EMPLOYEE TRAINING: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF PROGRAM DESIGN
LITERATURE
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Administration
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Recreation Administration
by
Jessica Bear Williams
FALL
2013.
© 2013
Jessica Bear Williams
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
EMPLOYEE TRAINING: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF PROGRAM DESIGN
LITERATURE
A Project
by
Jessica Bear Williams
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Anthony G. Sheppard
____________________________
Date
iii
Student: Jessica Bear Williams
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format
manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for
the project.
__________________________, Department Chair
Dr. Gregory B.C. Shaw
Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Administration
iv
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
EMPLOYEE TRAINING: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF PROGRAM DESIGN
LITERATURE
by
Jessica Bear Williams
Small businesses often do not have the luxury of possessing a separate Human
Resources department, and it often falls to the business owner or manager to interview,
hire, train, and support employees. Many resources are available to assist with starting
and running a small business, but very little in those resources reflect the need for
employee training. Businesses can face personnel issues such as difficulty in hiring
experienced staff, low quality job performance, and employees who do not understand
the importance of certain tasks; however, these problems can be easily addressed with a
well-planned training program. This study allows for a review and content analysis of
selected literature related to creating employee training programs with the goal of
understanding the features that pertain to employee training content design and producing
a comprehensive employee training program model.
A total of 27 reference texts on employee training were selected for content
analysis; to be included, the text needed to investigate an aspect of creation or design
within the training process, and the sources needed to pertain to a variety of
organizational types; overly specialized training texts were dismissed.
v
Based on the content analysis, it was determined that the elements to be included
in a training session were session goals and a schedule of the training session; learning
content targeted to the specific training session, including any references, handouts and
visual aids; a session review plan; and program evaluation tools. Additionally, it was
noted that the skills necessary to successfully implement a training program included ease
in speaking to the intended audience with a clarity and pace that can be understood;
creativity, innovation, preparedness, and organizational, problem-solving, and decisionmaking skills; and a level of enthusiasm and empowerment. Finally, a comprehensive
employee training program must have an evaluation process in place.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Anthony G. Sheppard
_______________________
Date
DEDICATION
vi
In loving memory.
This project is dedicated to Dr. Richard Batty – my friend, my teacher and my
guide – who helped me believe in a dream that set in motion accomplishments I never
imagined I could carry out. Without his friendship, leadership and guidance, I would not
have the strength and courage to live my life fully. I thank Rich for not only believing in
me, but also for showing me that the door was there for me to walk through.
I closed my eyes, drew back the curtain
To see for certain what I thought I knew
Far far away, someone was weeping
But the world was sleeping
Any dream will do
From: Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat
(Lyrics by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice, 1968)
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Tony Sheppard for conspiring with Rich Batty to start me on
the path toward this degree – a path that would never have occurred to me to take – and
for guiding me back to it after I had wandered off course.
Similarly, I would like to thank the former and current RPTA faculty and staff
who have encouraged and sustained me throughout this amazing process. I am also
indebted to the friends, family, and colleagues across the globe who have been with me
on my journey, especially in the last weeks, days, and hours – for their continued
understanding and support – without whom I would not have made it through to the end.
Finally, I would like to thank my sister, Serena Williams, for her unwavering
patience of my unique style of learning and for her stoic badgering. She was my first
teacher, and will continue to be the one I turn to for my life-long education.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .............................................................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ x
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 1
Problem ........................................................................................................................ 1
Definitions ................................................................................................................... 3
2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .................................................................................... 4
Review of Research ...................................................................................................... 4
Content Analysis .......................................................................................................... 8
3. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ............................................................................................. 11
Methods ...................................................................................................................... 11
Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 16
4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS .......................................................................... 63
Summary of Findings.................................................................................................. 63
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 68
References ................................................................................................................................ 70
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1.
Reference Text Titles with Author, Publication Date and Corresponding Code ........ 15
2.
127 Micro Topic Descriptions and Corresponding Number Code ............................. 16
3.
Subcategories and Corresponding Codes.................................................................... 20
4.
Macro Categories Represented in the Reference Texts .............................................. 47
5.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A1 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 48
6.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A2-A5 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 49
7.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A6 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 49
8.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A7-A11 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 50
9.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A12 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 51
10.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A13 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 52
11.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category A with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 52
12.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory B1-B6 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 53
x
13.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory B7 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 54
14.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory B8 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 54
15.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category B with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 55
16.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories C1-C3 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 56
17.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories C4-C6 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 57
18.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category C with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 57
19.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories D1-D5 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 58
20.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory D6 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 59
21.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category D with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 59
22.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory E1 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 60
23.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory E2 with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 60
24.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category E with
Source and Frequency Totals ...................................................................................... 61
xi
25.
Number of Categories Represented by Each Reference Text .................................... 62
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
1.
Subcategory A1: Understanding Training ................................................................. 21
2.
Subcategory A2: Organizational Needs ..................................................................... 22
3.
Subcategory A3: Trainee Needs ................................................................................ 22
4.
Subcategory A4: Trainer Needs .................................................................................. 22
5.
Subcategory A5: Needs Assessment ........................................................................... 23
6.
Subcategory A6: Writing Process ............................................................................... 24
7.
Subcategory A7: Practical Training Approach ............................................................ 24
8.
Subcategory A8: Cognitive Training Approach .......................................................... 24
9.
Subcategory A9: Training Styles ................................................................................. 25
10.
Subcategory A10: Trainer Roles .................................................................................. 26
11.
Subcategory A11: Training Styles and Roles .............................................................. 26
12.
Subcategory A12: Learning Styles .............................................................................. 27
13.
Subcategory A13: Planning Objectives ....................................................................... 27
14.
Macro Category A: Preplanning .................................................................................. 28
15.
Subcategory B1: Training Styles / Delivery Methods ................................................. 29
16.
Subcategory B2: Training Location ............................................................................. 29
17.
Subcategory B3: Training Activities ........................................................................... 30
18.
Subcategory B4: Target Training Population .............................................................. 31
19.
Subcategory B5: Training Design Focus / Topic ......................................................... 31
20.
Subcategory B6: Training Program Design ................................................................. 32
21.
Subcategory B7: Type of Training Program Content .................................................. 32
xiii
22.
Subcategory B8: Training Content Elements............................................................... 33
23.
Macro Category B: Training Design / Content ............................................................ 34
24.
Subcategory C1: Visual Aids ....................................................................................... 35
25.
Subcategory C2: Trainer Manual / Handouts .............................................................. 36
26.
Subcategory C3: Trainer Materials .............................................................................. 36
27.
Subcategory C4: Pre-Work Assignments .................................................................... 37
28.
Subcategory C5: Trainee Manual / Handouts .............................................................. 38
29.
Subcategory C6: Trainee Materials ............................................................................. 38
30.
Macro Category C: Training Materials / Tools ........................................................... 39
31.
Subcategory D1: Trainer Personality Traits................................................................. 40
32.
Subcategory D2: Trainer Communication Skills ......................................................... 41
33.
Subcategory D3: Trainer Traits / Skills ....................................................................... 41
34.
Subcategory D4: Conflict Management....................................................................... 42
35.
Subcategory D5: Trainer Delivery ............................................................................... 42
36.
Subcategory D6: Training Timeline ............................................................................ 43
37.
Macro Category D: Implementation ............................................................................ 44
38.
Subcategory E1: Program Evaluation .......................................................................... 45
39.
Subcategory E2: Trainer Evaluation ............................................................................ 45
40.
Macro Category E: Evaluation..................................................................................... 46
xiv
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to review the literature related to creating employee
training programs and provide a content analysis of the selected literature, with the goal
of understanding the features that pertain to employee training content design in order to
produce a comprehensive employee training program model.
Problem
Typically, large companies and corporations conduct much of the employee
relations engagement through the company’s Human Resources (HR) department. It is
commonly understood, however, that small businesses do not have the luxury of
possessing a separate department allocated to HR, and that it often falls to the business
owner or manager to interview, hire, train, and support employees. With a brief online
search or perusal of any business section at the local bookstore, one can see that there
exists a variety of resources on starting and running a small business, most of which
focus on the specific start-up operations. In many resources, including examples such as
How to Write a Business Plan (Solie-Johnson & Fallek, 1992) and The Big Book of
Small Business (Gegax & Bolsta, 2007), only 1-2% is dedicated to the training of
employees. Despite the small amount of attention paid to training and development in
these and other business resources, proper training can provide a variety of benefits such
2
as the ability to ensure the continuity of a business’ operations; reduce employee
turnover; increase customer satisfaction; and reduce expenses, all of which work to
generate revenue (Biech, 2005; Davidow & Uttal, 1989; Gee, 1988; Lipp, 2013; White,
2012).
Businesses face many personnel issues such as difficulty in hiring experienced
staff, low quality job performance, and employees who do not understand the importance
of certain tasks, many of which can be easily addressed with a well-planned training
program (Crossley & Jamieson, 1997). With the onset of increasing complexity in most
jobs, employee-training programs become abundantly more essential to the overall
success of staff performance. Many start-up businesses may consider ignoring the need
to concentrate resources on a training plan for their employees, stating that staff training
and development is an expense that cannot be afforded by their small business, and that
learning will increase automatically given enough time on the job (Lamb, 1967).
However, in order to maintain a competitive edge and obtain the best performance from
one’s staff, a well-planned training program is one of the most important factors in
management of personnel (Lamb). Moreover, staff training is especially important in
businesses that focus on service as the primary product such as hotels, resorts, and multievent and conference centers (Lee-Ross, 2001).
This study reviews the literature related to creating staff training programs and
provides a content analysis of the selected literature. Studies have been performed on
calculating employees’ and employers’ return of investment related to staff training
(Bartel, 1994; Blomberg, Levy & Anderson, 1998; Carnevale, 1990) as well as the
3
effectiveness of training on performance in the workplace (Dwyer, Oser, Salas &
Fowlkes, 1999; Ree & Earles, 1991); however, little has been done to evaluate the
literature related to creation and content of the training program. Consequently, the goal
of the present study is to address this gap in training program design with a content
analysis of the literature, focusing specifically on those features that pertain to content
design in order to produce a comprehensive staff training program model.
Definitions
Hierarchical Categorization: The categorization system where entries or topics are
arranged based on a hierarchical structure, creating a matrix from the least to the most
number of topics.
Macro Category: The hierarchical category based on the maximum degree present in the
system as a whole, created through selection of content similarities.
Matrix: An array of topics in branching rows and columns that is treated as a single
entity, and manipulated according to a particular set of rules.
Micro Topic: The smallest level category based on the minimum degree present in the
hierarchical matrix system.
Subcategory: A grouping of micro topics or of other subcategories within the
hierarchical matrix system.
Training: A term used to describe staff or employee training used to improve the
performance of a company’s employees or workforce.
4
Chapter 2
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Review of the Research
Importance of Training
For those who are entering a new position in a company, training is imperative;
even if one has done similar work for another company, every organization has its own
way of completing tasks – whether a different approach for processing paperwork or the
use of different computer programs or databases (Certo, 2003). Thus, many new
employees are relieved to find that they will initially receive training before launching
into a new position (Certo). Training can provide long-term professional development,
introduce new skills to established employees, advance knowledge required for a job, or
orient new employees to the business culture and their duties and responsibilities (Biech,
2005).
A global economic downturn, equal opportunity concerns, and changes in
demographics are all reasons why, during the last few decades, well-organized training
systems have become essential (Certo, 2003). Training provides both the company as a
whole, and the individual employee(s), with benefits that make the cost and time of
training a worthwhile investment (Lee-Ross, 2001). Additionally, “when training is
designed well and implemented properly, it provides opportunities for people to enter the
job market with needed skills, perform in new functions, and be promoted into new
situations” (Goldstein, 1980, p. 246).
5
Defining Training
Training is not a new phenomenon; typically, an organization facilitates the
employees’ learning through training so that their modified behavior contributes to the
attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives (Lee-Ross, 2001). Van Dorsal
(1962) defined training as the process of teaching, informing, or educating people so that
they become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and they become qualified to
perform in positions of greater difficulty and responsibility. Training is a learning
experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in an individual in order to
improve his or her ability to perform (De Cenzo & Robbins, 1994). Such changes can
involve changing skills, knowledge, attitudes, or behavior; they are part of the process of
aiding employees to gain effectiveness in their present or future work through the
development of appropriate and effective habits (Halsey, 1949). Regarding the balance
of training and learning, De Cenzo and Robbins (1994) noted, “the most important
function of management is teaching. A manager teaches in every phase of his work and
gets real assistance from his people” (p. 255). Pollice (2003) stated that teaching implies
a level of learning that is deeper in knowledge than that of training; however, Goldstein
(1980) noted that workplace learning can be a long-term and continued process that
develops and adjusts over the course of one’s career. With that, one can draw the
conclusion that it is imperative to understand how people learn in order to best
understand how to train them.
6
Learning Theories
A comprehensive understanding of the human learning process is the foundation
in the creation of an effective training program (Foshay, Silber & Stelnicki, 2003).
Although learning may take place in many different environments – in the classroom, in
the field, in an office setting – the principal theories apply to all learning (Rogoff, 1987).
Flippo (1961) differentiated between education and training, locating these at the
two ends of a continuum of personnel development, ranging from general education
concepts to specific training topics. Halim & Ali (1988) discussed that while training is
concerned with those activities that are designed to improve human performance on the
job, education is concerned with increasing general knowledge and understanding of the
total environment; furthermore, education is the development of the human mind, and it
increases the powers of observation, analysis, integration, understanding, decisionmaking, and adjustment to new situations.
Learning theories create the foundation that is typically needed for all educational
and training activities; the more one understands learning theories, the better he or she
will be able to make decisions and apply them to achieving their workplace training
objectives (Martocchio & Judge, 1997).
Costs of Implementing a Training Program
The hiring and training of a new employee, or even training an existing employee
for a new position or job duty, can be costly for a company (Gegax & Bolsta, 2007); in
fact, it can cost about two and a half times one’s salary and benefits to train a new
7
employee (Bridgeford, 2006). Human capital investments involve a great initial cost
such as the tuition and training course fees, foregone earnings while at training, and
reduced wages and productivity during the training period (Bridgeford).
According to Blundell, Deaden, Meghir, and Sianesi (1999) who conducted
research on human capital and the returned investment, there are difficulties in measuring
the returns to education and training for most companies. Blundell et al stated:
It is extremely difficult to obtain data on firm productivity, competitiveness and
profitability. Furthermore, there are problems in identifying empirical
counterparts to the concepts of general and specific training, and in identifying
whether and how much of the costs are borne by workers and by employers.
Finally, there are difficult questions regarding causality (does company training
cause the firm to improve its performance or does a better (poorer) firm
performance foster (require) expenditure on training?). Because of these
difficulties, there is a paucity of studies that have directly assessed the effects of
education and firm training on company performance. (p. 5)
Despite this, however, there exist studies that show the positive effect of training. The
same authors go on to show that previous on-the-job training in a US workplace
increased a worker’s initial productivity by 9.5 percent, and that off-site job training had
long-lasting benefits and increased productivity by 16 percent. Additionally,
organizations that invest in training and development expect to enjoy performance
improvements, and they have shown that a worker’s employability improves with
education and training (Elangovan & Karakowsky, 1999; Groot & Van Den Brink, 2000).
8
According to Hu and Yang (2010), 92 percent of executives believed training brought in
repeat business, and that providing training for employees could result in higher sales and
improved customer retention. Thus, training and development are needed to equip
employees with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to meet organizational and personal
development goals.
Although training can be costly, having an employee leave the company because
they were not properly trained can be more so (Biech, 2005). Trained employees are less
likely to change or quit their jobs, as training gives employees a certain status and allows
for better potential promotion within the company (Blundell et al., 1999). Furthermore,
trained employees may pass their knowledge on to their coworkers, which can be a more
inexpensive and effective way of managing knowledge, as there is potential for
employees to make organizational improvements during this knowledge sharing process
(Groot & Van Der Brink, 2000).
Content Analysis
This project’s methods are informed by approaches generally referred to as
content analysis, an approach researchers regard as a flexible method for analyzing text
data (Cavanagh, 1997). Content analysis describes a family of analytic approaches
ranging from impressionistic, intuitive, interpretive analyses to systematic, strict textual
analyses (Rosengren, 1981). Used primarily in the social sciences, it is a systematic,
replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories
based on explicit rules of coding (Babbie, 1992), which consists of transforming raw data
9
into categories based on [a] conceptual scheme (Poole & Folger, 1981). Content analysis
has also been described as the process of making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics within a field of documentary or
communicative evidence (Berelson, 1952; Holsti, 1969). Documentary evidence can be
defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper
headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theater,
informal conversation, or any occurrence of communicative language (Kondracki
&Wellman, 2002).
Based on the outlined definitions of content analysis, this research method can be
used for describing trends in content, is well suited to large data sets, and allows
categories to emerge from data rather than imposing categories on data (Kondracki
&Wellman, 2002). The use of content analysis enables the researcher to systematically
identify the properties of a large data set of text, such as the frequencies of most used
keywords, or this case, conceptual themes, by locating the more important structures of
its content (Kondracki &Wellman, 2002). To conduct a content analysis of a text, the
text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels – words,
word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme – and then examined using one of content
analysis' basic methods; the results are then used to make inferences about the conceptual
themes within the texts (Babbie, 1992).
Typically, the specific type of content analysis approach chosen by a researcher
varies with the theoretical and substantive interests of the researcher as well as with the
problem being studied (Weber, 1990), and although this flexibility has made content
10
analysis useful for a variety of researchers, the lack of a firm definition and procedures
has potentially limited the application of content analysis (Tesch, 1990), which is why a
clear explanation of methods is crucial. With careful detail on procedure, content
analysis as a research methodology can be utilized to make valid inferences from text
(Weber, 1990); thus, content analysis is flexible, systematic, appropriate for use with
texts, and can make use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches (Cavanagh,
1997).
11
Chapter 3
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Methods
Literature Search
For the present study, the author reviewed a selection of published training and
development literature from 1960 to 2013. The period post-1960 was considered to be
characterized by increased technological sophistication in training design and
methodology. Therefore, the literature search encompassed books or book chapters (also
referred to in this paper as reference texts or sources) that were related to the creation or
design of an employee or organizational training program. An extensive literature search
was conducted to identify reference texts that involved an element of training program
design. This search process started with a search of two easily accessed computer
databases (the Sacramento Public Library database and Amazon.com) using the
following key phrases: creating training programs, employee training programs, writing
training programs, and designing employee training. Eight reference texts were selected
and reviewed from the initial search, after which the researcher extended the search to
include two additional databases (the California State University, Sacramento Library
database and the University of California, Davis Library database) adding the following
key phrases: writing training manuals, training and development design, how to write
employee training materials. The electronic search was also supplemented with a manual
search of the reference lists from the initial eight reference texts selected. A brief review
12
of the references resulted in an initial list of 44 sources. Each of these was then reviewed
and considered for inclusion in the content analysis.
Content Analysis and Inclusion Criteria
Two primary decision rules were used to determine which references texts would
be included in the content analysis. First, to be included, the text needed to investigate an
aspect of creation or design within the training process. If a text focused singularly on
program evaluation or program assessment to the exclusion of discussing design content,
it was excluded. Second, sources needed to pertain to a variety of organizational types;
overly specialized training texts such as for restaurant wait staff, hospital nurses, etc.
were dismissed.
Content analysis is limited to secondary research data, which can raise issues of
reliability and validity (Budd, Thorp, & Donohew, 1967). Validity issues have been
addressed in this paper through the approach of reading for content rather than relying on
key word searches or selection. For example, instead of looking for chapter headings that
directly address training topics, chapter content has been examined to create themed
categories and coding material. This alleviates the problem that a chapter heading of
“training material” could be referencing binding material rather than training material
content. Potential problems of reliability are addressed through the thorough description
of the methods that the researcher used to create the thematic codes and categories.
Though the disadvantages do not completely disappear with the above precautions, the
advantages of content analysis outline the most appropriate approach for this study.
13
Both qualitative and quantitative techniques are appropriate for interpreting
content analysis data (Kondracki &Wellman, 2002). Rather than being a single method,
current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches: conventional,
directed, or summative (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). In conventional content analysis,
coding categories are derived directly from the text data (Hsieh & Shannon). With a
directed approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant research findings as guidance
for initial codes (Hsieh & Shannon). A summative content analysis involves counting
and comparisons, usually of keywords or themes, followed by the interpretation of the
underlying context (Hsieh & Shannon). This project makes use primarily of the first and
third approaches in that the texts involved are examined to determine the relevant coding
categories, and later connected to theory rather than the opposite. Additionally, this
project includes both an enumeration process and a more qualitative comparative analysis
(hierarchical categorization), which align with the summative approach.
This study includes the process of enumeration, which includes quantifying data
such as frequencies, percentages, or cross-tabulations (Johnson & Christensen, 2008).
For example, one can count the number of times that a particular word occurs or the
number of times a category appears in the research data. Enumeration helps
communicate concepts such as amount or frequency, allowing the researcher to define
results in the form of how much or how often (Johnson & Christensen).
In addition to the quantitative process of enumeration, a qualitative comparative
analysis has been used – hierarchical categorization. A hierarchical category system not
only includes categories, it also puts said categories into subsets (Weitzman & Miles,
14
1995). Creating a hierarchical category system is a very effective way to make sense of
data (Frontman & Kunkel, 1994). One way is to create a hierarchical category system,
which is an example of the strict inclusion form of relationship (Frontman & Kunkel);
whereas, other types of relationships are spatial, cause-effect, rationale, location for
action, function, means-end, sequence, and attribution (Weitzman & Miles, 1995). The
key is not just to come up with an unordered list of categories, but, instead, to determine
how the categories can be related to one another to find patterns in the data and to help
make sense of the data (Weitzman & Miles). In Frontman and Kunkel's (1994)
hierarchical classification, the categories are developed in a bottom-up process with the
lowest level categories being closest to the actual data collected. According to Weitzman
and Miles (1995), this is the most common approach of hierarchical classification used by
qualitative researchers, and is the approach that is used in this study.
Data Set
A total of 27 reference texts on employee training were selected for analysis from
the initial list of 44. Each of the 27 reference books used were randomly assigned a
corresponding number code R1 through R27 (Table 1). Each reference text was
summarized and analyzed for similarities in content in the bottom-up method of
hierarchical thematic coding described above, with the more specific content grouped
into repeatedly larger themed categories. This resulted in a preliminary list of micro
topics related to the design of employee training programs which was then systematically
15
grouped into varying levels of subcategories, and replicated until all the topics were
grouped and macro level hierarchical categories were produced.
Table 1.
Reference Text Titles with Author, Publication Date and Corresponding Code
Code
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
R10
R11
R12
R13
R14
R15
R16
R17
R18
R19
R20
R21
R22
R23
R24
R25
R26
R27
Reference Book Title
Writing Training Materials that Work: How to Train
Anyone to Do Anything
Gower Handbook of Training and Development
Everything You Ever Needed to Know about Training
Training and Development Handbook
Approaches to Training and Development
How to Write Terrific Training Materials
Structured On-the-Job Training: Unleashing Employee
Expertise in the Workplace
Developing Training Courses: A Technical Writer’s
Guide to Instructional Design and Development
How to Write and Prepare Training Materials
The Training Design Manual
How to Write Training Materials
The First-Time Trainer: A Step-by-Step Quick Guide for
Managers, Supervisors, and New Training Professionals
The Trainer’s Tool Kit
Training for Dummies
Training On the Job
Theories of Learning for the Workplace: Building
Blocks for Training and Professional Development
Programs
The Training Wheel: A Simple Model for Instructional
Design
Designing and Developing Training Programs
Conducting Training Workshops: A Crash Course for
Beginners
Designing Training Programs: The Critical Events
Model
How to Manage Training
Teaching Hard Teaching Soft: A Structured Approach to
Planning and Running Effective Training Courses
Turning Training into Learning
Creative New Employee Orientation Programs
The Training and Development Sourcebook
Employee Training and Development
How to Write a Training Manual
Author(s)
Pub.
Date
Foshay, Silber, & Stelnicki
2003
Landale
Thorne & Mackey
Craig & Bittel
Laird
Barbazette
1999
2003
1967
2003
2013
Jacobs & Jones
1995
Hassell-Corbiell
2001
Stimson
Bray
Stoneall
2002
2010
1991
Goad
2010
Charney & Conway
Biech
Walter
2005
2005
2002
Dochy, Gijbels, Segers, &
Van den Bossche
2011
Rogoff
1987
Fisher-Chan
2010
Van Kavelaar
1998
Nadler & Nadler
1994
Nilson
1998
Corder
1990
Furjanic & Trotman
Sims
Baird, Schneier, & Laird
Noe
Davis
2000
2002
1983
2008
1992
16
Analysis
Iterative Categorization Overview
Analysis of the 27 reference texts resulted in 127 micro topic descriptions. Each
of the 127 micro topics were alphabetized by topic description and then given a
corresponding label MT1 – MT127 (Table 2).
Table 2.
127 Micro Topic Descriptions and Corresponding Number Code
Micro Topic #
MT1
MT2
MT3
MT4
MT5
MT6
MT7
MT8
MT9
MT10
MT11
MT12
MT13
MT14
MT15
MT16
MT17
MT18
MT19
MT20
MT21
MT22
MT23
MT24
MT25
MT26
MT27
Micro Topic Description
Assessing writing skills as program / handout creator
Asynchronous training
Benefits of Training
Blended Learning style
Blended style of training
Budget for /Cost of Training
Business-Embedded style of training
Case studies
Clarity of trainer’s speech
Classroom training
Cognitive training approach
Conference style training
Cost / Location – Facilities
Demonstration
Designing training by purchasing a program
Designing training with both purchased and created program pieces
Designing training yourself
Discussions
Diversity training
Ethics in Training
Evolution or History or Training
Experiential learning theory
Games
Group training
Implementing body of training content
Implementing program assessments
Implementing session opening / leading ice breakers
17
Micro Topic #
MT28
MT29
Micro Topic Description
Implementing session review / summary / feedback
Implementing skills assessments
Micro Topic #
MT30
MT31
MT32
MT33
MT34
MT35
MT36
MT37
MT38
MT39
MT40
MT41
MT42
MT43
MT44
MT45
MT46
MT47
MT48
MT49
MT50
MT51
MT52
MT53
MT54
MT55
MT56
MT57
MT58
MT59
MT60
MT61
MT62
MT63
MT64
MT65
MT66
MT67
MT68
MT69
MT70
Micro Topic Description
(table continues)
Incidental learning
Instructional learning objectives
Intentional learning
Learning through understanding memory storage
Lectures
Need for Training
Objectives of the overall training program
One-on-one training
On-the-Job training
Org need for customer satisfaction
Org need for good training
Org need to have employees perform [well]
Organization evaluating application of training to workplace
Organization evaluating program assessment results
Organization evaluating trainer
Organizational learning
Outdoor training
Pace of trainer’s speech / verbal presentation
Panel discussion
Practical or hands-on training
Pre-training activities
Pre-training assessments
Pre-training gathering of information
Pre-training reading assignments
Program assessment / evaluation
Question & answer
Ready-made / off-the-shelf trainee manuals / handouts
References and handouts for training and for reference
Review / summary / closing of session
Role playing
Safety training
Schedule of training session / agenda / time table of training
Self-developed trainee manuals / handouts
Session goals / objectives
Session opening / breaking the ice / beginning the training
Session title
Sexual harassment training
Shadowing
Simulation
Skills / knowledge acquisition
Skills assessment
18
Micro Topic #
MT71
MT72
MT73
MT74
Micro Topic Description
Skills assessment / evaluation of what trainee learned
Supervisory / managerial training
Synchronous training
The trainer’s program assessment
(table continues)
Micro Topic #
MT75
MT76
MT77
MT78
MT79
MT80
MT81
MT82
MT83
MT84
MT85
MT86
MT87
MT88
MT89
MT90
MT91
MT92
MT93
MT94
MT95
MT96
MT97
MT98
MT99
MT100
MT101
MT102
MT103
MT104
MT105
MT106
MT107
MT108
MT109
MT110
MT111
MT112
MT113
Micro Topic Description
The trainer’s reference materials
The trainer’s session notes / outline
The trainer’s skills assessment
Trainee evaluating program
Trainee evaluating trainer
Trainee need to know job description
Trainee need to understand broad org expectations
Trainee need to understand performance standards
Trainee’s assessment tests / quizzes
Trainee’s case studies
Trainee’s exercises / learning activity worksheets
Trainee’s reference materials
Trainee’s session notes / outline
Trainer ability to influence / empower trainees
Trainer as a coach
Trainer as a consultant
Trainer as a mentor
Trainer as a write / author
Trainer as an agent of change
Trainer ease of presenting
Trainer enthusiasm
Trainer evaluating program
Trainer need for materials
Trainer need for training
Trainer self-evaluating trainer
Trainer’s ability to handle difficult trainees
Trainer’s ability to prevent burnout
Trainer’s ability to problem solve / make decisions during training
Trainer’s ability to recharge between trainings
Trainer’s creativity / innovation capabilities
Trainer’s dress / body language appropriateness
Trainer’s preparation and organization skills
Training as a facilitator
Training focusing on customer service
Training focusing on skills / tasks
Training for new employees / staff orientation
Training from home
Training in a conference center / event center
Training in the workplace
19
Micro Topic #
MT114
MT115
MT116
MT117
MT118
MT119
Micro Topic Description
Training Inclusivity
Transfer of Learning style training
Transformational learning
Understanding grammar, punctuation, spelling
Understanding how to write objectives
Understanding process of organizing ideas in writing
Micro Topic #
MT120
MT121
MT122
MT123
MT124
MT125
MT126
MT127
Micro Topic Description
Using flipcharts, white boards, chalkboards
Using job aids
Using photographs
Using reference texts
Using slides, videos
Video training
Virtual / online training
Written exercises or worksheets
(table continues)
The micro topics were systematically grouped into categories based on content
similarities, and a heading description title was created for each group. 35 subcategories
were created through this initial grouping process. This systematic grouping process was
then repeated with the 35 subcategories, categorizing them into further levels of
subcategories based on content similarities until each of these subcategories ultimately fit
into five different macro categories.
The five macro categories were then given titles: preplanning, training design /
content, training materials and tools, implementation, and evaluation. Once the five
macro categories were selected and titled, they were each given a letter code A, B, C, D,
and E, where A = Preplanning, B = Design / Content, C = Materials / Tools, D =
Implementation, and E = Evaluation.
Each of the smaller groupings within macro categories A through E were given a
corresponding letter and number code based on which macro category they fell into
20
(Table 3), and then organized into five hierarchical matrices with the corresponding
subcategories as their branches.
21
Table 3.
Subcategory Descriptions and Corresponding Codes
Code
Category Heading
A
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
B
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
C
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
D
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
E
E1
E2
Preplanning
Understanding Training
Organizational Needs
Trainee Needs
Trainer Needs
Needs Assessment
Writing Process
Practical Training Styles
Cognitive Training Approaches
Training Styles
Trainer Roles
Training Styles and Roles
Learning Styles and Theories
Planning Objectives
Training Design / Content
Training Styles / Delivery Methods
Training Location
Training Activities
Target Training Population
Training Program Design Focus / Topic
Training Design
Content Type
Content Elements
Materials / Tools
Visual Aids
Trainer Manual / Handouts
Trainer Materials
Pre-Work Assignments
Trainee Manual / Handouts
Trainee Materials
Implementation
Trainer Personality Traits
Trainer Communication Skills
Trainer Traits and Skills
Conflict Management
Trainer Delivery
Training Timeline
Evaluation
Program Evaluation
Trainer Evaluation
22
Expansion of Iterative Categorization
The topics that pertained to items that needed consideration prior to selecting the
content or design of the training program, and did not pertain to physical program tools,
implementation or evaluation content were grouped into macro category A. The topics
that described the training program content or design methods to use in the training
program were grouped into macro category B. The topics that discussed the tools or
physical materials desired in order to help implement the training program were grouped
into macro category C. Topics that covered training implementation or the selection
process of trainers who would implement the training were grouped into macro category
D. Finally, the topics that had content similarities related to program evaluation were
grouped into macro category E.
There were a variety of micro topics that fit within macro category A:
preplanning. Topics that discussed concepts assisting in the understanding of employee
training, such as the benefits of training, the need for training, and inclusivity in training,
were grouped into a subcategory titled “understanding training”, and labeled as
subcategory A1 (Figure 1).
23
Understanding
Training
Evolution /
History of
Training
Need for
Training
Training
Inclusivity
Budget for /
Cost of
Training
Benefits of
Training
Ethics
Figure 1. Subcategory A1: Understanding Training
Assessing the needs of the organization or business conducting the training is
another aspect of preplanning, and topics related to this micro topic were grouped into a
subcategory titled “organizational needs” and labeled as subcategory A2 (Figure 2).
Topics that pertained primarily to assessing the needs of those being trained – the
employees – were grouped into a subcategory titled “trainee needs” and labeled as
subcategory A3 (Figure 3). Subsequently, topics that pertained primarily to assessing the
needs of the trainer were grouped into a subcategory titled “trainer needs” and labeled
subcategory A4 (Figure 4).
Organizational
Needs
Customer
Satisfaction
Good
Trainers
Employee
Performance
Figure 2. Subcategory A2: Organizational Needs
24
Trainee Needs
Job
Descriptions
Performance
Standards
Organizational
Expectations
Figure 3. Subcategory A3: Trainee Needs
Trainer Needs
Trainer Training
Trainer Materials
Figure 4. Subcategory A4: Trainer Needs
The subcategories “organizational needs”, “trainee needs”, and “trainer needs”
were then grouped together into the subcategory titled “needs assessment” and labeled
subcategory A5 (Figure 5).
Topics that pertained to the overall process related to writing the training program
such as the assessment of one’s writing skills and the organization of ideas in writing, as
well as topics discussing grammar, punctuation, and spelling were grouped into a
subcategory titled “writing process” and labeled A6 (Figure 6).
Topics pertaining to theories or approaches in training were grouped into
subcategories titled “practical training approach” and “cognitive training approach”
labeled A7 and A8 respectively (Figure 7 and Figure 8), and together formed the
subcategory “training styles”, labeled A9 (Figure 9).
25
Needs Assessment
Organizational
Needs
Trainee Needs
Trainer Needs
Customer
Satisfaction
Performance
Standards
Trainer Training
Good Trainers
Job Descriptions
Trainer Materials
Employee
Performance
Organizational
Expectations
Figure 5. Subcategory A5: Needs Assessment; comprised of subcategories A2, A3, and
A4.
Writing Process
Writing Skills
Assessment
Grammar,
Punctuation,
Spelling
Organization of
Ideas
Figure 6. Subcategory A6: Writing Process
Practical
Approach
Transfer of
Learning
Synchronous
Training
Asynchronous
Training
Business-Embeded
Model
Figure 7. Subcategory A7: Practical Training Approach
26
Cognitive
Training
Approach
Figure 8. Subcategory A8: Cognitive Training Approach
Training Styles
Practical
Approaches
Cognitive Training
Approach
Transfer of
Learning
Synchronous
Training
Asynchronous
Training
Business-Embeded
Model
Figure 9. Subcategory A9: Training Styles; comprised of subcategories A7 and A8.
The topics that described the various roles that trainers encompass such as coach,
mentor, facilitator, etc. were grouped together into a subcategory titled “trainer roles” and
labeled A10 (Figure 10). Combined with the subcategory “training styles”, the matrix
arm was formed, titled “training styles and roles”, and labeled A11 (Figure 11).
Separate from the types of training styles discussed within the reference materials
were the topics relating to the various learning styles that can be exhibited by employees
27
or trainees. The topics pertaining to these learning styles were grouped together into a
subcategory titled “learning styles” and labeled A12 (Figure 12).
Finally, the topics pertaining to the writing or types of training objectives were
grouped together into a subcategory titled “planning objectives” and labeled A13 (Figure
13); the subcategories “understanding training”, “needs assessment”, “writing process”,
“training styles and roles”, “learning styles”, and “objectives” all combine to create
macro category A titled “preplanning” (Figure 14).
Trainer Roles
Coach
Mentor
Facilitator
Consultant
Figure 10. Subcategory A10: Trainer Roles
Change Agent
Writer / Author
28
Training Styles &
Roles
Training Styles
Practical
Approaches
Trainer Roles
Cognitive Training
Approach
Coach
Transfer of Learning
Mentor
Synchronous
Training
Facilitator
Asynchronous
Training
Consultant
Business-Embeded
Model
Change Agent
Writer / Author
Figure 11. Subcategory A11: Training Styles and Roles; comprised of subcategories A9
and A10.
Learning Styles
Experiential
Learning
Memory
Storage
Oragnizational
Learning
Blended
Learning
Figure 12. Subcategory A12: Learning Styles
Incidental
Learning
Intentional
Learning
Transformational
Learning
29
Objectives
How to Write
Objectives
Types of
Objectives
Instructional
Objectives
Training
Program
Objectives
Figure 13. Subcategory A13: Planning Objectives
30
Figure 14. Macro Category A: Preplanning; comprised of subcategories A1, A5, A6,
A11, A12, and A13.
31
Macro category B, training design, contained the micro topics that described the
program content or design methods that one would use in the training program. The
topics pertaining to the method of delivery that a trainer could use were grouped into a
subcategory titled “training styles / delivery methods” and labeled B1 (Figure 15).
Training Styles /
Delivery Method
On-the-Job
Training
Classroom /
Conference
Style Training
One-on-One
Training
Group
Training
Video
Training
Virtual /
Online
Training
Blended Style
Training
Figure 15. Subcategory B1: Training Styles / Delivery Methods
In addition to the method of delivery that one could select for employee training,
topics that discussed the location of where the training could take place such as in the
workplace, from an employee’s or trainer’s home, at a hotel or conference center, or
within the outdoor environment were grouped together into a subcategory titled “training
location” and labeled subcategory B2 (Figure 16). Additionally, topics that discussed
the types of activities that could be used in employee training were grouped together into
a subcategory titled “activities” and labeled B3 (Figure 17).
Training
Location
Workplace
Home
Conference
Center
Outdoor
Training
Figure 16. Subcategory B2: Training Location
32
Figure 17. Subcategory B3: Training Activities
33
Topics pertaining to the population for whom employee training could be
designed were grouped into a subcategory titled “target training population” and labeled
B4 (Figure 18), and topics that pertained to the focus of the program content were
grouped together into a subcategory titled “training design focus / content” and labeled
B5 (Figure 19).
Subcategories “training styles / delivery methods”, “training location”, “training
activities”, “target training population”, and “training program focus / topic” combined to
form the subcategory titled “training program design” which was labeled B6 (Figure 20).
Topics that pertained to the type of content that could be created for training
programs such as purchased or off-the-shelf training programs or self-created programs
were grouped into a subcategory titled “type of training program content” and labeled B7
(Figure 21).
Target
Population
New Employees
Supervisors /
Managers
Figure 18. Subcategory B4: Target Training Population
Program Focus /
Topic
Customer
Service
Skills Aquisition /
Technical
Sexual
Harassment
Diversity
Safety
Figure 19. Subcategory B5: Training Design Focus / Topic
34
Design
Training Styles /
Delivery Method
Training Location
Workplace
On-the-Job
Training
Activities
Target Population
Program Focus /
Topic
Lectures
Home
Discussions
Classroom /
Conference Style
Training
Conference
Center
Games
One-on-One
Training
Outdoor
Training
New Employee
/ Orientation
Supervisory /
Managerial
Practicals /
Hands-On
Customer
Service
Skills
Aquisition /
Technical
Sexual
Harassment
Role Playing
Diversity
Group Training
Shadowing
Safety
Video Training
Simulation
Virtual / Online
Training
Demonstration
Blended Style
Training
Question &
Answer
Panel
Written Exercises /
Worksheets
Case Studies
Figure 20. Subcategory B6: Training Program Design; comprised of B1, B2, B3, B4,
and B5.
Content Type
Puchased / Off
the Shelf
Created
Combination
Figure 21. Subcategory B7: Type of Training Program Content
35
Finally, topics that focused on the elements that might pertain to training program
content, such as the session goals and objectives, the learning content, and the program
assessment or evaluation, were grouped into a subcategory titled “training content
elements” and labeled B8 (Figure 22).
The subcategories “training program design”, “type of training program content”,
and “training content elements” all combined to create macro category B titled “training
program content / design” (Figure 23).
Content
Elements
Title
Goals /
Objectives
Schedule of
Training
Opening /
Ice Breakers
Skills
Aquisition /
Learning
Content
Refernces
and
Handouts
Figure 22. Subcategory B8: Training Content Elements
Skills
Assessment
Review /
Closing
Program
Assessment
/ Evaluation
36
Figure 23. Macro Category B: Training Design / Content; comprised of subcategories
B6, B7, and B8.
37
Macro category C, tools / materials, contained the micro topics that discussed the
tools or physical materials that can be used in order to help implement a desired training
program. Topics that pertained to the various visual aids that a trainer could use to assist
with their training were grouped into a subcategory titled “visual aids” and labeled C1
(Figure 24).
Visual Aids
Flip Charts /
Whiteboards
Slides / Videos
Photographs /
Diagrams
Reference
Texts
Job Aids
Figure 24. Subcategory C1: Visual Aids
Topics that pertained to the various types of materials given to or created by a
trainer to assist in training were grouped into a subcategory titled “trainer manual /
handouts” and labeled C2 (Figure 25). The subcategories “visual aids” and “trainer
manual / handouts” were combined to create the subcategory “trainer materials” and
labeled C3 (Figure 26).
Topics pertaining to assignments or tasks that could be given to trainees prior to
the delivery of the training session such as reading assignments, requests for gathering
information (i.e. budget figures or department statistics), and activities, assessments,
handouts were grouped into a subcategory titled “pre-work assignments” and labeled C4
(Figure 27).
38
Trainer Manual /
Handouts
Reference Materials
Assessment Tools
Session Topic Notes /
Outlines
Program
Skills /
Knowledge
Figure 25. Subcategory C2: Trainer Manual / Handouts
Trainer Materials
Visual Aids
Flip Charts /
Whiteboards
Trainer Manual /
Handouts
Reference
Materials
Assessment Tools
Session Topic
Notes / Outlines
Slides / Videos
Program
Photographs /
Diagrams
Skills / Knowledge
Reference Texts
Job Aids
Figure 26. Subcategory C3: Trainer Materials; comprised of subcategories C1 and C2.
39
Pre-Work
Assignments
Readings
Gathering
Information
Pre-Training
Activities
Pre-Training
Assessments
Budget Figures
Department
Statistics
Figure 27. Subcategory C4: Pre-Work Assignments
Topics pertaining to materials, either purchased or specially designed, that could
be given to trainees during the employee training were grouped into a subcategory titled
“trainee manual / handouts” and labeled C5 (Figure 28). The subcategories “pre-work
assignments” and “trainee manual / handouts” combined to create a subcategory titled
“trainee materials”, labeled C6 (Figure 29). Finally, when combined, the subcategories
“trainer materials” and “trainee materials” formed the macro category “training materials
/ tools” (Figure 30).
40
Trainee Manual /
Handouts
Content
Type
Session Topic Notes /
Outlines
Case Studies
Ready-Made /
Off-the Shelf
Self-Developed /
Do It Yourself
Exercises & Learning
Activities
Reference Materials
Tests / Quizzes / Skill
Assessments
Figure 28. Subcategory C5: Trainee Manual / Handouts
Trainee
Materials
Trainee Manual /
Handouts
Pre-Work
Assignments
Readings
Gathering
Information
Budget Figures
Department
Statistics
Pre-Training
Activities
Pre-Training
Assessments
Content
Session Topic
Notes / Outlines
Case Studies
Type
Ready-Made /
Off-the Shelf
Self-Developed /
Do It Yourself
Exercises &
Learning Activities
Reference Materials
Tests / Quizzes /
Skills Assessments
Figure 29. Subcategory C6: Trainee Materials; comprised of subcategories C4 and C5.
41
Figure 30. Macro Category C: Training Materials / Tools; comprised of subcategories
C3 and C6.
42
Category D encompasses topics that pertain to the implementation of the
employee training. Topics that pertain to the traits of trainers such as being comfortable
in front of the trainees, their level of enthusiasm that they exude during training
implementation, their ability to empower or influence trainees, trainer creativity or
innovation, and the ability to be well prepared or well organized were grouped into a
subcategory titled “trainer personality traits” and labeled subcategory D1 (Figure 31).
Personality Traits
Comfortability
Enthusiasm
Empowerment /
Influence
Creativity /
Innovation
Prepared /
Organized
Figure 31. Subcategory D1: Trainer Personality Traits
Topics that pertain to the way that trainers communicate with the trainees during
training such as the pace of their speech, the clarity of their speech, and the body
language or dress that they use during the training were grouped into a subcategory titled
“trainer communication skills” and labeled subcategory D2 (Figure 32).
The subcategories “trainer personality traits” and “trainer communication skills”
were grouped together with all topics pertaining to problem solving or decision making
skills into a subcategory titled “trainer traits /skills” and labeled D3 (Figure 33).
Topics that pertain to trainer’s conflict management abilities such as handling the
pressure of training others or handling difficult people in training situations were grouped
into a subcategory titled “conflict management” and labeled D4 (Figure 31). Combining
43
the subcategories of “trainer traits / skills” and “conflict management” created the
subgroup titled “trainer delivery” which was labeled D5 (Figure 32).
Finally, topics pertaining to the implementation timeline such as the progression
of opening, body, and closing of the employee training session were grouped into a
subcategory titled “training timeline” and labeled D5 (Figure 36). Finally, the
combination of the subcategories “trainer delivery” and “training timeline” formed macro
category D: “implementation” (Figure 37).
Communication
Skills
Speech Pace
Clarity
Appropraite Body
Language / Dress
Figure 32. Subcategory D2: Trainer Communication Skills
Trainer Traits /
Skills
Personality
Traits
Communication
Skills
Comfortability
Speech Pace
Enthusiasm
Clarity
Empowerment /
Influence
Problem Solving /
Decision Making
Appropraite Body
Language / Dress
Creativity /
Innovation
Prepared /
Organized
Figure 33. Subcategory D3: Trainer Traits / Skills
44
Conflict
Management
Handling Difficult People
Handling Pressure
Preventing Burnout
Recharging Your
Batteries
Figure 34. Subcategory D4: Conflict Management
Trainer Delivery
Conflict
Management
Trainer Traits / Skills
Personality Traits
Comfortability
Enthusiasm
Empowerment /
Influence
Communication
Skills
Problem Solving /
Decision Making
Speech Pace
Handling Pressure
Preventing Burnout
Clarity
Recharging Your
Batteries
Appropraite Body Language
/ Dress
Creativity /
Innovation
Prepared /
Organized
Figure 35. Subcategory D5: Trainer Delivery
Handling Difficult
People
45
Training
Timeline
Opening / Ice
Breakers
Training Body
Training Closing
Assessment
Feedback / Review /
Summary
Skills
Assessment
Program
Assessment
Figure 36. Subcategory D6: Training Timeline
46
Figure 37. Macro Category D: Implementation
47
The last macro category, E: “evaluation”, contained content similarities related to
the overall training program evaluation. Topics pertaining to the evaluation of the
program by the organization, by the trainer, or by the trainees were grouped into a
subcategory titled “program evaluation” and labeled E1 (Figure 38).
Program
Evaluation
By
Organization
By Trainer
By Trainee
Assessing Results
Application &
Credibility
Figure 38. Subcategory E1: Program Evaluation
Topics pertaining to the evaluation of the trainer either by the organization, the
trainer, or the trainees were grouped together into a subcategory titled “trainer
evaluation” and labeled E2 (Figure 39). Combining the subcategories “program
evaluation” and “trainer evaluation” along with any topics that pertained to the evaluation
of the trainees’ skills created the macro category titled “evaluation” (Figure 40).
Trainer
Evaluation
By Trainees
By
Organization
Self-Evaluation
Figure 39. Subcategory E2: Trainer Evaluation
48
(E)
Evaluation
Program Evaluation
By
Organization
By Trainer
Trainee Evaluation /
Skills Assessments
By Trainee
Assessing Results
Application &
Credibility
Trainer Evaluation
By Trainees
By Organization
Self-Evaluation
Figure 40. Macro Category E: Evaluation
Enumeration Processes
Once the 127 micro topics had been organized into the five macro categories and
their corresponding subcategories, a variety of enumeration processes were completed to
determine how often certain elements were discussed by the 27 different reference texts.
All 27 reference books (100.00%) discussed or touched on some element of the
preplanning process (macro category A); approximately 85.19% (23 out of 27) of the
books touched on content design (macro category B); 16 out of 27 books (59.26%)
discussed materials or tools used to assist with training (macro category C); 15 out of 27
books (55.56%) discussed implementation macro category (D); and 23 of the 27 books
(85.19%) discussed evaluation (macro category E) (Table 4).
49
Table 4.
Macro Categories Represented in the Reference Texts
Ref #
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
R10
R11
R12
R13
R14
R15
R16
R17
R18
R19
R20
R21
R22
R23
R24
R25
R26
R27
Total
A
Preplanning
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
27
B
Content Design
X
X
C
Materials
D
Implementation
E
Evaluation
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
23
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
16
X
X
X
X
X
X
15
X
X
X
X
X
23
An enumeration process was also conducted within each of the five macro
categories individually. In macro category A, 15 of the 27 reference texts discussed 7
different mirco topics a total of 23 times within subcategory A1 (Table 5). 4 of the 27
reference texts discussed 3 different micro topics a total of 6 times in subcategory A2; 5
50
reference texts discussed 3 different micro topics a total of 8 times in subcategory A3;
and 9 reference texts discussed 2 different micro topics a total of 12 times in subcategory
A4. Overall in subcategory A5, which consists of subcategories A2, A3, and A4, 8
different micro topics were discussed a total of 26 times in 11 different reference texts
(Table 6).
Subcategory A6 discussed 3 different micro topics a total of 12 times in 6 out of
the 27 reference texts (Table 7). 5 reference texts discussed 4 different micro topics a
total of 6 times in subcategory A7, and 4 reference texts discussed 1 micro topic 1 time
each in subcategory A8. Subcategories A7 and A8 were combined to create subcategory
A9; within subcategory A9, 8 of the 27 reference texts discussed 5 different micro topics
a total of 10 times. 6 of the reference texts discussed 6 different micro topics a total of 11
times in subcategory A10. Subcategories A9 and A10 combined to create subcategory
A11, where a total of 12 different reference texts discussed 11 different micro topics a
total of 21 times (Table 8).
Table 5.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A1 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT3
MT6
MT13
MT20
MT21
MT35
MT114
Reference Text Code(s)
R13; R24
R5; R6; R8; R13; R20; R21
R5; R12; R13; R20; R22
R12
R4; R16; R17; R26
R1; R22; R26
R10; R12
# of A1 Sources
Total Frequency
Totals
2
6
5
1
4
3
2
15
R1(1); R4(1); R5(2); R6(1); R8(1); R10(1); R12(3); R13(3);
R16(1); R17(1); R20(2); R21(1); R22(2); R24(1); R26(2)
23
51
Table 6.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories A2-A5 with Source
and Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT39
MT40
MT41
# of A2 Sources
Total Frequency
MT80
MT81
MT82
# of A3 Sources
Total Frequency
MT97
MT98
# of A4 Sources
Total Frequency
# of A5 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory A2
R5; R18
R11; R18
R5; R20
R5(2); R11(1); R18(2); R20(1)
Subcategory A3
R10; R11; R21
R10; R18
R6; R11; R18
R6(1); R10(2); R11(2); R18(2); R21(1)
Subcategory A4
R6; R7; R8; R11; R25
R3; R7; R10; R11; R20; R21; R25
R3(1); R6(1); R7(2); R8(1); R10(1); R11(2); R20(1); R21(1);
R25(2)
R3(1); R5(2); R6(2); R7(2); R8(1); R10(3); R11(5); R18(4);
R20(2); R21(2); R25(2)
Totals
2
2
2
4
6
3
2
3
5
8
5
7
9
12
11
26
Table 7.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A6 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT1
MT117
MT119
# of A6 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R6; R9; R17; R27
R9; R16; R27
R6; R9; R16; R22; R27
R6(2); R9(3); R16(2); R17(1); R22(1); R27(3)
Totals
4
3
5
6
12
52
Table 8.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories A7-A11 with Source
and Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT2
MT7
MT73
MT115
# of A7 Sources
Total Frequency
MT11
# of A8 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory A7
R18
R16; R26
R18
R5; R21
R5(1); R16(1); R18(2); R21(1); R26(1)
Subcategory A8
R1; R6; R16; R22
R1(1); R6(1); R16(1); R22(1)
# of A9 Sources
Total Frequency
MT89
MT90
MT91
MT92
MT93
MT107
# of A10 Sources
Total Frequency
1
2
1
2
5
6
4
4
4
8
R1(1); R5(1); R6(1); R16(2); R18(2); R21(1); R22(1);
R26(1)
Subcategory A10
R3; R4
R3; R5
R3; R24
R16
R3
R3; R5; R14
R3(5); R4(1); R5(2); R14(1); R16(1); R24(1)
# of A11 Sources
Total Frequency
Totals
10
2
2
2
1
1
3
6
11
12
R1(1); R3(5); R4(1); R5(3); R6(1); R14(1); R16(3); R18(2);
R21(1); R22(1); R24(1); R26(1)
21
Subcategory A12 had 7 different micro topics discussed 17 times in 11 out of the
27 reference texts (Table 9), and subcategory A13 had 3 different micro topics discussed
a total of 25 times in 16 of the 27 reference texts (Table 10). A summary of all reference
texts and the corresponding micro topics that were used within all subcategories in macro
category A are summarized in Table 11.
Within macro category B, 11 reference texts discussed 7 different micro topics a
total of 24 times in subcategory B1. 10 reference texts discussed 4 different micro topics
53
a total of 16 times in subcategory B2. 16 reference texts discussed 12 micro topics a total
of 42 times in subcategory B3. 8 reference texts discussed 2 micro topics a total of 11
times in subcategory B4. Finally, 7 reference texts discussed 5 different micro topics a
total if 12 times in subcategory B5. Subcategories B1-B5 combined to make up
subcategory B6, in which 30 different micro topics were discussed a total of 105 times in
20 different reference texts (Table 12).
Subcategory B7 discussed 3 micro topics a total of 11 times in 5 different
reference texts (Table 13), and 9 different micro topics were discussed 55 times in 14
reference texts within subcategory B8 (Table 14). A summary of all reference texts and
the corresponding micro topics that were used within all subcategories in macro category
B are summarized in Table 15.
Table 9.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A12 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT4
MT22
MT30
MT32
MT33
MT45
MT116
# of A12 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R8; R18; R20; R23
R5; R14; R16; R18
R20
R20
R1
R16
R2; R5; R12; R16; R25
R1(1); R2(1); R5(2); R8(1); R12(1); R14(1); R16(3); R18(2);
R20(3); R23(1); R25(1)
Totals
4
4
1
1
1
1
5
11
17
54
Table 10.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory A13 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT31
MT36
MT118
# of A13 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R5; R6; R9; R10; R11; R13; R14; R15; R17; R19; R20; R23; R24; R25
R6; R9; R11; R14; R20; R25; R26
R6; R9; R11; R18
R5(1); R6(3); R9(3); R10(1); R11(3); R13(1); R14(2); R15(1);
R17(1); R18(1); R19(1); R20(2); R23(1); R24(1); R25(2); R26(1)
Totals
14
7
4
16
25
Table 11.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category A with Source and
Frequency Totals
Subcategory
Micro Topic #
Micro
Topic
Total
A1
MT3; MT6; MT13; MT20;
MT21; MT35; MT114
7
A2-A5
MT39; MT40; MT41; MT80;
MT81; MT82; MT97; MT98
8
A6
MT1; MT117; MT119
3
A7-A11
MT2; MT7; MT11; MT73;
MT89; MT90; MT91; MT92;
MT93; MT107; MT115
11
A12
MT4; MT22; MT30; MT32;
MT33; MT45; MT116
7
A13
MT31; MT36; MT118
3
Total
Subcategory
A
MT1; MT2; MT3; MT4;
MT6; MT7; MT11; MT13;
MT20; MT21; MT22; MT30;
MT31; MT32; MT33; MT35;
MT36; MT39; MT40; MT41;
MT45; MT73; MT80; MT81;
MT82; MT89; MT90; MT91;
MT92; MT93; MT97; MT98;
MT107; MT114; MT115;
MT116; MT117; MT118;
MT119
40
Reference Text Code(s)
R4; R5; R6; R8; R12;
R13; R17; R20; R21;
R22; R24
R3; R5; R6; R7; R8;
R10; R11; R18; R20;
R21; R25
R6; R9; R16; R17; R20;
R22; R27
R1; R3; R4; R5; R6;
R14; R16; R18; R21;
R22; R26
R1; R2; R5; R8; R12;
R14; R16; R18; R20;
R23; R25
R5; R6; R9; R10; R11;
R13; R14; R15; R17;
R18; R19; R20; R23;
R24; R25; R26
R1; R2; R3; R4; R5; R6;
R7; R8; R9; R10; R11;
R12; R13; R14; R15;
R16; R17; R18; R19;
R20; R21; R22; R23;
R24; R25; R26; R27
Source
Total
Total
Frequency
11
23
11
26
7
12
11
21
11
17
16
25
27
124
55
Table 12.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory B1-B6 with Source
and Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT5
MT10
MT24
MT37
MT38
MT125
MT126
# of B1 Sources
Total Frequency
MT46
MT111
MT112
MT113
# of B2 Sources
Total Frequency
MT8
MT14
MT18
MT23
MT34
MT48
MT49
MT55
MT59
MT67
MT68
MT127
# of B3 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory B1
R6; R10
R4; R6
R10; R15; R18; R24; R26
R10; R12; R15; R24
R6; R7; R15; R24; R26
R4; R11; R24
R6; R8; R12
Totals
2
2
5
4
5
3
3
11
R4(2); R6(3); R7(1); R8(1); R10(3); R11(1); R12(2); R15(3);
R18(1); R24(4); R26(2)
24
Subcategory B2
R13; R24
R6; R8; R12
R12; R13; R14; R22; R24
R6; R7; R14; R15; R17; R24
2
3
5
6
10
R6(2); R7(1); R8(1); R12(2); R13(2); R14(2); R15(1); R17(1);
R22(1); R24(3)
16
Subcategory B3
R9; R11; R26
R6; R15; R24
R4; R26
R6; R9; R10; R18; R24; R26
R6; R8; R17; R18; R22; R26
R14
R7; R8; R10; R15; R18
R8
R4; R6; R8; R11; R18; R24; R26
R7; R15
R6; R13; R18; R26
R8; R23
3
3
2
6
6
1
5
1
7
2
4
2
16
R4(2); R6(5); R7(2); R8(5); R9(2); R10(2); R11(2); R13(1); R14(1);
R15(3); R17(1); R18(5); R22(1); R23(1); R24(3); R26(6)
Subcategory B4
R2; R6; R7; R25
R2; R6; R13; R15; R17; R24; R25
42
MT72
MT110
# of B4 Sources
Total Frequency
R2(2); R6(2); R7(1); R13(1); R15(1); R17(1); R24(1); R25(2)
4
7
8
11
MT19
MT60
Subcategory B5
R6; R7
R6
2
1
(table continues)
56
Micro Topic #
MT66
MT108
MT109
# of B5 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory B5 (Continued)
R2; R6
R6
R1; R6; R7; R15; R17; R24
R1(1); R2(1); R6(5); R7(2); R15(1); R17(1); R24(1)
# of B6 Sources
Total Frequency
Totals
2
1
6
7
12
20
R1(1); R2(3); R4(4); R6(17); R7(7); R8(7); R9(2); R10(5); R11(3);
R12(4); R13(4); R14(3); R15(9); R17(4); R18(6); R22(2); R23(1);
R24(8); R25(2); R26(8)
105
Table 13.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory B7 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT15
MT16
MT17
# of B7 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R9; R14; R18; R21; R24
R24
R9; R14; R18; R21; R24
R9(2); R14(2); R18(2); R21(2); R24(3)
Totals
5
1
5
5
11
Table 14.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory B8 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT54
MT57
MT58
MT61
MT63
MT64
MT65
MT69
MT70
# of B8 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R8; R9; R13; R14; R17; R19
R6; R7; R9; R13
R9; R14; R18
R8; R9; R11; R13; R17; R18; R23; R27
R8; R9; R11; R13; R17; R27
R6; R9; R11; R13; R14; R18; R23; R27
R7; R8; R10; R12; R19; R27
R6; R9; R11; R17; R18; R19
R6; R7; R8; R9; R11; R12; R13; R14
R6(4); R7(2); R8(5); R9(8); R10(1); R11(5); R12(2); R13(6);
R14(4); R17(4); R18(4); R19(3); R23(2); R27(4)
Totals
6
4
3
8
6
8
6
6
8
14
55
57
Table 15.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category B with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro
Topic
Total
Reference Text
Code(s)
Source
Total
Total
Frequency
B1-B6
MT5; MT8; MT10;
MT14; MT18; MT19;
MT23; MT24; MT34;
MT37; MT38; MT46;
MT48; MT49; MT55;
MT59; MT60; MT66;
MT67; MT68; MT72;
MT108; MT109;
MT110; MT111;
MT112; MT113;
MT125; MT126;
MT127
30
R1; R2; R4; R6; R7;
R8; R9; R10; R11;
R12; R13; R14;
R15; R17; R18;
R22; R23; R24;
R25; R26
20
105
B7
MT15; MT16; MT17
3
5
11
B8
MT54; MT57; MT58;
MT61; MT63; MT64;
MT65; MT69; MT70
9
14
55
23
171
Subcategory
Micro Topic #
Total
Subcategory
B
MT5; MT8; MT10;
MT14; MT15; MT16;
MT17;
MT18; MT19; MT23;
MT24; MT34; MT37;
MT38; MT46; MT48;
MT49; MT54; MT55;
MT57; MT58; MT59;
MT60; MT61; MT63;
MT64; MT65; MT66;
MT67; MT68; MT69;
MT70; MT72;
MT108; MT109;
MT110; MT111;
MT112; MT113;
MT125; MT126;
MT127
42
R9; R14; R18; R21;
R24
R6; R7; R8; R9;
R10; R11; R12;
R13; R14; R17;
R18; R19; R23; R27
R1; R2; R4; R6; R7;
R8; R9; R10; R11;
R12; R13; R14;
R15; R17; R18;
R19; R21; R22;
R23; R24; R25;
R26; R27
58
Within macro category C, 5 reference texts discussed 5 micro topics a total of 18
times in subcategory C1, and 7 reference texts discussed 4 different micro topics 13 times
in subcategory C2. When combined into subcategory C3, 9 different micro topics were
discussed from 12 different reference texts a total of 31 times (Table 16). 3 reference
texts discussed 4 different micro topics a total of 7 times in subcategory C4, and 11
reference texts discussed 7 different micro topics 24 times in subcategory C5.
Subcategories C4 and C5 combined to form C6, and 11 different micro topics from 12
different reference texts were discussed a total of 31 times (Table 17). A summary of all
reference texts, the corresponding micro topics, and the overall frequencies that they
occurred within all subcategories in macro category C are summarized in Table 18.
Table 16.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories C1-C3 with Source
and Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT120
MT121
MT122
MT123
MT124
# of C1 Sources
Total Frequency
MT74
MT75
MT76
MT77
# of C2 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory C1
R6; R12; R20; R22; R24
R6; R8; R9; R11; R15; R18
R6; R24
R8; R22
R6; R12; R14
R6(4); R8(2); R9(1); R11(1); R12(2); R14(1); R15(1); R18(1);
R20(1); R22(2); R24(2)
Subcategory C2
R6; R15; R21
R6; R9; R12
R6; R9; R19; R20
R6; R15; R21
R6(4); R9(2); R12(1); R15(2); R19(1); R20(1); R21(2)
# of C3 Sources
Total Frequency
Totals
5
6
2
2
3
5
18
3
3
4
3
7
13
12
R6(8); R8(2); R9(3); R11(1); R12(3); R14(1); R15(3);
R18(1); R19(1); R20(2); R21(2); R22(2); R24(2)
31
59
Table 17.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories C4-C6 with Source
and Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory C4
R6; R18
R6
R6
R6; R18; R27
MT50
MT51
MT52
MT53
# of C4 Sources
Total Frequency
2
1
1
3
3
7
R6(4); R18(2); R27(1)
Subcategory C5
R9; R13; R14; R24
R9; R13; R14; R24
R6; R9; R17; R18; R21
R6; R8
R6; R18; R21
R6; R9
R6; R11; R12; R21
MT56
MT62
MT83
MT84
MT85
MT86
MT87
# of C5 Sources
Total Frequency
Totals
4
4
5
2
3
2
4
11
R6(5); R8(1); R9(4); R11(1); R12(1); R13(2); R14(2); R17(1);
R18(2); R21(3); R24(2)
24
# of C6 Sources
Total Frequency
12
R6(9); R8(1); R9(4); R11(1); R12(1); R13(2); R14(2);
R17(1); R18(4); R21(3); R24(2); R27(1)
31
Table 18.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category C with Source and
Frequency Totals
Subcategory
C1-C3
C4-C6
Total
Subcategory
C
Micro Topic #
MT74; MT75; MT76; MT77;
MT120; MT121; MT122;
MT123; MT124
MT50; MT51; MT52; MT53;
MT56; MT62; MT83; MT84;
MT85; MT86; MT87
MT50; MT51; MT52; MT53;
MT56; MT62; MT74; MT75;
MT76; MT77; MT83; MT84;
MT85; MT86; MT87;
MT120; MT121; MT122;
MT123; MT124
Micro
Topic
Total
9
11
20
Reference Text
Code(s)
R6; R8; R9; R11;
R12; R15; R18; R19;
R20; R21; R22; R24
R6; R8; R9; R11;
R12; R13; R14; R17;
R18; R21; R24; R27
R6; R8; R9; R11;
R12; R13; R14; R15;
R17; R18; R19; R20;
R21; R22; R24; R27
Source
Total
Total
Frequency
12
31
12
31
16
62
60
Within macro category D, 5 different micro topics in subcategory D1 were
discussed in 8 reference texts a total of 9 times. 3 micro topics in subcategory D2 were
discussed in 5 difference reference texts a total of 8 times. Overall in subcategory D3, 8
different micro topics were discussed 17 times in 9 different reference texts. Within
subcategory D4, 3 micro topics were discussed in 6 different reference texts a total of 12
times. Subcategory D4 combined with subcategory D5, where a total of 11 different
micro topics were discussed in 12 different reference texts a total of 26 times (Table 19).
Table 19.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategories D1-D5 with Source
and Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT88
MT94
MT95
MT104
MT106
# of D1 Sources
Total Frequency
MT9
MT47
MT105
# of D2 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
Subcategory D1
R10
R3; R13; R17
R6
R12
R12; R14; R15
R3(1); R6(1); R10(1); R12(2); R13(1); R14(1); R15(1); R17(1)
Subcategory D2
R6; R10; R18
R6; R12; R13
R10; R12
R6(2); R10(2); R12(2); R13(1); R18(1)
# of D3 Sources
Total Frequency
MT100
MT101
MT103
# of D4 Sources
Total Frequency
1
3
1
1
3
8
9
3
3
2
5
8
9
R3(1); R6(3); R10(3); R12(4); R13(2); R14(1); R15(1);
R17(1); R18(1)
Subcategory D4
R3; R7; R12; R13
R3; R22; R27
R3; R27
R3(3); R7(1); R12(1); R13(1); R22(1); R27(2)
# of D5 Sources
Total Frequency
Totals
17
4
3
2
6
9
12
R3(4); R6(3); R7(1); R10(3); R12(5); R13(3); R14(1); R15(1);
R17(1); R18(1); R22(1); R27(2)
26
61
Similarly, 12 reference texts discussed 5 micro topics a total of 32 times in
subcategory D6 (Table 20). A summary of all reference texts and the corresponding
micro topics that were used within all subcategories in macro category D are summarized
in Table 21.
Table 20.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory D6 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT25
MT26
MT27
MT28
MT29
# of D6 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R3; R6; R7; R8; R9; R11; R13; R15
R3; R6; R7; R12; R18; R27
R3; R6; R11; R12; R13
R3; R7; R10; R11; R12; R15
R3; R6; R8; R10; R12; R15; R18
Totals
8
6
5
6
7
12
R3(5); R6(4); R7(3); R8(2); R9(1); R10(2); R11(3); R12(4);
R13(2); R15(3); R18(2); R27(1)
32
Table 21.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category D with Source
and Frequency Totals
Subcategory
Micro Topic #
Micro
Topic
Total
Reference Text Code(s)
Source
Total
Total
Frequency
D1-D5
MT88; MT94; MT95;
MT104; MT106; MT9;
MT47; MT105; MT100;
MT101; MT103
11
R3; R6; R7; R10; R12;
R13; R14; R15; R17;
R18; R22; R27
12
26
D6
MT25; MT26; MT27;
MT28; MT29
5
R3; R6; R7; R8; R9;
R10; R11; R12; R13;
R15; R18; R27
12
32
Total
Subcategory
D
MT9; MT25; MT26;
MT27; MT28; MT29;
MT47; MT88; MT94;
MT95; MT100; MT101;
MT103; MT104; MT105;
MT106
16
R3; R6; R7; R8; R9;
R10; R11; R12; R13;
R14; R15; R17; R18;
R22; R27
15
58
62
Within macro category E, 4 micro topics were discussed a total of 39 times in
subcategory E1 within 20 different reference texts (Table 22). In subcategory E2, 3
different micro topics were discussed a total of 15 times in 10 different reference texts
(Table 23). Once the additional reference texts that discussed employee or trainee
evaluation were factored in, there totaled 23 reference texts that discussed 8 different
micro topics related to evaluation a total of 55 times (Table 24).
Table 22.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory E1 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT42
MT43
MT78
MT96
# of E1 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R5; R17; R18; R25
R2; R5; R6; R7; R8; R10; R11; R12; R13; R15; R17; R18;
R19; R20; R21; R25; R26
R5; R6; R8; R11; R12; R19; R20; R21; R23; R25; R27
R8; R10; R15; R19; R21; R24; R25
R2(1); R5(2); R6(2); R7(1); R8(3); R10(2); R11(2); R12(2);
R13(1); R15(2); R17(2); R18(2); R19(3); R20(2); R21(3);
R23(1); R24(1); R25(4); R26(1); R27(1)
Totals
4
17
11
7
20
39
Table 23.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Subcategory E2 with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro Topic #
MT44
MT79
MT99
# of E2 Sources
Total Frequency
Reference Text Code(s)
R7; R12
R8; R11; R12; R13; R17; R19; R20; R24
R8; R11; R12; R15; R19
R7(1); R8(2); R11(2); R12(3); R13(1); R15(1); R17(1);
R19(2); R20(1); R24(1)
Totals
2
8
5
10
15
63
Table 24.
Reference Texts and Corresponding Micro Topics for Macro Category E with Source and
Frequency Totals
Micro
Topic
Total
Subcategory
Micro Topic #
E1-E2
MT42; MT43;MT44;
MT78; MT79; MT96;
MT99
7
Total
Subcategory
E
MT42; MT43;MT44;
MT71; MT78; MT79;
MT96; MT99
8
Reference Text
Code(s)
R2; R5; R6; R7; R8;
R10; R11; R12; R13;
R15; R17; R18; R19;
R20; R21; R23; R24;
R25; R26; R27
R2; R5; R6; R7; R8;
R9; R10; R11; R12;
R13; R14; R15; R17;
R18; R19; R20; R21;
R23; R24; R25; R26;
R27
Source
Total
Total
Frequency
20
54
23
55
In addition to the number of reference texts that covered each of the five macro
categories, an enumeration process was completed to show how many of the reference
texts covered one, two, three, four or all five of the macro categories within that specific
text. Only one (3.70%) of the reference texts (R16) touched on a single macro category,
Three reference texts (11.11%) (R1, R4, and R5) discussed two macro categories. Six
reference texts (22.22%) covered three of the macro categories (R2, R3, R20, R23, R25,
and R26). Seven reference texts (25.93%) covered four of the macro categories (R7, R9,
R10, R19, R21, R22, and R24), and ten reference texts (37.04%) covered all five of the
macro categories (R6, R8, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R17, R18, and R27). The results
are summarized in Table 25.
Table 25.
64
Number of Macro Categories Represented by Each Reference Text
Ref #
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
R10
R11
R12
R13
R14
R15
R16
R17
R18
R19
R20
R21
R22
R23
R24
R25
R26
R27
Total
1 Macro
Category
2 Macro
Categories
X
3 Macro
Categories
4 Macro
Categories
5 Macro
Categories
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
3
6
7
X
10
65
Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Summary of Findings
This study was designed to review the literature related to creating employee
training programs and provide a content analysis of the selected literature, with the goal
of producing a model, or general guideline, for creating an employee training program.
Upon analysis of the 27 reference texts selected, 127 micro topics, 35 subcategories, and
5 macro categories were created to assist with the understanding of the topics that the
literature suggests should be included or considered when creating an employee training
program. Based on the content analysis of the literature chosen for this study, it can be
concluded that there are five main components in the creation of an employee training
program: the planning process, the training content, the tools or materials used to assist
with the training, implementing the training session, and evaluating the training program.
While some reference texts focused on one or two particular aspects of the training
process, the majority (about 63%) focused on four or five of the main topics. For
example, the reference text labeled R16, Theories for Learning in the Workplace (Dochy
et al., 2011), focused particularly on subcategories A12, “learning styles and theories”,
and A9, “training styles”, but not at all on subcategories related to C1, “visual aids” or
D6, “training timeline”. More common is the case of R12, The First-Time Trainer
(Goad, 2010), and R18, Designing and Developing Training Programs (Fisher-Chan,
2010), which discuss topics within all five macro categories. Additionally, the number of
66
micro topics discussed within each macro category helps to explain how much detail was
focused on within the literature, while the number of times the micro topics were
discussed within the reference texts in a particular macro category help to explain how
often that particular topic was used within the literature. For example, there were 40
micro topics discussed in macro category A, and 8 micro topics discussed in macro
category E. Interestingly, the 40 micro topics were discussed 124 times within macro
category A (an average of 3.1 times per micro topic), but the 8 micro topics were
discussed 55 times in macro category E (an average of 6.9 times per micro topic).
All 27 reference texts selected touched on some element of the preplanning
process (macro category A), which included micro topics such as understanding the
history and evolution of employee training; assessment of organizational, trainee and
trainer needs; the training program writing process; practical and cognitive training
approaches; a variety of training styles and roles; learning styles and theories; and
planning objectives. The most complex branches of the preplanning macro category (A)
were those that pertained to the subcategory of “needs assessment” (A5) – comprised of
20% of macro category A micro topics within 3 separate subcategories – and the
subcategory “training styles and roles” (A11) – comprised of 27.5% of macro category A
micro topics within 4 separate subcategories). Interestingly, despite the fact that the
micro topics that comprised macro category A were discussed in all 27 reference texts, it
was not the macro category that covered the most number of micro topics overall (40
micro topics discussed compared to 42 in macro category B), nor was it the macro
67
category in which its micro topics were discussed the most frequently (124 times in the
27 texts in A compared to 171 times in 23 texts in B).
Overall macro category B covered training content and design micro topics such
as the training styles and delivery methods that could be used for the program; the
specific activities that could be conducted during the training session; the location where
the training could take place; the target population for whom the training could focus; and
the different content types and elements that could be used. The majority of the
information within macro category B concentrated on the subcategory of “training
design” (B6) (71% of category B micro topics, comprised of 5 separate subcategories).
This subcategory (B6) was also discussed in the highest number of reference texts (20 of
the 27; about 74%) within macro category B. A more in depth look at the subcategory
“training design” shows that the types of training activities that can be used in employee
training was the most discussed subcategory, making up 40% of the frequency of topics
discussed in subcategory A6. Interestingly, the subcategory outlining the content
elements of the training session (B8) was one of the least discussed topic in the reference
texts within macro category B (comprising only 9 of the 42 micro topics in category B).
This could be partly due to the difficulty in discussing this content area generally without
getting into specifics pertaining to a particular field.
Macro category C, the materials and tools used to assist with implementing the
training program, was discussed in about 60% of the reference texts. The subcategories
within this macro category included elements such as training session visual aids; the
binder, book, or other manuals that are created for both the trainer and the trainee; and
68
any assignments or tasks that trainees could be asked to complete, research or gather
prior to the training session. Approximately equal focus was given in the reference
materials for tools or materials developed for the trainer as for the trainee (45% and 55%
respectively), and 12 out of 16 reference texts that covered some area of training program
tools focused on topics for either the trainer or the trainee. This balance shows that it
may be just as important to make certain that the trainers have the appropriate tools for
training as it is for the trainees to have the necessary tools to learn their necessary tasks.
A potential consequence of the imbalance within these two subcategories could be that
the trainer is well taken care of, but that the trainees do not have the tool necessary to
learn, or the opposite – that the trainees have the tools necessary, but cannot learn the
skills due to the lack of ability on behalf of the trainer to impart the knowledge.
The last two macro categories focused on the active portions of the training
program – implementation and evaluation. Macro category D, implementation, included
elements that focused primarily on trainer delivery through subcategories such as the
trainer’s personality traits, communication and conflict management skills, and his or her
ability to problem solve or make good decisions during the training. Secondarily,
category D (implementation) focused on the training session timeline from start to finish
– including opening the session, delivering appropriate content, comprehensive review,
skills assessment, and program evaluation. Both subcategories “trainer delivery” (D5)
and “training timeline” (D6) were covered equally by the number of reference texts that
touched on implantation aspects; however, the frequency of micro topics discussed by
subcategory D5 was less than the frequency of micro topics discussed by subcategory D6
69
(approximately 45% for D5 and 55% for D6). One possible explanation for the lack of
discussion regarding implementation is that it is by far easier to suggest binders and
printing styles than it is to describe various types of skills assessments; however, I
believe both are integral components to understanding training program design.
The final macro category to be discussed throughout the reference texts was that
of evaluation (macro category E). This category was covered in a majority of the texts
(about 85%), and was discussed in a variety of forms: program evaluation by the
organization, the trainer, and the trainees; evaluation of the trainer by the organization,
the trainees, and through trainer self-evaluation; and evaluation of the trainee’s abilities
and knowledge growth through skill assessments.
It is essential to keep in mind that the lower the number of micro topics discussed
in a given sub or macro category does not necessarily translate to being less important in
the overall training design process. For example, the subcategories “understanding the
writing process” (A6) and “planning objectives” (A13) were each comprised of only
three micro topics. However, micro topics within the subcategory “understanding the
writing process” were discussed in the least number of reference texts within the
preplanning macro category (A), while the micro topics within the subcategory “planning
objectives” were discussed to some degree by the most number of reference texts within
macro category A (refer back to Table 11). Additionally, while some subcategories
focused on a particular number of micro topics, it may not be entirely fair to suggest that
the number of times each micro topic shows up in each reference reflects the overall need
of the organization conducting the training. Moreover, the intention is that an ideal
70
training program would include all aspects covered in all five of the macro categories
outlined in this project; however, the weight reflected in certain subcategories may give a
reader some guidelines on which areas to focus if there were constraints in resources.
Conclusion
While some references focused on specific aspects of the program design process,
it may not be entirely fair to suggest that the number of times each micro topic appeared
in each reference text reflects the overall need of that component in explicitly within a
given training program. However, if a training program is being created from start to
finish this analysis concludes that it should include elements from all five of the macro
categories in this project.
An organization should first assess the needs of the training; decide which
training styles or approaches would best fit the needs; research the learning theories that
complement those training styles; plan the training session and overall program
objectives; and then select and train the trainers who will best implement the training.
The second step is to select the delivery method and training location that best suits the
type of training selected for the targeted trainee population and program focus, and then
select the specific activities that will work best for the selected training. Then, the
decision to create or purchase the desired training content elements can be made, and the
content outline can be created. The elements that should be included in any training
session regardless or style, location, or delivery method are the session goals and a
schedule of the training to keep trainer and trainees on track; the skills acquisition or
71
learning content targeted to the training session designed, including any references or
handouts that the employee should have to assist with their learning and any visual aids
or trainer materials necessary to adequately impart the knowledge; the skills assessment
outline and tools, and session review plan; and finally the tools necessary to evaluate the
training program.
Some skills helpful to successfully implement the training include comfort or ease
in speaking to the intended audience with a clarity and pace that can be understood;
creativity, innovation, preparedness, and organizational, problem-solving, and decisionmaking skills in case there is a need for last minute or on-the-spot changes; and a level of
enthusiasm and influence to empower trainees to acquire the desired skills or knowledge
for long-term retention. Finally, a comprehensive employee training program must have
an evaluation process in place in order to best serve the trainer, trainees, and ultimately
the organization. Without proper evaluation of the training program, there is no system
in place to make necessary changes or improvements. The analysis of the literature has
shown that the implementation (D) of an employee training program is the enactment of
the content design (B) derived from the preplanning elements (A), with the assistance of
the tools and materials created (C). Once implementation takes place, evaluation (E)
must occur, after which changes or improvements can be made to the program for
continued organizational success.
Further research recommendations include revisiting the content analysis of
training literature within a specific industry or field of business, or to utilize this process
in curricula design within a teaching environment.
72
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