiracial clients. The therapist was faced with the obstacle of assisting the
client with working through her issues of “belonging” without having a clear
understanding of how to address her issues. Another participant encountered a
multiracial adolescent male client who was brought to therapy by his White mother
seeking services for his aggression towards his father for abandoning himself and his
mother. The client denied his African American heritage as a result of his father leaving
and associated his African American heritage with, “badness”. Visually the client’s
phenotype resembled African American, but the client self-identified internally as White
and could not comprehend why White girls did not want to date him. To his
understanding they all belonged to the same race.
Deters’s (1997) research findings suggest that when working with multiracial
clients’ there needs to be an awareness of the social construction of race and its effects on
the multiracial identity formation that will highlight the importance of racial ambiguity in
the developmental process of multiracial identity. Deters (1997) further suggests that
working from a non-oppressive theoretical perspective will provide professionals
working with multiracial clients the ability to understand that the multiracial identity
process is not linear. This understanding will aid in the process of assisting multiracial
clients through racially specific issues.
36
Gaps in the Literature
The intent of this study was to explore social work students’ awareness of
multiracial diversity among African Americans at California State University,
Sacramento. This research project utilized an exploratory-quantitative survey to examine
social work students’ understanding of multiracial diversity within the African American
population. The literary review provided a historical connection to the current issues
related to multiracial diversity within the African American community. The objective of
this study was not only to reference the awareness level of African American and White
mixed-race individuals but to also reference African Americans who identify with other
racial sub-groups such as Hispanic and Asian. However the researcher found many
biases in the literature used. The biases such as a majority of research available
referenced African American mixed-race individuals who also identified as White and
African American. This specific information may not be applicable to multiracial clients
who do not identity with those particular racial categories.
A review of literature demonstrated a need for more diverse multiracial literature
specific to the multiracial African American populations. This bias needs to be addressed
to enhance a multiracial body of knowledge and enable them to understand these diverse
populations within the African American community. Research findings revealed a need
for identity development and theoretical framework applicable to social work students at
California State University California to reference when potentially working with this
population. This study purpose also highlighted the lack of awareness of this population
37
among social work students at California State University Sacramento Social work
department.
A review of literature also revealed a need for social work research correlating
with multiracial theory and implementation of theoretical perspectives into the social
work practice when working with multiracial African American clients. The lack of
research may serve as a future barrier for social work practitioners when working with
this population. For instance, social workers may lack the educational background
necessary to identify possible social barriers pertaining to self-identification. A majority
of research highlighted the diversity within racial classification because racial
classification varies among contexts and observers. There is not a pattern identified to
multiracial classification, which creates a barrier for fluid racial concepts. For example,
Deters (1997) research focused on how therapists can explore the impact of multiracial
identity within the therapeutic setting. Many of the racial identification views varied
depending on ethnicity, race internalized rules of racial categorization and prejudicial
tendencies contributed to the different approaches to servicing multiracial clients. Each
therapist who participated in the research had his or her own concept of the multiracial
population. This variance in response to perceptions of this population creates a barrier to
the validity and reliability of multiracial research.
Upon reviewing multiracial literature the research also discovered that many of
the researchers chose to conduct qualitative research interviews as their methodology.
This method of research provided individual concepts and perceptions of race but was
limited in the sample size. For example, Jackson (2007) research interviewed 10
38
multiracial individuals. Participants were instructed to share their individual experiences
and tell their individual story related to their multiracial experience through a narrative
interview process. This form of narrative research could also be bias in the way the
researcher interrupts the interview. The researcher found it important to highlight
concepts that were not addressed in the research as well as gaps regarding to multi-racial
individuals in the literature reviewed.
In an effort to address the identified gaps in literature, this research study aimed to
examine a theoretical framework applicable to different multiracial subgroups. Jacobs
(1992) Three Stage developmental theoretical model of biracial children provides social
workers with a framework to reference but also provides “suggestive” stages which
enables the client to individually experience his or her own identity development process.
Commonly utilized identity development theoretical models were found to be linear and
not applicable to multiracial individuals. The research highlighted the importance of
introducing well-known identity models such as Erickson's Life Stage Identity model but
also provide an alternate life-stage model applicable to multiracial clients as well. The
research also highlights the importance of the multiracial identity development models
due to the increase of individuals in large diverse cities such as Sacramento who identity
with more than one racial background. This research also sought to provide knowledge
of multiracial diversity within the African American population as well as reveal the
historical connection between the social construction of race and the effects of multiracial
grouping or the effects of multi-racial people putting themselves in the groups that best fit
them and or what they are accustomed. An acknowledgement of bias discovered in
39
multiracial literature was also highlighted in this research study in an effort to promote
future literature specific to particular multiracial subgroup.
Summary
In this chapter, the historical background of multiracial diversity with the African
American population was described. The following sections were also discussed:
Multiracial identity development, Force Choice Dilemma of multiracial people,
Multiracial identity Theory and Gaps in Literature. The next chapter will focus on
methodologies of the current study. The next chapter will begin to address the gaps in the
current literature.
40
Chapter 3
METHODS
To reiterate, the development of this research project was to identify the
knowledge social work students at California State University, Sacramento had
pertaining to multiracial diversity within the African American population. This chapter
provides a description of the methods used carry out the study. Topics in this section
include the research question, research design, instruments, population, protection of
human subjects, data collection procedures, data analysis plan, and study limitations.
Research Question
The research question posed for this study is: Do Social work students at
Sacramento State University recognize multiracial diversity among African Americans?
Study Design
This study utilized an exploratory survey research method to analyze the proposed
research question. An exploratory research method is used to examine specific topics not
clearly defined (Stebbins, 2001). The researcher applied this method to explore social
works students’ awareness of multiracial diversity within the African American
population. The exploratory method is stated to be the most applicable method to utilize
when developing research questions to employ in the study (Babbie, 2010). This method
of research allows researchers to survey a large population utilizing the quantitative
survey method. The researcher chose this method because of the ability to measure
statistical data and provides an outline to describe the research findings. One of the
41
difficulties of utilizing this specific type of research design is the lack of individual
perspective from participants (Rubin & Babbie, 2005).
Exploratory research designs utilized in this study are considered to have the
purpose of providing “a beginning familiarity with” the topic according to Rubin and
Babbie (2005, p. 123). In this study, multiracial diversity is an increasing area of
awareness in society and there is a body of equivalent research. However, at current
moment, it is not known to what extent graduate students in social work program such as
at California State University, Sacramento are aware of this knowledge. In this research
this presents an area of exploratory research with the goal of attaining a basic
understanding of students’ awareness. This research only required a basic understanding
of any correlation between students’ awareness of African American multiracial diversity
and their educational background can be attained because of the weakness of exploratory
studies which, according to Rubin and Babbie (2005),“ Seldom provide satisfactory
answers to research questions” (p.124) partly contributed to the sampling methods.
The survey design is a questionnaire, which requires participants to read the
questions and responds without an interviewer in attendance. Research questions
presented in the survey were measured by the Likert scale method to answer the proposed
question. Research participants will have the option to answer with the following
“strongly agree,” “agree,” “disagree,” or “strongly disagree,” responses which provide a
standard format and allows the researcher the ability to create an index score (Rubin &
Babbie, 2005). The researcher purposely did not include the option “undecided” on this
Likert scale category. This method was applied to enhance the number of responses for
42
each research question for data collection purposes. Dudley (2011) describes these
questions as having “forced-response questions that are easy to answer without any
assistance from the researcher” (p. 155). Advantage to this survey design is the limited
time it requires to answer questions. This could potentially result in a higher response rate
than questionnaire surveys that utilize an open-ended questions format.
The researcher was aware of the weaknesses to quantitative research surveying
methods and needed to carefully consider these weaknesses when selecting this data
collection method. One weakness of quantitative research found is the “limited ability”
(Rubin & Babbie, 2005) to demonstrate causality. Causality is a difficult concept to
determine when conducting social science research due to the prospect of unaccounted
variables; this weakness serves as a major barrier when conducting exploratory research.
Another weakness in this research method is the low validity rate due to the self-reporting
component of the research. This component may not allow participants the ability to
articulate themselves clearly on a survey. The researcher took the indentified as well as
other research weakness into consideration when selecting this method as a research tool.
Study Population
The population for this study was California State University Sacramento Social Work
students currently enrolled in the program who were recruited through the permitted
classes. The researcher went to various selected Social Work graduate and undergraduate
classes in order to introduce the research project. There were a total of 136 social work
students: 44 undergraduate and 92 graduate students. A majority of the participants,
43
85.3% were female and 14.7% were males. A total of 55 participants identified as
Caucasian and 80 participants identified as non-Caucasian.
Data Collection Procedures
A random probability sampling method was used to measure the data collected.
The researcher chose to obtain information in this matter to avoid collecting duplication
of data and to guarantee data collection from social work students only. Overall, six
classes totaling 136 graduate and undergraduate Social Work students participated in the
research project. The student researcher requested and was granted permission from the
following social work instructors to administer the research questions to their respective
classes: (1) Anderson, Joseph; (2) Barranti, Chrystal; (3) Larson, Nancy; (4) HillHughes, Mary; (5) Nyland, David (6); Lial, Janet; and (7) Montgomery, Janice. The
researcher was able to successfully administer the surveys to the above listed professors’
students. Once the application for the Protection of Human Subjects was reviewed and
approved, the researcher scheduled appointments to administer the questionnaire at dates
and times permitted by the various instructors. It was assumed that the questionnaire
would take approximately 15 minutes for each class to complete. After data entries were
completed, hard copies of the questionnaire were shredded or destroyed in a confidential
matter before June 2014. The raw data was only accessible and able to be reviewed by
the researcher and her project advisor before May 2014.
It was requested that students complete the survey during class time. The
specified Social Work professors granted the researcher access via email (confirmation of
emails attached). The researcher introduced herself stating the following:
44
Hello my name is Nia Ridgle, and I am a second-year graduate student in our
program here at Sac State. I am here to invite you to participate in my research.
‘Do Social work students at Sacramento State University recognize multiracial
diversity among African American’s [sic]?
The researcher instructed the participants by stating the following:
You may answer the questions to your own capacity. There are no wrong
answers. This research is based off your individual understanding. During the
duration of the survey I will step outside of the classroom until all participants
have completed the survey and left the class. The professor will hand the survey
to whoever participates. If there are any additional questions about the research
please feel free to contact me via email. The researcher’s email address will be
provided to all participating students.
Data Gathering and Procedures
The researcher utilized a non-probability quota sample of 136 Bachelor of Social
Work students and Master's of Social Work students at California State University,
Sacramento. The researcher chose to utilize Social Work students at California State
University, Sacramento (CSUS) due to accessibility. The strengths of surveying only
social work students are that it provides representation of the social work student
population at CSUS for diversity and level of skill applicable to the social work field. The
sample size represented a variety of graduate and undergraduate students with different
educational and professional experiences in the social work field. The weakness of the
45
sample is it was limited to only those participants who are current CSUS social work
students, making this study only applicable to the CSUS Social Work Division.
Instrumentation
A quantitative methodology was utilized to explore social work students’
awareness of multiracial diversity among African Americans at California State
University, Sacramento. This research project utilized an exploratory-quantitative survey
to examine social work students’ understanding of multiracial diversity within African
American populations. A one part, two-page questionnaire was utilized to obtain data
from student participants regarding their awareness of multiracial diversity within the
African American community. A brief survey instrument was designed for this
quantitative research project, which consisted of 20 Likert-scale questions regarding
multiracial diversity within the African American population.
Questions in the survey were related to the basic understanding of diversity within
the African American population. Specific questions related to the social work
curriculum, the background of African American mixed-race population and the social
work students’ knowledge of the mixed race African American population were
presented on the survey. There was no specific reliability or validity tests conducted. A
Likert-scale range-response was utilized to provide students with choices that could be
analyzed with minimal bias. The researcher advisor provided feedback to researcher to
ensure the survey items had face validity.
46
Data Analysis
The independent variables utilized in this research study are demographics of the
survey respondents. The demographic variables were represented by ethnicity and years
of education within the California State University Division of Social Work department.
Students from Undergraduate to Graduate level were utilized in this research study. The
questions on the survey were designed to understand participants’ knowledge of
multiracial diversity within the African American community. The dependent variables
are the independent responses to the Likert-scale survey questions pertaining to
multiracial diversity within the African American population. The knowledge and
understanding of variables pertaining to multiracial diversity within the African
American population were self-reported by participants’ responses in the survey
questions. The survey included questions that accessed students’ knowledge of African
American mixed-race diversity. The independent variables are within the nominal level
of measurement. Utilizing a Likert-Scale format, the dependent variables were measured
at the ordinal level.
Statistical Analysis Plan
Once the survey packets were collected from the student participants, the
researcher input the data by using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). All
variables were coded from the analysis. Correlation matrixes were used to explore
relationships between variables and those with a p value < 0.05 were identified as
statistically significant. Data analysis may include a combination of descriptive and
inferential statistics. After data entries were completed, hard copies of the questionnaire
47
were shredded or destroyed in a confidential manner before June 2014. The raw data was
only accessible to the researcher and her project advisor before May 2014.
The research data obtained from student participants were transported into an
SPSS data file. A chi-Square test was utilized to examine the different presented
variables, such as the independent level of education variables and the dependent variable
questions. For example, the question, “I believe diversity within the African American
population should be discussed in our cross-cultural courses at Sacramento State
University” was compared using a 2x2 chi-square test to determine if there was a
correlation between level of education and knowledge of multiracial diversity within the
African American population. Particular questions could not be utilized in the research
due to the number of responses per cell not being adequate.
Protection of Human Subjects
A human subject’s application was submitted to the Division of Social Work
Review Committee at California State University, Sacramento on November 15, 2014.
The study was approved as “Exempt” and the researcher was provided the following
approval number: 13-14-048.
Informed consent was obtained through implied consent. The researcher verbally
explained the researcher’s purpose, confidentiality, and the protection of the data set to
the prospective subjects. After the researcher completed her explanations, subjects who
were willing to participate in the research project completed the survey questionnaire and
returned it to their participating professor. Those students that did not want to participate
also returned the survey to the participating professor.
48
To ensure confidentiality of the participants in this research study, participants
were not required to provide any identifiable student data (such as participant’s name,
student ID, or date of birth) or identifying academic information (such as class time, class
title, or section number). All hard copies of survey data were kept in a locked box with
only the researcher and the thesis advisor having access to this data. One month
following the filing of this research with the Graduate Studies office, all hard copies were
destroyed, by June of 2014.
Summary
This chapter discussed the methodology used in the conducting the research
project. Project participants and recruitment methods were demonstrated. The participant
population and sample were discussed, along with any difficulties presented during the
research procedure. This chapter examined the variables, the quantitative survey
questionnaire, collecting data procedures, data analysis, and human subjects’ protection
procedure, Chapter 4 will present the data analysis.
49
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the data collected from the research survey is examined. The
analysis of this survey will identify areas of awareness among social work students
pertaining to multiracial diversity within the African American community. Chi-square
tests are used to introduce relationships between certain data variables. At the end of this
section, a summary will highlight all of the significant variables.
Demographics
A total of 136 California State University Sacramento Social work undergraduate
and graduate students participated in this study. As shown in Figure 1, a total of 85
percent of the research participants were identified as female (n=116) and 14 percent
(n=20) were identified as males.
50
Figure 1
Participants’ Social Work Program Standing Gender
Gender: 1 Male_____ 2 Female _____
Figure 1 displays that two-thirds of the participants identified as graduate students
(68 percent). The remainder identified as undergraduate students (30 percent).
GENDER
Male
14.7%
Female
85.3%
Figure 1
51
Figure 2
Participants’ Social Work Program Standing Educational Level
Are you an undergraduate or graduate student?
Figure 2 demonstrates that two-thirds of the participants were identified as
graduate students (68 percent). The remainder identified as undergraduate students (30
percent).
EDUCATION LEVEL
Undergraduate
32.4%
Graduate
67.6%
Figure 2
52
Figure 3
Participants Master’s of Social work Standing Level
If you are a graduate student, are you a MSW I or MSW II?
Figure 3 indicates the number of Master’s of Social Work One students (MSW I)
and Master’s of Social Work Two students (MSW II) sampled. As shown below, the
majority of responders are MSW I students (63 percent). MSW II students represent 37
percent.
GRADUATE SCHOOL LEVEL
MSW II
37.0%
MSW I
63.0%
Figure 3
53
Figure 4. Prior Work Experience Level
Do you have prior work experience?
When asked about prior social work experience, the majority of the students
surveyed have some prior experience in the social work field (61 percent). This is
followed by 39 percent who have no prior social work experience.
PRIOR SOCIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
No
39.0%
Yes
61.0%
Figure 4
54
Table 1. Years of Social work Experience
If yes how, many years of work experience do you have?
In reference to social work experience among research participants, 21 percent of
research participants’ reported having six or more years of work experience, and 38
percent reported having no prior work experience.
Table 1
YEARS OF SOCIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
One To Five Years
Six or More Years
Frequency
52
29
Percent
38.2
21.4
55
The research question posed for this study is: Do Social work students at
Sacramento State University recognize multiracial diversity among African Americans?
Racial Identity
When looking at areas concerning phenotype, 52 percent (n=42) of undergraduate
student participants’ agreed they ask people who resemble African American descent
their racial identity rather than assuming (Table 2). In reference to the same statement, 65
percent (n=91) of graduate student participants’ agreed with this statement. When it
comes to disagreement, 38 percent of undergraduate student participants’ and 61 percent
of graduate students disagreed with the statement, “I ask people who resemble African
Americans their racial identity rather than assume.” The chi-square test was not
statistically significant.
Classification of Race
Table 3 reveals social work students awareness of reasons why multiracial people
of African descent choose to identify themselves as multiracial or African American
only. Research data revealed 90 percent (n=44) of undergraduate and graduate students
(n=91) agreed with the statement, “I believe larger society classification of race cause
multiracial individuals to choose only one racial identity,” On the other hand, nine
percent of undergraduate students’ and ten percent of graduate students’ disagreed with
this research statement. The chi-square test was not statistically significant.
56
Table 2. Racial Identity
Undergraduate/Graduate Students and Racial Identity
q5g I ask people who
resemble African
Americans their racial
identity rather than
assume.
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1 Undergraduate
2 Graduate
Total
1 Disagree
20
2 Agree
22
Total
42
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
47.6%
52.4%
100.0%
% within q5g I ask
people who resemble
African Americans their
racial identity rather
than assume.
38.5%
27.2%
31.6%
% of Total
15.0%
16.5%
31.6%
Count
Count
32
59
91
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
35.2%
64.8%
100.0%
% within q5g I ask
people who resemble
African Americans their
racial identity rather
than assume.
61.5%
72.8%
68.4%
% of Total
24.1%
44.4%
68.4%
52
81
133
Count
57
Table 3. Classification of Race
Undergraduate/Graduate Students and Classification of Race
q5h I believe larger
society classifications
of race cause
multiracial individuals
to choose only one
racial identity.
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1 Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5h I believe
larger society
classifications of race
cause multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial identity.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5h I believe
larger society
classifications of race
cause multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial identity.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5h I believe
larger society
classifications of race
cause multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial identity.
% of Total
1 Disagree
4
2 Agree
40
Total
44
9.1%
90.9%
100.0%
30.8%
32.8%
32.6%
3.0%
29.6%
32.6%
9
82
91
9.9%
90.1%
100.0%
69.2%
67.2%
67.4%
6.7%
60.7%
67.4%
13
122
135
9.6%
90.4%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
9.6%
90.4%
100.0%
58
Social Constuctionism of Race and Multiracial Identity
This research data found 77 percent of undergraduate (n=44) social work
students’ and 97 percent (n=90) of graduate students’ agreed they are aware of how social
constructionism contributes to multiracial identity within African American populations
(Table 4). The chi-square test was not statistically significant.
One-Drop-Rule and Multiracial People of African Descent
Table 5 displays participants’ familiarity with the “One-Drop-Rule” and its
connection to the identity of multiracial people of African descent. When asked to
respond to the statement, “I am familiar with the ‘One-Drop-Rule’ and its connection to
the identity of multiracial people of African descent, 50 percent (n=44) undergraduate
students’ and 62 percent (n=88) of graduate students agreed with this statement. On the
other hand, 50 percent of (n=44) undergraduate participants and 40 percent (n=88) of
Graduate students’ disagreed with the above statement. The chi-square test demonstrated
no statistical significance.
59
Table 4. Social Constructionism of Race and Multiracial Identity
Undergraduate/Graduate Students and Social Constuctionism
q5o I am aware of
how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5o I am
aware of how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5o I am
aware of how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5o I am
aware of how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
% of Total
1 Disagree
10
2 Agree
34
Total
44
22.7%
77.3%
100.0%
45.5%
30.4%
32.8%
7.5%
25.4%
32.8%
12
78
90
13.3%
86.7%
100.0%
54.5%
69.6%
67.2%
9.0%
58.2%
67.2%
22
112
134
16.4%
83.6%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
16.4%
83.6%
100.0%
60
Table 5. One-Drop Rule and Multiracial People and Multiracial People of African
Descent
Undergraduate/Graduate Students and One-Drop-Rule
q5p I am familiar with
the, "One-Drop-Rule"
and the connection it
has to the identity of
multiracial people of
African descent.
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5p I am
familiar with the, "OneDrop-Rule" and the
connection it has to the
identity of multiracial
people of African
descent.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5p I am
familiar with the, "OneDrop-Rule" and the
connection it has to the
identity of multiracial
people of African
descent.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5p I am
familiar with the, "OneDrop-Rule" and the
connection it has to the
identity of multiracial
people of African
descent.
% of Total
1 Disagree
22
2 Agree
22
Total
44
50.0%
50.0%
100.0%
40.0%
28.6%
33.3%
16.7%
16.7%
33.3%
33
55
88
37.5%
62.5%
100.0%
60.0%
71.4%
66.7%
25.0%
41.7%
66.7%
55
77
132
41.7%
58.3%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
41.7%
58.3%
100.0%
61
Confidence and African American Multiracial Issues
In Table 6, more than two-thirds (60 percent) of the social work graduate students
and three-fourths (75 percent) undergraduate felt confident in their ability to understand
multiracial issues within the African American community. A little more than one-third
(40 percent) social work graduate students’ and one-fourth (25 percent) of undergraduate
students’ disagreed with this statement. The chi-square test displayed no statistical
significance.
Diversity within the African American population and cross-cultural courses at
Sacramento State University
When asked if research participants believed multiracial diversity within the
African American population should be discussed in Sacramento State University’s
cross-cultural course, there was an overwhelming 96 percent (n=92) of graduate students’
and 90 percent of undergraduate student participants’ agreed with the above research
statement. On the other hand, nine percent of undergraduate students’ and three percent
of graduate students’ disagreed with the research statement. Chi-square test showed no
statistical significance.
Multiracial and Biopsychosocial Assessment
Graduate and undergraduate participants were overwhelming in agreement to the
statement, “I believe that the biopsychosocial assessment must include multiracial
questions.” Table 8 indicates 80 percent (n=44) of the survey undergraduate participants
agreed with this statement and 90 percent (n=91). Despite the fact that 20 (n= 91) of
62
graduate and seven percent (n=44) of undergraduate students’ disagreed with the same
statement. The chi-square test was statistically significant (χ =4.624; df=1;p=.032).
63
Table 6. Confidence and African American Multiracial Issues
Undergraduate/Graduate Students and confidence in multiracial issues
q2 Are you an
undergraduate
or graduate
student?
1
Undergraduat
e
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5j I am
confident in my
ability to understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American
community.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5j I am
confident in my
ability to understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American
community.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5j I am
confident in my
ability to understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American
community.
% of Total
q5j I am confident
in my ability to
understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American
community.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
11
33
Total
44
25.0%
75.0%
100.0
%
25.0%
36.3%
32.6%
8.1%
24.4%
32.6%
33
58
91
36.3%
63.7%
100.0
%
75.0%
63.7%
67.4%
24.4%
43.0%
67.4%
44
91
135
32.6%
67.4%
100.0
%
100.0%
100.0
%
100.0
%
32.6%
67.4%
100.0
%
64
Table 7. Diversity within African American Population and Cross-Cultural
courses at Sacramento Sate University
Cross-cultural courses at Sacramento State University
q5k I believe
multiracial diversity
within the African
American
population should
be discussed in our
cross-cultural
course at
Sacramento State
University.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
q2 Are you an
undergraduate
or graduate
student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5k I
believe multiracial
diversity within the
African American
population should
be discussed in our
cross-cultural
course at
Sacramento State
University.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5k I
believe multiracial
diversity within the
African American
population should
be discussed in our
cross-cultural
course at
Sacramento State
University.
% of Total
Total
Total
Count
4
40
44
9.1%
90.9%
100.0
%
57.1%
31.0%
32.4
%
2.9%
29.4%
3
89
3.3%
96.7%
100.0
%
42.9%
69.0%
67.6
%
2.2%
65.4%
7
129
32.4
%
92
67.6
%
136
65
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5k I
believe multiracial
diversity within the
African American
population should
be discussed in our
cross-cultural
course at
Sacramento State
University.
% of Total
5.1%
94.9%
100.0
%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0
%
5.1%
94.9%
100.0
%
66
Table 8. Multiracial and Biopsychosocial Assessment
Biopsychosocial assessment
q2 Are you an
undergraduate
or graduate
student?
1
Undergraduat
e
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5l I
believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must
also include
multiracial
questions.
% of Total
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5l I
believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must
also include
multiracial
questions.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5l I
believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must
also include
multiracial
questions.
% of Total
q5l I believe that
the biopsychosocial
assessment must
also include
multiracial
questions.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
9
35
Total
44
20.5%
79.5%
100.0
%
56.3%
29.4%
32.6%
6.7%
25.9%
32.6%
7
84
91
7.7%
92.3%
100.0
%
43.8%
70.6%
67.4%
5.2%
62.2%
67.4%
16
119
135
11.9%
88.1%
100.0
%
100.0%
100.0
%
100.0
%
11.9%
88.1%
100.0
%
67
Understanding multiracial diversity and social work skill level
Research findings revealed that 90 percent of participants, both graduate and
undergraduate level students, overwhelmingly agreed that understanding multiracial
diversity within the African American community would enhance their social work skill
level (Table 9). Only seven-percent of undergraduate and six-percent of graduate students
disagreed. The chi-square test was not statistically significant.
Table 9. Understanding Multiracial Diversity and Social Work Skill Level
Multiracial diversity and social work skill level
q2 Are you an
undergraduate
or graduate
student?
1
Undergraduat
e
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5n I
believe
understanding
multiracial diversity
within the African
American community
will enhance my
social work skill
level.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
q5n I believe
understanding
multiracial diversity
within the African
American
community will
enhance my social
work skill level.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
3
41
Total
44
6.8%
93.2%
100.0
%
37.5%
32.8%
33.1%
2.3%
30.8%
33.1%
5
84
89
5.6%
94.4%
100.0
%
68
% within q5n I
believe
understanding
multiracial diversity
within the African
American community
will enhance my
social work skill
level.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5n I
believe
understanding
multiracial diversity
within the African
American community
will enhance my
social work skill
level.
% of Total
62.5%
67.2%
66.9%
3.8%
63.2%
66.9%
8
125
133
6.0%
94.0%
100.0
%
100.0%
100.0
%
100.0
%
6.0%
94.0%
100.0
%
Summary
This chapter research project analyzed Social work students at Sacramento State
University’s knowledge of multiracial diversity among African Americans. This chapter
also explored social work students’ perception of California State University Sacramento
social work curriculum. The next chapter will examine the significance of the data
gathered and present the conclusions, implications and limitations for social work
practice.
69
Chapter 5
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter will summarize the main data collected in this research study. The
demographics of social work students who participated in the research study will also be
discussed as well as the data. This chapter will include the limitations of the study. The
implications of the findings for social work students and finally, policy and future
research will be discussed.
Summary
Little research has been conducted to highlight the identity development of
multiracial African Americans. This study explored social work students’ awareness of
multiracial diversity among African Americans at California State University,
Sacramento. This research project utilized an exploratory-quantitative survey to examine
this awareness. The premise of this research was to identify social work students at
California State University awareness of multiracial diversity within the African
American population.
Graduate and undergraduate participants were overwhelming in agreement to the
statement, “I believe that the biopsychosocial assessment must include multiracial
questions.” Eighty percent (n=44) of the survey undergraduate participants and 90
percent (n=91) of the graduates agreed with this statement. Despite the fact that 20 (n=
91) of graduate and seven percent (n=44) of undergraduate students disagreed with the
same statement. The chi-square test was statistically significant (χ =4.624; df=1;p=.032).
70
Research findings also revealed that both undergraduate (90%) and (100%) of
graduate students believed multiracial diversity within the African American population
should be discussed in cross-cultural courses at CSUS. Although this finding was not
statistically significant, this demonstrates the need for the social work department to
provide students with a more diverse learning curriculum that not only reference
monoracial diversity but also multiracial diversity.
When looking at areas concerning phenotype, a chi-squared test was used to test
the statistical significance association between undergraduate (n=42) and graduate (n=91)
student participants’ and the following statement, “I ask people who resemble African
Americans their racial identity rather than assume.” The results of the chi-square test
were not statistically significant because the minimum expected count was less than
16.42.
For the statement, “I believe larger society classification of race cause multiracial
individuals to choose only one racial identity,” a chi-square test was performed to test for
significance between the association of undergraduate (n=44) and graduate (n=91)
student participants,’ and their level of agreement with the statement. The results of the
chi-squared test revealed there was no statistical significance because the minimum
expected count was less than 4.24.
71
Discussion
This study was created to explore Social work students’ awareness of multiracial
diversity within the African American population. The researcher compared the
Awareness of undergraduate and graduation students within demographics of the
participants, including ethnicity, gender, type of Social work student, prior work
experience. When utilizing identity development models to examine the research
findings, it was vital to be conscientious that different of cultural views pertaining to race.
A review of literature also revealed a need for social work research, specifically
correlating multiracial theory and implementation of theoretical perspectives into the
social work practice when working with multiracial African American clients. Harris,
Jackson, Kwerwin and Ponterotto’s research highlighted the different experiences of
racial discrimination experienced by biracial children with a dominant parent who
identified as White and a dominant parent who identified as Black. Their research found
a difference between how parents prepared their children for possible racial
discrimination. The research found that the Black parent was more color conscious than
their White spouse. A Black father participant stated that his children have to be “the
best” in order to survive racism. Black parents in the research study referenced the need
for their children to be confident in their multiracial identity as a means of survival
against discrimination The research findings from this study found that an number of
undergraduate (80%) and 90% of graduate students believed they had an
awareness of identity issues like the example referenced in Harris, Jackson, Kwerwin
72
and Ponterotto’s research that multiracial people encounter due to the social
constructionism of race.
This research finding also found that the majority of participants agreed having an
awareness of multiracial diversity within the African American community would
enhance their social work skill level. Incorporating the multiracial specific theory, such
as Jackson’s (2007) Three-stage developmental theoretical model of biracial children,
was previously found to be more sensitive and influential when dealing with complex
multiracial specific issues of identity. Knowledge of coping strategies is utilized to help
children cope with their racial individuality. For example, Deter’s idea of ‘uniqueness’ is
used as an affirmation to help young children develop their racial individuality. This
coping technique is used as an affirmation to help young children develop a positive
sense of individuality while still asserting his or her sense of belonging.
The research findings from this study implied additional research is required
to further investigate this topic in effort to improve social work students’ awareness
of historical construction of race such as the influence of the One-Drop-Rule. When
research participants were asked to respond to the statement, “I am familiar with
the ‘One-Drop-Rule’ and its connection to the identity of multiracial people of
African descent, 50 percent (n=44) undergraduate students’ and 62 percent (n=88)
of graduate students agreed with this statement. On the other hand, 50 percent of
(n=44) undergraduate participants and 40 percent (n=88) of Graduate students’
disagreed with the above statement. The chi-square test demonstrated no statistical
significance. Future research could examine the significance other multiracial sub-
73
groups such as Hispanic, Asian and Native American. An exploration of multiracial
identity development and its connection to behavior could also be explored. The
impact of the race, age, and ethnicity of multiracial clients and struggles with
substance abuse could also be further researched. It was recommended in the above
sections to duplicate this Study in effort to validate the research findings.
Limitations
The limitations of this study include the number of student participants (N=136),
the collection of the participants, data collection methods, the research survey, as well as
the student participants. The research findings of this study are not applicable to larger
populations outside of CSUS due to the non-participation of outside student participants.
The participants’ self-awareness of the purpose of the study could have potentially
affected the research findings. Due to researcher's specific interest in multiracial diversity
within the African American population could have lead to a bias that may have altered
the research study design, data collection, and the analysis of the findings. The researcher
suggests a further duplication of this research study utilizing a larger population including
changes made to the research survey and probability-sampling methods are recommended
and a qualitative study method would also be valuable for further understanding of this
research topic.
Implications for Social Work Practice and Policy
The findings from this research study can provide strength in the awareness of
multiracial diversity within the African American population. Currently a minimal
amount of research referencing African American multiracial diversity is exists. This
74
research study will assist in increasing the knowledge available about this specific
population. Additionally this research attempts to encourage additional research related to
the research topic.
It is assumed social work students on a micro level, are aware of their own
perceptions and biases of race. It is imperative for social work students to be aware of
bias prior to entering into a working relationship with diverse clients. For example,
research findings in the literature review revealed multiracial clients at some pointencountered discrimination. Social work students should have an awareness of their own
race; physical appearance, cultural values and beliefs may impact their treatment
services. Social work students should seek to improve their educational level of this
population and in effort to reduce potential barriers contributed by cultural incompetence.
If students utilize the information presented in this research study, it could potentially
improve their self-awareness about multiracial diversity within the African American
population.
The research findings on the mezzo level, in this research study can improve
social work student educators to highlight this population when discussing cultural
competency in social work courses. An awareness of the complexities of culture,
environment and family and the contributions these factors play in the identity
development of multiracial individual can benefit social work students when working
with clients experiencing these social issues. It is important to encourage educators to
provide social work students with an awareness of specific theoretical frameworks to
assist with guiding multiracial clients through identity difficulties. Educators can also
75
focus more on engagement techniques to minimize and potential barriers that clients face
when seeking assistance for their issues.
Current policies for social work on the macro level, can offer modern ways to
understand concepts of race. The increase of multiracial individuals highlights the
inequalities of multiracial specific services due to dated concepts of racial categorizing.
Social work can advocate for multiracial individuals by joining task force created to
educate the public about multiracial inequalities and lack of resources. Social workers
can hold trainings, advise school staff, provide written material and create support groups
for multiracial individuals. Advocating for policy changes at the local, state and federal
level in how racial information is collect can contribute to multiracial individuals an
example of this type of policy change is the 2010 Census modification which gave people
the option to choose more than one racial category.
Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to explore the Social work students’ awareness of
multiracial diversity within the African American population. The following section
includes a recommendation list of future research and resolutions how this study could
potentially obtain better research results. This list will also contain a list of barriers social
workers may encounter when working with the multiracial population.

The researcher could have extended the survey population size by allotting more
time for data collection of CSUS social work students.
76

The survey instrument could have accessed social work students’ knowledge of
specific multiracial theories, such as Jacobs (1992). The Three-stage
developmental theoretical model of biracial children.

The researcher could have included an additional open-ended research question to
analyze social work challenges when working the African American multiracial
population.

The researcher could have utilized a qualitative research method design to
question to gather social work students’ personal experiences and challenges
when working with the African American multiracial clients.

The lack of research may serve as a future barrier for social work practitioners
when working with a multiracial population. For instance, social workers may
lack the educational background necessary to identify possible social barriers
pertaining to self-identification.

More African American multicultural specific literature is necessary to enhance
the proficiency, skill level, and adaptability of current and future social work
practitioners.
Conclusion
The primary purpose of this chapter was to provide a conclusion on the key
research findings. This chapter discussed the research finding results and the summary
results found in chapter four. The results were compared to the literature review
discussed in chapter two. The research study limitations were also presented followed by
proposed research recommendation for future research pertaining to this topic. The
77
research findings from this study assisted in highlighting possible future research topics
in effort to conduct this study more sufficiently. In conclusion, this research determined
that social work students’ at CSUS have awareness of multiracial diversity with the
African American population but also it is important for social work courses to include
multiracial African American specific course work content.
78
APPENDIX A
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
DIVISION OF SOCIAL WORK
To: Nia Ridgle
Date:
November 25, 2013
Cc: Dinis
From: Research Review Committee
RE: HUMAN SUBJECTS APPLICATION
Your Human Subjects application for your proposed study, “Social Work Students at Sacramento
State University's Knowledge of Multi-Racial Diversity Among African Americans”, is Approved
as Exempt. Discuss your next steps with your thesis/project Advisor.
Your human subjects Protocol # is: 13-14-048. Please use this number in all official
correspondence and written materials relative to your study. Your approval expires one year
from this date. Approval carries with it that you will inform the Committee promptly should an
adverse reaction occur, and that you will make no modification in the protocol without prior
approval of the Committee.
The committee wishes you the best in your research.
Research Review Committee members Professors Maria Dinis, Jude Antonyappan, Serge Lee, Francis Yuen, Kisun Nam, Dale Russell,
79
APPENDIX B
Survey Instrument
1. Gender: 1 Male_____ 2 Female _____
2. Are you an undergraduate or graduate student?
1 Undergraduate _____
2 Graduate_______
If you are a graduate student, are you an:
1 MSW I _____
2 MSW II _____
3. Do you have prior social work experience?
1 Yes ____
2 No ____
If yes, how many years do you have? _________Years
4. My racial background is (please circle only one answer)
(1) Asian or Asian American, including Chinese, Japanese, Pacific Islander and others
(2) Black or African American
(3) Hispanic or Latino, including Mexican American, Central American, and others
(4) Caucasian, European American; not Hispanic
(5) American Indian/Native American
(6) Mixed; Parents are from two different groups
(7) Other (write in): _____________________________________
5. Please select only one answer for each statement. Choose the answer you feel
most accurately represents your beliefs.
A.
B.
C.
My Social work education at
Sacramento State University
has made me aware of
multiracial diversity within the
African American community.
I am aware of the identity
issues multiracial people
encounter.
I am aware of the identity
process among multiracial
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
80
D.
E.
F.
G.
H..
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
people.
I understand how to utilize
techniques such as, ECOmapping to understand
multiracial individuals culture
and racial identity.
In our family racial
identification was never
important.
African American people
racially identify themselves
based on their physical
appearance.
I ask people who resemble
African Americans their racial
identity rather than assume.
I believe larger society
classifications of race cause
multiracial individuals to
choose only one racial identity.
Multiracial diversity among
African Americans is a new
concept to me
I am confident in my ability to
understand multiracial issues
within the African American
community.
I believe multiracial diversity
within the African American
population should be discussed
in our cross-cultural course at
Sacramento State University.
I believe that the
biopsychosocial assessment
must also include multiracial
questions.
I am aware of some reasons
why multiracial people of
African descent choose to
identify as multiracial or solely
African-American
I believe understanding
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
81
O.
P.
multiracial diversity within the
African American Community
will enhance my social work
skill level.
I am aware of how social
constructionism contributes to
multiracial identity within the
African American population.
I am familiar with the, “OneDrop-Rule” and the connection
it has to the identity of
multiracial people of African
descent.
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
82
APPENDIX C
Research Data
q1 Gender
Frequency
Valid
1 Male
20
2 Female
116
Total
136
Percent
14.7
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
14.7
14.7
85.3
85.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
q2 Are you an undergraduate or graduate student?
Valid
1 Undergraduate
2 Graduate
Total
Frequency
44
Percent
32.4
Valid Percent
32.4
Cumulative
Percent
32.4
100.0
92
67.6
67.6
136
100.0
100.0
q2a If you are an graduate student, are you a:
Valid
Missing
Valid Percent
63.0
Cumulative
Percent
63.0
25.0
37.0
100.0
67.6
100.0
Frequency
58
Percent
42.6
2 MSW II
34
Total
92
1 MSW I
System
Total
44
32.4
136
100.0
q3 Do you have prior social work experience?
Valid
1 Yes
Frequency
84
Percent
61.8
Valid Percent
61.8
Cumulative
Percent
61.8
100.0
2 No
52
38.2
38.2
Total
136
100.0
100.0
83
q3a If yes, how many years do you have?
Valid
Missing
Valid Percent
7.4
Cumulative
Percent
7.4
55.1
92.6
100.0
59.6
100.0
Frequency
6
Percent
4.4
2 6 Or More Years
75
Total
81
System
55
40.4
136
100.0
1 1 To 5 Years
Total
q4 My racial background is.
Frequency
Valid
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
1 Caucasian, European
American
55
40.4
40.7
40.7
2 All Other
80
58.8
59.3
100.0
135
99.3
100.0
1
.7
136
100.0
Total
Missing
Percent
System
Total
Q5g I ask people who resemble African Americans their racial identity rather than assume.
q5g I ask people who
resemble African
Americans their racial
identity rather than
assume.
2
1 Disagree
Agree
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5g I ask
people who
resemble African
Americans their
racial identity rather
than assume.
% of Total
Count
% within q2 Are
you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
Total
20
22
42
47.6%
52.4%
100.0%
38.5%
27.2%
31.6%
15.0%
16.5%
31.6%
32
59
91
35.2%
64.8%
100.0%
84
% within q5g I ask
people who
resemble African
Americans their
racial identity rather
than assume.
% of Total
Total
Count
61.5%
72.8%
68.4%
24.1%
44.4%
68.4%
52
81
133
q5h I believe larger society classifications of race cause multiracial individuals to
choose only one racial identity.
q5h I believe larger
society classifications
of race cause
multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial
identity.
2
1 Disagree
Agree
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5h I
believe larger society
classifications of race
cause multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial
identity.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5h I
believe larger society
classifications of race
cause multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial
identity.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
Total
4
40
44
9.1%
90.9%
100.0%
30.8%
32.8%
32.6%
3.0%
29.6%
32.6%
9
82
91
9.9%
90.1%
100.0%
69.2%
67.2%
67.4%
6.7%
60.7%
67.4%
13
122
135
9.6%
90.4%
100.0%
85
% within q5h I
believe larger society
classifications of race
cause multiracial
individuals to choose
only one racial
identity.
% of Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
9.6%
90.4%
100.0%
q5o I am aware of how social construnctionism contributes to multiracial identity within the
African American population.
q5o I am aware of
how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5o I am
aware of how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5o I am
aware of how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
Total
10
34
44
22.7%
77.3%
100.0%
45.5%
30.4%
32.8%
7.5%
25.4%
32.8%
12
78
90
13.3%
86.7%
100.0%
54.5%
69.6%
67.2%
9.0%
58.2%
67.2%
22
112
134
16.4%
83.6%
100.0%
86
% within q5o I am
aware of how social
construnctionism
contributes to
multiracial identity
within the African
American population.
% of Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
16.4%
83.6%
100.0%
q5p I am familiar with the, "One-Drop-Rule" and the connection it has to the identity of multiracial
people of African descent.
q5p I am familiar
with the, "One-DropRule" and the
connection it has to
the identity of
multiracial people of
African descent.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5p I am
familiar with the,
"One-Drop-Rule" and
the connection it has to
the identity of
multiracial people of
African descent.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5p I am
familiar with the,
"One-Drop-Rule" and
the connection it has to
the identity of
multiracial people of
African descent.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
Total
22
22
44
50.0%
50.0%
100.0
%
40.0%
28.6%
33.3%
16.7%
16.7%
33.3%
33
55
88
37.5%
62.5%
100.0
%
60.0%
71.4%
66.7%
25.0%
41.7%
66.7%
55
77
132
41.7%
58.3%
100.0
%
87
% within q5p I am
familiar with the,
"One-Drop-Rule" and
the connection it has to
the identity of
multiracial people of
African descent.
% of Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0
%
41.7%
58.3%
100.0
%
88
q5j I am confident in my ability to understand multiracial issues within the African American
community.
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5j I am
confident in my ability
to understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American community.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5j I am
confident in my ability
to understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American community.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5j I am
confident in my ability
to understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American community.
% of Total
q5j I am confident in
my ability to
understand
multiracial issues
within the African
American
community.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
11
33
Total
44
25.0%
75.0%
100.0%
25.0%
36.3%
32.6%
8.1%
24.4%
32.6%
33
58
91
36.3%
63.7%
100.0%
75.0%
63.7%
67.4%
24.4%
43.0%
67.4%
44
91
135
32.6%
67.4%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
32.6%
67.4%
100.0%
89
q5k I believe multiracial diversity within the African American population should be discussed
in our cross-cultural course at Sacramento State University.
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5k I
believe multiracial
diversity within the
African American
population should be
discussed in our
cross-cultural course
at Sacramento State
University.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5k I
believe multiracial
diversity within the
African American
population should be
discussed in our
cross-cultural course
at Sacramento State
University.
% of Total
Total
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
q5k I believe
multiracial diversity
within the African
American population
should be discussed in
our cross-cultural
course at Sacramento
State University.
2
1 Disagree
Agree
4
40
Total
44
9.1%
90.9%
100.0%
57.1%
31.0%
32.4%
2.9%
29.4%
32.4%
3
89
92
3.3%
96.7%
100.0%
42.9%
69.0%
67.6%
2.2%
65.4%
67.6%
7
129
136
5.1%
94.9%
100.0%
90
% within q5k I
believe multiracial
diversity within the
African American
population should be
discussed in our
cross-cultural course
at Sacramento State
University.
% of Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
5.1%
94.9%
100.0%
q5l I believe that the biopsychosocial assessment must also include multiracial questions.
q5l I believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must also
include multiracial
questions.
1
2
Disagree
Agree
q2 Are you an
undergraduate or
graduate student?
1
Undergraduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5l I
believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must also
include multiracial
questions.
% of Total
2 Graduate
Count
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
% within q5l I
believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must also
include multiracial
questions.
% of Total
Total
Count
Total
9
35
44
20.5%
79.5%
100.0%
56.3%
29.4%
32.6%
6.7%
25.9%
32.6%
7
84
91
7.7%
92.3%
100.0%
43.8%
70.6%
67.4%
5.2%
62.2%
67.4%
16
119
135
% within q2 Are you
an undergraduate or
graduate student?
11.9%
88.1%
100.0%
% within q5l I
believe that the
biopsychosocial
assessment must also
include multiracial
questions.
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
91
% of Total
11.9%
88.1%
100.0%
92
References
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Banks, J. A (2004). Multiethnic education Characteristics and goals. In J. A Banks
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