EXPLORATION OF HOPE LEVELS AMONG HOMELESS LATE ADOLESCENTS
Cynthia A. Long
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2007
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
FALL
2009

© 2009
Cynthia A. Long
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii

EXPLORATION OF HOPE LEVELS AMONG HOMELESS LATE ADOLESCENTS
A Project by
Cynthia A. Long
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Susan Taylor, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date iii

Student: Cynthia A. Long
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator ___________________
Teiahsha Bankhead, Ph.D., M.S.W. Date
Division of Social Work iv

Abstract of
EXPLORATION OF HOPE LEVELS AMONG HOMELESS LATE ADOLESCENTS by
Cynthia A. Long
Statement of Problem
Homeless late adolescents, also referred to as transitional age youth (TAY) age 16-24, have been underreported in homeless census counts and as a result remain invisible to the general public. The unique needs of this population arise out of the new research in neuro development that uncovered that the brain is not completely developed until age 24.
Additionally, the literature revealed that the pathways into homelessness in this population are predominantly out of their control. Personal backgrounds of abuse and neglect in the homeless TAY population leave them more susceptible to further abuse on the streets. Armed with limited life skills and a plethora of emotional problems, homeless
TAY appeared to lack hope. The purpose of this study was to establish a baseline measurement of hope in this homeless TAY population which can be used to develop interventions to improve hope in future work with this population. v

Sources of Data
The Miller Hope Scale (MHS) was used to assess hope levels in the study population.
The MHS was administered to homeless TAY who utilized the Family and Youth
Services of San Joaquin County California drop in center for emergency need services.
Precautions were taken to ensure street drugs or severe mental illness did not alter participants. The study participants were not retested so the resulting data was classified as a pilot study.
Conclusions Reached
The major finding of the analysis was that this homeless late adolescent population reported high hope scores on the MHS. An unexpected result of this study was that the homeless late adolescent population scores were significantly higher than the healthy university student norm population comparison group from Miller’s study. This result contradicts an anticipated finding that assumed homeless late adolescents of this study would have low hope scores.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Susan Taylor, Ph.D.
______________________
Date vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Professor Maria Dinis for her patience and support through the planning stages of this research question and when life circumstances changed, her gracious help in transitioning to Dr. Sue Taylor to facilitate the completion of this work.
My gratitude to Dr. Taylor continues with her consistent faith in my ability to complete this research while facing challenges. Friends and colleagues, Deb Drake, M.S.W. and
Laurel Krokstrom, M.A., M.M. have my heart felt thanks for their hours of support with edits and statistics respectively, asking me the tough questions to push me forward and teaching me to be kind and patient with myself. My final and most special thanks go to my four amazing daughters, who without their sacrifice of “mom time,” I would not have completed this thesis.
vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1
Background ........................................................................................................5
Exploring Hope ..................................................................................................7
Research Problem ..............................................................................................8
Research Purpose ...............................................................................................9
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................9
Definitions .......................................................................................................10
Assumptions ....................................................................................................12
Justifications ....................................................................................................12
Delimitations ....................................................................................................13
Summary ..........................................................................................................13
2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ......................................................................15
Introduction ......................................................................................................15
Homelessness ...................................................................................................15
National Profile ................................................................................................17
State of California Profile .…………………………………………………...25
San Joaquin County Profile ..………………………………………………...25
History of Hope ……………………………………………………………...26
Hope and Stressful Life Events .......................................................................30
Hope Theory .………………………………………………………………...33 viii

Adolescence ..………………………………………………………………...34
Adolescent Identity Formation .……………………………………………...35
Adolescent Mental Illness .…………………………………………………...36
Development Theory ..……………………………………………………….37
Brain Development .....……………………………………………………….38
Future Orientation .…………………………………………………………...38
Attachment Theory ..........................................................................................39
Summary ..........................................................................................................41
3. METHODS ........................................................................................................... 42
Research Question ...........................................................................................42
Research Design ..............................................................................................42
Study Variables ................................................................................................43
Instrumentation ................................................................................................44
Study Design ....................................................................................................45
Data Gathering Procedures ..............................................................................46
4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ................................................................................ 48
Introduction ......................................................................................................48
Demographics ..................................................................................................50
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................53
Overall Findings ..............................................................................................57
5. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS ............................................................. 58
Significant Findings .........................................................................................58
Important Finding ............................................................................................59
Snyder’s Hope Theory .....................................................................................60
Spurious Variables ...........................................................................................61
Evolutionary Psychology .................................................................................62
Limitations .......................................................................................................63
Implications .....................................................................................................64
Relevance To Social Work ..............................................................................65 ix

Suggested Further Research ............................................................................65
Appendices ...................................................................................................................67
Appendix A. Miller Hope Scale (MHS) ....................................................................68
Appendix B. Authorization to use Miller Hope Scale ...............................................72
Appendix C. Agency Authorization Letter ................................................................74
Appendix D. Consent and Demographic Forms ........................................................76
Appendix E. Total Hope and Factor I ........................................................................79
Appendix F. Total Hope and Factor II .......................................................................80
Appendix G. Total Hope and Factor III .....................................................................81
Bibliography …………………………………………………………………….…...82 x

6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 Age at Time of Survey Descriptive Statistics...….………………….50
Table 2 Frequency of Age at Time of Survey...….………………………......51
Table 3 Frequency of Education……..………….…………………………....51
Table 4 Frequency of Ethnicity……………..….……………………………..52
Table 5 Frequency of Housing………………………………………………..52
Table 6 Correlations Matrix…....……………..….………………………......54
Table 7 A Comparison of the Long, McGill, Hendricks, and Miller Studies..55
Table 8 Comparison t-tests Between Long’s Homeless TAY and:…………..56
Table 9 Total Hope Score Descriptive Statistics……………………………..57 xi

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The author of this study has worked for an adolescent homeless shelter in San
Joaquin County, California for over two years. During that time, observations of young adults were made that showed striking similarities among people who became homeless and how long they remained homeless. A 1990 report estimated that the daily count of homeless youth in California was between 20,000 and 25,000 adolescents on the streets on a given day (California Child, Youth & Family Coalition- CCYFC, 1990). The reasons cited for homelessness in the adolescent population include familial conflict, history of physical and/or sexual abuse, substance use by youth and/or parents, school drop out, early and risky sexual behavior, incarceration of youth and/or parents, mental health problems, and unemployment (Milburn, Rosenthal & Rotheram, 2005; Reganick,
1997; Kidd, 2006).
The idea of exploring how hope emerges and the role hope plays in the lives of these youth at the shelter attracted the attention of this researcher when she listened to youth share their personal stories. The ability to survive difficult life circumstances and continue moving forward was apparent in some youths’ life histories, but not in others.
One of the many stories this researcher heard came from a young man who was seventeen and had just been thrown out of his home, where his two parents ran a home business and were addicted to methamphetamines. He had experienced being the target of paranoid drug induced delusions and run off from home, yet still saw that it was his
“crazy parents” issue and not his. In another case a young woman who had been
1

repeatedly raped by her father was now prostituting and would not even enter into dialog about the future. She focused on her immediate needs of food and shelter and was
2 simply in survival mode (anonymous, January 23, 2007). In the literature reviewed for this thesis, Jones Johnson, Rew, Weylin Sternglaz, (2006), found “non abused participants reported a better future time perspective, more social support, more sexual self-care behaviors, and less sexual risk-taking than abused participants” (p.230). It raises the question of how sexual abuse and other life experiences impact levels of hope among homeless youth. “Sexual abuse sets in motion processes that may interfere with adolescents’ abilities to act on their own behalf” (Jones Johnson, et al., 2006, p. 231).
Additionally, this researcher noted that when staff of the shelter connected with them, the youth appeared to have an improved outlook on their current living condition and an awareness of their future potential. This researcher describes this shift in perception as becoming hopeful. Harter, Berquist, Titsworth, Novak and Brokaw (2005), describes this connection with shelter staff as an ability to risk trust (p. 312). A meaningful connection with shelter staff is only possible once trust is established with the youth. Research addresses the reason for distrust in shelter staff, attributing fears of being forced to return to their families or a simple dislike of the services offered (Peled, Spiro,
& Dekel, 2005, p. 258). Trust is earned through youth perceived treatment with respect, observation of staff interaction with others, and successfully responding to “testing” by the youth (Ulager, Pearson, Tomescu, Hill, Auerswald, & Ginsburg, 2005, pp. 133). An unconditional acceptance with nonjudgmental language builds rapport, while the behaviors of honoring privacy, being authentic and honest foster trust (p.134).

3
Observing the presence or lack of hope in the life stories shared by shelter youth, the researcher started to question whether it was possible to improve a young person’s level of hope to promote successful transition into adulthood. In order to answer that question, it is necessary to assess a baseline of hope in these youth. The depth of the research done for this literature review did not uncover empirical studies that identify attributes in the subpopulation homeless adolescents which help them transition into adulthood. The studies reviewed did show relationships between hope and self perception in late adolescents (Onwuegbuzie & Daley, 1999),
The researcher also noted that there are some youth who may have plenty of hope, but no motivation to achieve successful outcomes on his/her own volition. Taylor, Lydon
Bougie, and Johannsen (2004) addressed this lack of motivation resulting in the absence of an individual’s purpose or mission for some long term goal (p.14). The researcher for this review found no other empirical studies to explain this phenomenon. The internal hope present in these youth may skew findings and contradict the need for future research on the impacts of hope within this population. The scope of this study cannot account for contradicting behavioral patterns that demonstrate motivation or lack of motivation. That issue will need to be addressed in future research. The implications for this research are necessary since the lack of a body of research on this subject show that this is unchartered territory. The traits presented by homeless youth are varied and broad, negating the assumption that homeless youth are homogenous (Harter, et al, 2005, p.322; Taylor et. al., 2004, p. 1). To accurately represent this population’s hope level, the researcher will follow the scientific method to include all relevant survey data collected.

The complexity of emotions young people bring with them when they arrive at
4 the homeless shelter can be an obstacle in the assessment of hope (Mounier & Andujo,
2003, p. 1188). The very nature of their circumstance would suggest a potential lack of hope. However, the need to use survival skills and ego defensive maneuvers eliminates the free and honest expression of an individual’s cognitive and emotive drives leaving them reluctant to admit hopelessness and engage in denial (p. 1191). It could be misinterpreted as false pride or bravado but an admonition of failure or need beyond the individuals capacity would be counter productive to their survival on the streets (Mounier
& Andujo, 2003). In one on one discussion, these youth say they want a better future, but lack the know how to achieve it. A young woman age nineteen, single parent of two children, told this researcher that she wanted more than anything to have a safe secure place to live with her children alone, but did not know how to get it. “I keep all my appointments, but something always happens to mess me up” (anonymous, personal communication, May 13, 2009).
To eliminate problems of honesty in disclosure, the researcher determined that establishing rapport with each youth before asking them to participate in the hope study would foster trust (Ulager et. al., 2005, p.133). Further precautions were taken to provide a comfortable private therapy room where youth could take the questionnaire and seal their responses in an anonymous envelope. Heffner (2001) notes the limitations of survey data is based on subjective responses which can be inaccurate due to outright lying, misunderstanding of the question, placebo effect, and even the manner in which the

5 question is asked (Heffner, 2001, Chpt. 1, Sec. 4, Para. 3). The researcher ascertained that this anonymous method of reporting would glean the most accurate responses.
Background
The issue of homelessness among adolescents between sixteen and twenty four years of age is a more common social problem than society acknowledges. These youth are relegated to undesirable spaces keeping them invisible to the domiciled public view
(Harter et. al., 2005, Pp. 307-308). There are volumes of research on homeless woman and children, but specific literature on the adolescent population is not as easy to acquire.
One reason for this gap in the research relates to the nomadic and invisible nature of this subpopulation. These youth are wary of obtaining services in public agencies for fear of authorities and/or the Child Welfare Agency (Peled, et al., 2005, p. 258). Some are treated according to negative stereotypes leaving them feeling demoralized by the professionals trying to “help” (Morrison, & VanOsdel, 2009, p.25). Taylor, Lydon,
Bougie, and Johannsen (2004) address the “folk theory” popular in society that states, either 1) homeless youth have sympathetic reasons for ending up on the streets, such as dysfunctional family, mental illness or systematic academic failure or 2) have freely chosen a rebellious lifestyle of partying devoid of responsibility (Taylor, Lydon, Bougie,
& Johannsen, 2004, p. 2; Kidd, 2006, p. 296).
Agencies estimate the number of homeless adolescents based on data from the annual homeless count conducted by the state. The focus of this researcher’s study on hope levels among homeless late adolescents narrows the adolescent population down further to those considered late adolescents residing in San Joaquin County in the state of

California. The youth participating in this study are either legally emancipated sixteen
6 and seventeen year olds or eighteen through twenty four years old. In the state of
California there are an estimated 100,000 to 400,000 homeless adolescents (California
Child, Youth, and Family Coalition, [CCYFC], 1990). The Department of Housing and
Community Development (HCD) estimates that there are 361,000 homeless people in the state of California at any given time (California [HCD], 2002). The daily count of homeless adolescents in San Joaquin County is estimated at 130 to 240 youth. Arriving at this number was accomplished by combining known local statistics with national totals then estimating percentage presumed to be homeless adolescents (CCYFC, 1990; U.S.
Conference of Mayors, 2005; San Joaquin County Sheriff, 2006). The director of Youth and Clinical Services at Family and Youth Services of San Joaquin County (FAYS) estimates a more accurate number of homeless adolescents would be upwards of 600
(Newlin, personal communication, 6 Apr. 2009).
Youth that are sixteen or seventeen, emancipated or not, are eligible to stay in temporary adolescent shelters for up to twenty one days. In San Joaquin County, Safe
House is the one program designed to serve this population. If a late adolescent eighteen or older needs emergency shelter however, the only options are the adult shelters. The researcher observed that the shelter youth complain that the adult shelters are plagued with crime, substance abusers, individuals with untreated mental illness, sexual predators, and others with problematic behaviors. There is little safety for a youth on the streets or in the adult shelters.

The “not in my backyard (NIMBY)” mentality acts as a catalyst for pacifying guilt on a macro level in relationship to homeless youth (Harter et. al., 2007, p.307;
7
Takahashi, 1998). With no governmental funding to identify and track this population, professionals are left to guesstimate the size and scope of the problem. When this subpopulation blends in and is undetected, societal norms eliminate public outrage. This research addresses young people who have elected to live in a state of homelessness due to reasons such as familial conflict, history of physical and sexual abuse, substance use by parents, incarceration of parents, mental health problems, and unemployment.
(Milburn, Rosenthal & Rotheram, 2005; Reganick, 1997; Kidd, 2006). Study of this population will assist social workers in their efforts to reduce the occurrences and recurrences of homelessness among the late adolescent population. NIMBY can be replaced with open discussions about solutions.
Exploring Hope
In order to explore hope, it is necessary to assess a baseline of hope in which to start. This researcher has observed some evidence of hope that is present in the homeless adolescent subpopulation. Hope is used in the immediate sense of “I hope I don’t get caught,” or “I hope I get to the shelter on time to eat today.” The long range hope of a better future is buried in the maelstrom of primary needs for food, shelter, and safety. The personal accounts above described youth who have denied thinking of the future or felt hopeless when envisioning a better future. The youth who would benefit from this research are deprived of positive future oriented hopeful experiences while homeless and seem to have low hope. Whereas, high hope is correlated to a positive future orientation

in children and adolescents (Snyder, Lopez, Shorey, Rand, & Feldman, 2003, p. 125;
Shorey, Little, Snyder, Kluck, & Robiteschek, 2007). The survival skills necessary to accommodate homeless life are commonly hope killers. Low hope is consistently found in children who have experienced abuse and victimization (Hinton-Nelson, Roberts, &
8
Snyder, 1996, p. 346). Prostitution, selling or running drugs, robbery, etc., are common activities used to make it on the streets another day (Baron, 2001; Irwig, 1996, p. 85).
These activities interfere with a youth’s sense of safety and security leaving them vulnerable to abuse. Although crime can offer hope to a youth with no opportunity to support him/her selves, the consequence for the criminal behavior reduces hope potential
(Baron, 2001, p.191). Adolescent research conducted by de Sales Turner (2005) in
Australia affirmed that people have “a belief that hope is integral to the human condition”
(p. 509). Addressing, at what level that hope exists in this population, is the basis for this exploration.
Research Problem
There is a gap in the knowledge surrounding hope levels in the study population that will be addressed with this research. The stated purpose of this study is to assess hope levels among homeless late adolescents. The hope levels will be measured using the
Miller Hope Scale (Miller, 1988). The scale operationalizes three subcategories helpful in assessing hope levels as follows: a) satisfaction with self, others and life; b) avoidance of hope threats; and 3) anticipation of future. C. R. Snyder’s Hope Theory will be applied to the data to make sense of how this measurement applies to the study population of homeless late adolescents and the variable hope (Snyder, 2000). The researcher required

this knowledge to establish a baseline measurement of hope in this study population in
9 order to develop interventions to improve hope in future work with this population.
Research Purpose
The primary purpose for this research is to establish a baseline of hope in homeless late adolescents that can be used as a starting point in later hope research. This is necessary to begin program development to improve hope levels in this population.
The researcher hypothesizes that developing an intervention to improve hope will improve successful outcomes (e.g., stable housing).
Theoretical Framework
Hope Theory developed by C.R Snyder states that hope is “A positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful (a) agency
(goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways (planning to meet goals. A cognitive set that is based on reciprocally-derived sense of successful agency (goal-directed determination) and pathways (planning to meet goals)” (Snyder, 2000, p. 8). This theory accounts for individual hope being centered in the mind coupled with motivation to achieve a desired outcome. This (cognitive) hope develops through a consistent modeling from parents of meeting anticipated needs and demonstrating goal achievement through daily living. “If parents set goals, accept challenges, and cope with difficulties in a positive rather than a negative manner, children will learn to approach problems in the same manner” (Snyder,
2000, p. 190). Additionally, Snyder found that peers have the most significant impact on an adolescent’s ability to have high hope following the logic that adolescents are like herd animals striving to be accepted by their social group (Snyder, 2000, p. 191). If an

10 adolescent has friends that are positive goal oriented people, the more likely they will be to conform to that behavior. When it is cool to be smart and driven for success, then an adolescent will conform to that norm, which insulates them from taking detours that may detract from success.
Definitions
The definition for homeless individuals used in this study is the official Federal definition of homeless in the United States Code, Title 42, Chapter 119, Subchapter I, as follows:
1) an individual who lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence; and
2) an individual who has primary nighttime residence that is – A. a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations (including welfare hotels, congregate shelters, and transitional housing for the mentally ill); B. an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized; or C. a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings (U.S. Dept. Housing & Urban Dev., 2009).
Adolescence is defined in Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary tenth edition (1996) as follows:
1) the state or process of growing up; 2) the period of life from puberty to maturity terminating legally at the age of majority; or 3) the stage of development prior to maturity (p. 16).

11
Adolescent development is broadly defined in stages during the period of human development that includes ages as young as eleven and as old as twenty four. Hutchison describes this period in Dimensions of Human Behavior (2003) as being characterized by three transitional stages. The early stage (11-14) brings changes including puberty and a desire to distance from family culture and tradition (p. 274). In the middle stage (15-17) puberty is complete, appearance changes and identity formation begins (p. 261). A heightened sense of social connections and decision-making increases stress and/or confidence (Erikson, 1963). The late stage (18-24) normally shows formal operational thought and a continuation of identity development. Morality is in place coupled with a renewed interest in family culture and tradition (Hutchinson, 2003, p. 263).
This researcher defines hope as the positive emotive expression of having a loving sense of self, coupled with a belief in one’s own potential for success. This accounts for feeling and thinking in the process of experiencing hope. Emotion and cognition are integral in hope inspired outcomes. An individual can feel hopeless, but have an optimistic cognitive process. They think things will get better, but their feelings are not congruent. Conversely, individuals with pessimistic cognitive processes can sometimes feel hopeful. A person with predominantly negative thoughts can have a reprieve thereby feeling hope occasionally. The definition of hope used to develop the Miller Hope Scale follows,
Hope is a state of being characterized by an anticipation for a continued good state, an improved state or a release from a perceived entrapment. The anticipation may or may not be founded on concrete, real world evidence. Hope is

12 an anticipation of a future which is good and is based upon: mutuality
(relationships with others), a sense of personal competence, coping ability, psychological well-being, purpose and meaning in life, as well as a sense of ‘the possible’ (Miller, 1988).
C. R. Snyder and colleagues define hope as,
A positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways (planning to meet goals. A cognitive set that is based on reciprocally-derived sense of successful agency (goal-directed determination) and pathways (planning to meet goals)
(Snyder, C.R., 2000, p. 8).
Assumptions
Hope levels in adolescents have a correlative relationship with successful outcomes. Success in this study is defined as fulfilling personal goals resulting in permanent housing. This study presupposes that homeless adolescents will have low levels of hope. This low level of hope can be the focus of later studies to determine the strength of the correlative relationship and potential ability to effect a change.
Justifications
This research will benefit the profession of social work by giving a starting point for additional research in the area of hope and homeless adolescents. By establishing a baseline hope level in the subpopulation of homeless late adolescents, professionals can track incremental increases in hope levels and determine how it relates to successful goal

13 attainment. The projected benefit will include accurate scientific method evidence to use in the future development of programs for the late adolescent homeless population.
Delimitations
This research is not attempting to uncover correlations between success and hope levels. That is beyond the scope of this beginning research study on hope levels among homeless late adolescents. It will not be possible to ascertain a correlation between hope and successful outcomes until a retest of the instrument is administered to the subjects following an intervention to improve hope levels. The subjects would have to be tracked for a period of time to determine if the intervention that appeared to improve hope levels led to a successful outcome.
Summary
This chapter introduced the topic of study on hope levels among the homeless late adolescent population. A background of the social problem and current statistics were offered to justify the need for this research. Discussing 1) hope’s function in the human experience; 2) scope and causes of homelessness; and 3) its impact on the homeless late adolescent population, were presented in Chapter One. These subjects; “hope,”
“homelessness,” and “adolescence” in the following review of literature in Chapter Two will give further credibility to the necessity of this study. Chapter Three will give the methods used to obtain this original research and the process of analysis used by the researcher. Chapter Four will provide the data analysis and tables for review. Chapter
Five will have the summary of findings and a discussion of the research study.
Implications for future research by social workers on the front lines with homeless late

adolescents will include the need to develop programs that will improve successful outcomes in this population.
14

15
Chapter 2
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Introduction
In this review of the literature the author will explore current research available to understand the scope of the homeless problem, hope as a motivator of human behavior, and adolescence. This review is an attempt to identify the function of hope in adolescents struggling without a permanent place to live. Can an adolescent individual’s hope level be improved through interventions to improve the chances for a successful outcome? The successful outcome as defined in this study is transitioning into adulthood with stable housing. The focus will review the current scope of the problem, consider why late adolescents become homeless, and what role hope may play in future research to improve the quality of life for homeless late adolescents.
Homelessness
In the United States of America, known as “the land of opportunity” it is difficult to understand the reality that there are thousands of homeless citizens with no opportunities (National Law Center on Homelessness, [NLCH], 2008). There are thousands of homeless individuals experiencing instability and poverty for a variety of reasons in most large cities across the nation (NLCH, 2008). While a national focus is not exclusive on urban centers, a rural homeless population is growing but regularly overlooked. Poverty and homelessness are synonymous for those individuals struggling to survive the streets regardless of the size of the city or town. The conventional

16 perceptions of homeless individuals involve negative stereotypes portraying middle-age men, dependent on alcohol and/or drugs, who rejected to live within societal norms
(Morrison & VanOsdel, 2009, p. 25.). These homeless men are to be feared and kept out of sight owning to their potential for psychotic behavior (Linhorst, 2006, p. 36). They are dangerous menaces to polite society and should be relegated to the most undesirable public spaces and/or prosecuted for vagrancy (Harter et al. 2005, p. 306; Reganick,
1997). US cities are increasingly creating laws that criminalize homelessness (NLCH,
2008). The laws enacted were in response to a time when the homeless were primarily single men who may have had co-occurring conditions involving mental illness and alcohol addiction. Following the long process of deinstitutionalization, between 1955 and
1980 450,000 mentally ill individuals were released from state mental hospitals into less restrictive communities (McKenzie, Pinger, & Jerome, 2005, p. 321). The absence of community based services available to them, drove them to the streets to subsist with out the benefit of monitoring or assistance (p. 325).
Historically, the visible homeless have been single males (Burt, 1992). However, the fastest growing homeless demographic currently are women and children (McKinney-
Vento, 2002).
Lack of affordable housing, extreme poverty, decreasing government supports, changing demographics of the family, raising children alone, domestic violence, and fractured social supports are many of the causes for families who find themselves homeless (National Center on Family Homelessness, 2009).

17
The mere sight of a homeless family changes the way the general public views homelessness and smashes preconceived stereotypes (National Coalition on
Homelessness, 2007). With this changing face of homelessness, the introduction of another entirely separate issue arises. The modeling of this subsistence could potentially have a lasting impact on the development of the children being raised without a permanent place to live. The homeless family may produce another generation of individuals who grow up in poverty leaving them vulnerable to reliving the experiences of their parents on the streets. The intergenerational pattern of poverty has been well documented (Ludwig & Mayer, 2006; Vartanian, 1999; Corcoran, 1995) and may affect the homeless population in the same manner. The homeless parents demonstrate an interactional pattern with the people they come in contact with, coupled with establishing a set of acceptable living conditions (homelessness), which is then internalized by the children (Cowan & Cowan, 2005). Generation after generation, how one lives is transmitted to the offspring and accepted as how one should live. It is reasonable to consider that homelessness can be passed on to one’s offspring in the same manner that the culture of poverty continues to be handed down (Ludwig & Mayer, 2006; Vartanian,
1999; Corcoran, 1995).
National Profile
National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty (2009) advocates reported that, annually, an estimated 3 million people are homeless in the US. Of these individuals, between 1.6 and 2.8 million are youth who leave their homes for reasons that threaten their safety (Hammer et al, 2002). The estimates for the adolescent population

are speculative since the most recent survey data grouped unaccompanied youth with
18 singles. The category of singles includes all men and women over the age of eighteen, with no method for extrapolating the actual number who fall into the adolescent age group. The transitory nature of the transitional age youth “TAY” population makes it impossible to gain a complete understanding of the exact scope of overall homelessness among adolescents. The above statistics are the most reasonable estimate involving several studies over a period of years (US Conference of Mayors, 2007).
The Report on Hunger & Homelessness indicated that homelessness is on the rise.
The recent economic downfall resulting in record breaking foreclosures and unemployment across the nation are the primary causes of the anticipated increase in homelessness (US Conference of Mayors, 2007). The forecast for 2009 seems dim, taking into account that the foreclosure rates continue to increase at an alarming rate. The forth quarter of 2008 saw a raise in foreclosures nationwide to finish out the year with an
81 percent increase over 2007 and a 225 percent increase over 2006 (RealtyTrac Staff,
2009; Levy, 2009). The difficulties that precipitate foreclosure such as loss of job coupled with skyrocketing mortgage payment are followed with facing the rental markets exorbitant rates (Mueller, 1999). People who have never thought they would be without a primary residence are facing homelessness for the first time.
Addressing the forecasts that project an increase in the number of individuals and families who will become homeless in 2009, prompted an attempt by governmental and community based agencies to meet the needs of this increasing population. Determining how resources will be allocated in a given city or town is dependent on accurate estimates

of this future homeless population. The estimate on the scope of the homelessness problem and the future projection of the problem may be inaccurate due to the use of
19 occupied shelter beds from the prior year. The US Conference of Mayors reported that
193,183 unduplicated individuals occupied a shelter bed in the cities participating in the survey in the previous year (2007). The survey does not account for individuals who were turned away from shelters, individuals who refuse to use shelters, or adolescents who are couch surfing. Since the focus of this research study is homeless adolescents, this researcher is concerned with how their needs will be addressed in the future. There is a street culture among homeless adolescents that rationalizes dependence on street networks and avoidance of programs to help get them off the streets (Auerswald & Eyre,
2002). There are three notable reasons why the adolescent population is mostly unaccounted; 1) dependence on street networks as opposed to social services (p.1506); 2) couch jump from friend to friend’s house (Staller, 2004); and 3) the number of them as stated above have been a guesstimate based on combining several homeless counts.
The research on positive feedback loops also plays a role in the number of shelter beds available for the adolescent population (Staller, 2004, p.7). Staller (2002) reported that the influence of the existence of shelters caused an increase in shelter beds used by youth, which is greater than the need for those beds, had the shelter not existed in the first place (p. 10). In other words, if a youth did not have a shelter bed available to him/her, would he/she have left home anyway? The shelter gives young people the option to leave home when they might have stayed to work things out with parents (Staller, 2004). The
Runaway and Homeless Youth Act allocated funds to cities based on need (RHYA,

20
1992). As these services became well known by youth, word of mouth may have had an impact on how often young people used the shelter services to mitigate conflicts with their parents. The prevalence for adolescents who are not entrenched in street networks to couch surf may negate this research. Since adolescents have a tendency to leave home and stay with friends instead of utilizing shelter services, the likelihood that they would not leave home if the shelter beds were not available is arbitrary. In fact, HUD continues to deny the status of homeless adolescents who are currently couch surfing (HUD, 2005) and families with teens are regularly turned away from shelters because they do not allow teens in family shelters (Caputo, 2009, para. 2).
Estimating future homelessness of adults, families, and adolescents based on shelter beds used is more of a snapshot of a given city’s resources than a realistic look at the number of homeless subsisting in that city. The scope of the problem as documented above is greater than the total number of shelter beds; a new measure must be developed.
This review has demonstrated that the inaccuracies in counting adolescents and the prevalence of families being turned away from shelters due to lack of resources, interferes with reasonably using past shelter bed counts to plan for future homelessness.
Ultimately, the number of shelter beds occupied by adolescents last year does not paint a true picture of the scope of the homeless late adolescent homeless problem to come.
The US Conference of Mayors refers to the adolescent population as unaccompanied minors. The Conference reported that the two reasons for homelessness in singles and unaccompanied minors are mental illness and drug abuse. This account of causation indicates the lack of relevant statistics on the late adolescent population.

Grouping all singles together with unaccompanied minors does not provide accurate information. The subpopulation of late adolescents is especially important to identify
21 since they have unacknowledged unique needs. The developmental needs of late adolescence are different than a fully matured homeless adult. The general belief in
Western society is that once a youth reaches the age of majority, they are capable and responsible for themselves. The “sink or swim” mentality leaves adolescents to fend for them selves in a harsh unwelcoming society. However, science has discovered that brain development is not complete until approximately age twenty four (Promislow, & Bugbee,
2001; Brain Development Cooperative Group & Evans, 2005; ACT, 2002; Williamson,
2005; Casey, Tottenham, Liston & Durston, 2005; & Spear, 2000). The research on neuro development is in its early stages and more will be uncovered as this new frontier is explored. This new information has not yet had an affect on policy or societal perceptions. Over the years society has increased the minimum age for drinking alcohol, driving a motor vehicle, and renting a car. This was in response to the lack of maturity observed in this age group, the increased danger that these individuals undertaking these activities posed to the rest of society and the financial risk agencies were unwilling to assume. Generally youth between 18 and 21 are not allowed to rent a car and young people between 21 and 24 must pay an additional surcharge to rent a car (Avis, 2009).
However, at 18 US society and the US government allow young people to go to war, where they may die or experience a permanent life altering injury. It would be a radical change in societal perception to shift from the belief that at eighteen years of age one transforms into an adult. It is a drastically different view to consider that a young person

22 is not responsible enough to make life or death decisions until the brain is fully developed at the age of twenty four (Promislow & Bugbee, 2001; Brain Development Cooperative
Group & Evans, 2005; ACT for Youth Upstate Center for Excellence, 2002; Williamson,
2005; Casey, Tottenham, Liston & Durston, 2005; Spear, 2000).
The natural development of adolescence can be difficult to navigate. Hormone changes, identity formation, separation from family, and changing social roles all pose challenges in the developmental process. Homeless late adolescents need additional help transitioning into adulthood. As stated previously, the pathways into homelessness involve trauma and disruption to the family system from familial conflict, history of physical and/or sexual abuse, substance use by youth and/or parents, school drop out, early and risky sexual behavior, incarceration of youth and/or parents, mental health problems, and unemployment (Milburn, et al., 2005; Reganick, 1997; Kidd, 2006;
Thompson & Pillai, 2006). Armed with weak life skills, distorted beliefs, and misguided survival skills homeless late adolescents require retraining. The brains development during adolescence is in the process of learning to temper risk taking and increase reasoning (NIH, 2005). The frontal lobe, which is responsible for self-control, judgment, and emotional regulation, is under construction during the teen years and not fully developed until age 25 (ACT, 2005; Partnership for a drug-free America, 2007).
Surviving the streets with this elevated drive to take risks leave adolescents more vulnerable to abuse and danger than their housed counterparts (Feldmann, & Middleman,
2003; Irwig, 1996). More opportunity exists for illicit activities to obtain basic needs and to “fit in” with the street culture (Auerswald & Eyre, 2002, p. 1506).

Survival skills that are useful can be converted into productive marketable job
23 skills (Harter, et al., 2005, p.324). Resourcefulness is a skill that allows homeless young people to make due with very little and create opportunity where none exists. This skill can transfer to the private sector in positions such as social work, service work, and management positions. Being able to read people is a survival skill that homeless young people employ and can be applied to succeed in retail sales or customer service. Working in shelters, food banks, and social service agencies would all be promising positions where a formerly homeless adolescent could offer empathy to the clients served by the agency that otherwise may be lacking from other staff who have never experienced homelessness. These skills developed to survive the streets can apply to all homeless people, but TAY are still developing and are more pliable than a homeless adult entrenched in living on the fringes of society. The culture of being homeless is imbued with resiliency necessary to maintain life each day. These principals that drive this resiliency are discussed above in the ethics of being homeless (Auerswald & Eyre, 2002, p. 1505). This resilience can help a youth escape the streets as well as help them survive the streets. The Life Cycle Approach to youth homelessness describes initiation into street culture through stasis and then disequilibrium through recidivism (p. 1501). The
“street ethic” that has sustained them while homeless becomes an impediment to successfully escaping street life (p.1505). Problems are encountered while assisting the
TAY population to transition into society when they are stuck in the “outsider” mentality.
This mentality has them believe that they are outside of society and cannot and sometimes will not assimilate into the community (p.1507).

Simultaneously, adolescents who are not homeless experience a similar feeling of
24
“outsiderness.” There is a pervasive prejudice toward “teenagers” in US society. This researcher spoke to a woman, who had her Ph.D. and M.D. and shared that she always crossed to the other side of the mall any time she encountered a group of teenagers while, shopping. Further probing uncovered that it did not matter what they were wearing or what race or ethnicity they were, she was simply fearful of all teenagers and believed that they were up to no good. She also believed that most people felt the same way (personal communication, 12 February 2006). Teens in the US have received a bad rap in general, so it is clear that the challenges for homeless adolescents to reintegrate after a period of homelessness would be difficult. Roschelle and Kaufman (2004) found that homeless kids develop strategies to cope with stigma (p.24). Worpole (2003) studied how teenagers are viewed as a nuisance simply by hanging around in public spaces (p. 3). Other studies show that young people are more than a simple annoyance to adults, but have “identified that young people aged 11-18 are frequent users of their town and city centres making significant economic and social contributions to them” (Woolley, Dunn, Spencer, Short,
& Rowley, 1999, p. 288). The persistence of the negative perception that teens are miscreants is supported by popular culture, this researcher located an opinion blog entitled “Teenagers: Plague On My Life.” The blog solicited postings of hateful comments toward American adolescents between the ages of 11 and 24 (Maria & Margo,
12 Jun 2009)

25
State of California Profile
The state of California has an estimated 361,000 homeless people representing 1.1 percent of the population. This number was arrived at by combining the survey data collected by the “Continuum of Care” plans submitted to HUD by 33 counties (Quigley,
Raphael, & Smolensky, 2000). The Berkeley Program on Housing and Urban Policy
(2000), reported that this number is more than likely over inflated and cited service providers for producing higher estimated of homeless, while HUD produces lower numbers (Quigley, et al., 2000, p. 3). The warmer climate logically contributes to the states higher homeless population in comparison to the national figure of approximately one percent homeless (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2009).
San Joaquin County Profile
In order to satisfy federal funding the county’s Community Development
Department carries out one-day counts of the homeless. The 2005 count included 3,479 homeless people in the known homeless encampments and shelters. The 2007 count included only 2, 654 individuals. The disparity between the two counts is attributed to 1) weather and 2) variability and transitory nature of homeless individuals. The 2005 count was conducted in May when more people were comfortable setting up temporary living camps in unpopulated public areas. The 2007 count was conducted in January, which is considerably colder leaving it less likely to find homeless individuals in public spaces.
The anticipated homeless population for 2009 is considerably higher than the 2005 count owning to the increase in foreclosure rates, limited public assistance, and lack of affordable housing in the Stockton area. The difficulty in determining the extent of the

problem was discussed earlier in this literature review and continues to skew how the
26
TAY population is counted. The transitory nature of the TAY population coupled with
HUD’s refusal to acknowledge “couch surfing” as a qualifying homeless person leaves homeless late adolescents without the public recognition they need (HUD, 2005).
The daily count of homeless adolescents in San Joaquin County is estimated at
130 to 240 youth on the streets. Arriving at this number was accomplished by combining known local statistics with national totals then estimating the percentage presumed homeless adolescents (CCYFC, 1990; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2005; SJC Sheriff,
2006). The director of Youth and Clinical Services at Family and Youth Services of San
Joaquin County estimates a more accurate number of homeless adolescents would be upwards of 600 youth in the county (personal interview, Newlin, 11 Jan. 2009). These youth would not easily be found or counted on the streets and are included in the displaced youth that are known to jump from house to house with no permanent place to call home. Reaching these youth is achieved through word of mouth and is not typically accomplished by public agencies. The culture of the homeless adolescent population has a strong distrust of support agencies and resists using these services for fear of being turned in to law enforcement or returned home (Bridgman, 2001, p. 788; Ulager et al.,
2005, p. 134; Peled et al. 2005, p. 258).
History of Hope
In the United States of America there are deep rooted ideas of hope that are embedded in the culture that still influence how people experience hope. The Western concept of hope can be traced back to its origins in Greek mythology when Pandora’s

27 box was opened to unleash pain, suffering, and sadness into the world. The lid was closed in time to leave only hope hanging on the lip of the box (Snyder, 2001, p. 205). Hope was seen as a negative fruitless anguish, which was experienced only by people who did not accept their station in life. In this belief system when a person has hope, they focus on what they lack instead of what they already possess. Thus, as that person is hopeful for a better future, they have to contain the dichotomy of ideas that compels them to accept what is bad in their current situation, which detracts from finding life’s beauty in the present. However, even in the worst of circumstances, a person can find something worth valuing and appreciating. Viktor Frankl (1959) talked about the value of hope in his experience in Auschwitz. He was keenly aware of the devastation perpetrated on him and millions of others in the prison camps of Nazi Germany, yet he found small occurrences to be grateful about. A pleasant interaction with another prisoner, an extra piece of bread bestowed upon him by a guard, a work detail that was less brutal on the body, a tender memory of his wife, or a smile when their was truly nothing to smile about (Frankl,
1959). These small reminders of humanity reignited a shred of hope in a hopeless situation, which helped him rise above the suffering and ultimately find purpose in the experience of suffering. With out this suffering, Frankl would not have been able to experience the depth of hope, joy and love that carried him through the inhumanity of war.
Religion is a factor in how hope impacts belief systems in modern society. Saint
Sophia, Mother of wisdom, had three daughters named, Faith, Hope and Charity. They were believed to be virgin martyr’s who were executed for their belief that Jesus of

28
Nazareth was the Son of God, therefore God himself (Catholic encyclopedia, 1913). This story helped to establish the core values in Christian tradition of faith, hope, and charity.
The apostle Paul writes about these virtues in the letter to the Corinthians, which is one of the most well known books in the bible (New American Bible, 1 Corinthians, 13:12). The relationship hope has with faith has been grounded in historically accepted knowledge in this religion (Lane Fox, 1989). Hope is required in order to have a measure of faith in a supreme being that loved “His” obedient followers. An emphasis on “His” in the
Christian tradition denotes God in a male/fatherly position promulgating the patriarchal society that was established, subordinating and even despising women (Lane Fox, 1989, p. 372). This required women to submit to the Patriarchal authority to achieve the promise of hope in an afterlife.
Evangelical Christians entice new members to join them with the idea of a loving hope in an utopian after life (Volf &Katerberg, 2004). In the Lutheran tradition, “Hope means to expect life in the midst of death, and righteousness in the midst of sins”
(Zachman, 2005, p. 9). Sin and death would be perceived as negative, but when coupled with hope of God’s forgiveness, they may conceptually become positive avenues that bring one closer to God in the Christian tradition. The general perception of hope has a positive value among older, more established Christian denominations, manifested in a belief that portrays a paradise in the afterlife (Lane Fox, 1989). In the Church of Later
Day Saints hope is promised in the eternal Christ (Foster, 1998). In more recent protestant denominations, such as the Unitarian Church, hope can be manifested in the present as well (Grant, 2007).

29
Although there are some recently established denominations that allow hope as a possibility in the present, hope inherently has a future dimension that draws attention away from the present to focus on the unknown outcome of tomorrow’s possibilities. The
Eschatological perspective posits the future to be better than the past by “...expos[ing] what is negative in the actual present and what is positive in the desirable future”
(Cousins, 1972, p. 46). When a person has the ability to visualize a happy positive future, they are more apt to foster strong internal hope. A feeling in the heart that the positive vision held of the future is possible denotes higher hope. When a person is not able to hold a vision of the future in the mind that transcends a traumatic present, lack of hope is indicated (p. 44).
Hope, as a coping strategy is a construct worthy of note in this literature review.
Since homeless late adolescent hope levels are presumed low at the onset of this survey and the population under study is not homogeneous, it is necessary to look at the variation in the use of hope among different gender and ethnicities. In a patriarchal society looking at gender differences in hope may increase understanding the role of hope when a power differential exists. Snyder (1999) found no gender difference in hope levels
(p. 218, Snyder, Hoza, Pelham, Rapoff, Ware, Danovsky, Highberger, Rubinstein, &
Stahl, 1997, p. 419). A study testing hope in Mexican American adolescents showed no difference in hope levels between male and female participants (Edwards, Ong, Shane, &
Lopez, 2007, p. 227). The research on racial differences conducted by Snyder (1999), did not uncover any significant differences in hope across racial samples (p. 218). African
American, Caucasian, Hispanics, and Native American students studied showed little

variation in level of hope. However, Asian participants hope levels were consistently
30 lower than other ethnicities. Snyder concluded that more research is needed to determine if hope levels truly differ among ethnicities (Snyder, 1999, p.218). Culture is another complex variable impacting an individual’s hope level, which is outside of the scope of this literature review.
Recognizing the contribution attachment theory has on the connection with hope and attachment in early childhood development is a strong starting point in understanding hope’s initial construct. The first experience an individual has with hope is a result of the interaction with their primary care taker (Amini, Lannon, & Lewis, 2001, p. 75). This concept will be discussed later in the section on attachment theory.
Hope and Stressful Life Events
Coping with stressful life events in the present can be ameliorated with a hopeful perspective. When coping with life threatening illnesses high hope has been essential in adjusting to living with the limitations of the illness (Synder, 1999, p. 215). This may not be the case if the severity of the illness is imminently terminal (p. 215). A spiritual belief in an afterlife may continue to offer high hope in individuals in this category, but “hope theory posits that hope diminishes when enduring and profound goal impediments are encountered” (p. 215). A low hope person may be derailed permanently upon encountering an obstacle in which they cannot come up with an alternative pathway to achieve their goal. A high hope person may perceive an obstacle as a challenge to overcome and find several other pathways to accomplish their goal. Finding more than one way to alleviate the stress induced by life change events is more common in high

31 hope individuals than in low hope individuals (Snyder, 1999, pp. 221-222). It is difficult to figure out more than one solution to a problem when an individual is overwhelmed with simply subsisting. When homeless youth in survival mode are attempting to overcome difficulties by using the limited skill set they have (ex: run, fight, or freeze) and it does not work, they are more prone to give up and feel hopeless. On the other hand, an individual with many experiences of facing adversity and conquering them would look at a problem as an opportunity or a challenge to excel.
Anxiety and depression are common symptoms experienced by youth who have had negative life events or trauma (Canty-Mitchell, 2001; Cheavens, 2000, p. 321-340;
Xiaojia, Natsuaki, Neiderhiser, &Reiss, 2009, p. 623). Hope is at play with these individuals by bolstering their perceived self-identity in the face of threats. When trauma occurs it interrupts an adolescents identity formation causing doubt and uncertainty about the self and self’s role in the trauma (Snyder & Ford, 1987, p. 286). Coping with negative life events can bring about the anxiety (a focus on other’s opinions) and depression (focus on one’s character flaws), which are incorporated into the self, disrupting the normative development of identity in adolescents (p. 287).
This positive experience of hope is the ingredient that appears to be important in people with a strong sense of self or self-esteem. Hope was reported to predict subjective well-being even after controlling for parenting styles, attachment, and social support
(Shorey & Lewin, 2001, p. 3). When a person cognitively knows as well as feels that things will be okay even when faced with a dire circumstance, hope is at work. Knowing that things are okay even when they are not is possible in a high self-esteem individual,

32 because of past positive experience with overcoming obstacles. A belief in self and one’s ability to rise above difficulty demonstrates hope in action. Terms used in Hope Theory describes the belief as “pathways thinking” and knowing the action needed to move beyond is referred to as “gateway thinking,” then agency is the motivation needed to take the action (Snyder, 2001). With pathways thinking a sort of positive connotation can be applied, lending itself to being hopeful in developing future goals. The gateway thought demonstrates the ability to develop the steps needed to accomplish the desired goal.
Having agency denotes motivation to accomplish goals, which propel an individual forward to complete the desired goal and continue the positive thinking that ushers in the incorporation of goals toward graduated aspirations.
Homeless youth with backgrounds involving childhood sexual abuse have a diminished future time perspective (Jones Johnson, Rew, & Weylin Sternglanz, 2006, p.
230). This may be an obstacle in improving hopeful outcomes in youth with sexual trauma in their personal history. These young people are more susceptible to further abuse on the streets and risky sexual behavior that put them further at risk (Jones
Johnson, et al., 2006, p. 231; Feldmann & Middleman, 2003). It is difficult to break away from this maladaptive pattern of risky behavior to conceive of future goals toward graduated aspirations. Since sexual abuse is one of the factors contributing to adolescent homelessness, assessment at the shelter should involve questions to uncover this issue. Its impact on hope levels can be connected to a weak self-concept (Jones Johnson et. al.,
2006, p.230), which may lead to an inability to use future oriented thinking to set personal goals. See section on adolescent development for a discussion on future

33 orientation and development of self-identity in adolescence. Conceiving of self is a process that begins through the stages of adolescent growth (Erikson, 1963).
Hope Theory
Miller developed an instrument to measure hope as a result of working in a medical setting with patients coping with terminal illness. Miller discovered that patients with high hope were better equipped than those who succumbed to depression and despair when faced with end of life news. Miller (1988) describes hope as “a state of being characterized by an anticipation for a continued good state, an improved state or a release from a perceived entrapment. The anticipation may or may not be founded on concrete, real world evidence. Hope is an anticipation of a future which is good and is based upon: mutuality (relationships with others), a sense of personal competence, coping ability, psychological well-being, purpose and meaning in life, as well as a sense of ‘the possible’”(Miller, 1988, p. 6).
C. R. Snyder and colleagues (2000) define hope as, A positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways (planning to meet goals). A cognitive set that is based on a reciprocally-derived sense of successful agency (goal-directed determination) and pathways (planning to meet goals) (Snyder, 2000, p. 8).
Snyder developed a theory that concretely demonstrates how hope assists an individual in overcoming obstacles. Snyder believed that to identify hope in individuals it was necessary to break it down into functional processes. The processes involved include gateway, pathway, and agentic

thinking that build on one another to maintain hope and continue the motivation toward
34 goal achievement (Snyder, 1999, p. 207).
Adolescence
The period of human development referred to as adolescence includes ages as young as eleven and as old as twenty four. Hutchison (2003) describes adolescent development in Dimensions of Human Behavior as characterized by three transitional stages. The early stage (11-14) brings changes including puberty and a desire to distance from family culture and tradition (p. 274). In the middle stage (15-17) puberty is complete, appearance changes and identity formation begins (p. 261). A heightened sense of social connections and decision-making increases stress and/or confidence (Erikson,
1963). The late stage (18-24) normally shows formal operational thought and a continuation of identity development. At this point internalized morality is firmly in place coupled with a renewed interest in family culture and tradition (p. 263). However, prior to adolescence, ego strengths as theorized by Erikson (1968) require a sequential and hierarchical achievement of mastery in order to internalize a healthy value system
(Markstrom, Sabino, Turner, & Berman, 1997, p. 706). Hope emerges from “trust verses mistrust” in infancy, will emerges from “autonomy verses shame/doubt,” purpose from
“initiative verses guilt” in early childhood, competence emerges from “industry verses inferiority” during latency, then fidelity emerges from “identity verses identity confusion” in adolescence, and finally love emerges from “intimacy verses isolation” in young adulthood. The four psychosocial stages leading up to adolescence involve a crisis and the internalization of ego strengths as permanent traits (p. 707). During adolescence

one of the primary goals is to establish the “self,” as apart from the family. Family conflict is normal during the adolescence stage and is usually centered on daily routines
35
(DeGeorge, 2009, p. 1). Adopting and maintaining values that were actively or passively imparted in the family of origin helps to negotiate the “self”. Values are systematically accepted or rejected through challenging morals and beliefs with family and peers (p. 1).
During this process of trying out new and old values, an adolescent internalizes a set of values and beliefs of their own (Perkins, 2009, p.2; Erikson, 1968).
Adolescent Identity Formation
Following a normative path is difficult if not impossible for a homeless adolescent and may result in the need to cope with disruptions in their identity formation due to the instability of relationships with family and peers (Erikson, 1968). Thus, facing major conflict within that system, may impact adolescent development more intensely. The nature of the contributing factors to homelessness (i.e. familial conflict, history of physical and/or sexual abuse, substance use of youth and/or parents, school drop out, early and risky sexual behavior, incarceration of youth and/or parents, mental health problems, and unemployment) as stated in Chapter One, supports the assertion that without a sense of self and a consciously adopted internalized value system, homeless late adolescents are ill equipped to successfully transition into adulthood. The need to adopt a street culture in place of the family culture (Auerswald & Eyre, 2002), the use of defensive mechanisms in place of positive coping skills (Mounier & Andujo, 2003), and the physical and sexual abuse history, which led to vulnerability of abuse on the streets

are all factors that interfere with the normative developmental process (Feldmann, &
36
Middleman, 2003; Irwig, 1996).
Adolescent Mental Illness
Mental illness is another contributing factor that may cause an interruption in the successful maturation process of the homeless adolescent (Whitbeck, 2004, p. 331). The prevalence of mental illness among homeless adolescents is approximately forty five to fifty six percent (Burt, 2007, p. 5). Smart and Walsh (1993) studied predictors of depression in homeless adolescents and concluded that low self-esteem was the primary predictor of depression and youth who spent more time in shelters had lower self-esteem
(p. 6). While this study established that depression co-occurred as a result of the life changing event of homelessness, it did not account for the presence of depression before an adolescent left home. Non-homeless teenagers face runaway depression and anxiety more than in previous generations (Gall, 2008). However, homeless use report physical abuse as one of the leading causes for youth to leave home 46%, followed by sexual abuse at 17% (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2006, p.1). Jones Johnson, Rew, and
Weylin Sternglanz (2006) reported that homeless youth leaving home due to physical and sexual abuse “experience more problems with depression, inappropriate sexual behavior, low self-esteem, …and suicide attempts/threats…” than their housed counter parts (p.
224). The existence of low self-esteem in homeless adolescents combined with depression leads to a higher suicide risk (Kidd, 2004, p. 38).
…it is estimated by the state of California that as many as 76,889 transitional age youth “TAY” ages 18-24, are not receiving needed mental health services to aid

them in their recovery. When the mental health needs of a group of people like
37
TAY who are developmentally in the midst of learning who they are and how they fit into the world, are overlooked, these young people endure a double threat to reaching their full potential as human beings… (National Alliance on Mental
Illness, [NAMI], 2009).
Development Theory
Erikson developed the eight-stage psychosocial development theory, which also addresses identity formation. In the adolescent stage the task is identity verses role diffusion (Erikson, 1963). Marcia expanded upon this theory when he explained the different possible paths that youth take within this stage (Marcia, 1966; Marcia, 1993, p.
102). He found that youth experience this stage on a continuum which ranges from strong sense of identity to a diffused identity. Homeless adolescents are most likely to be in the
Moratorium phase of identity formation which consists of a continuous exploration of identity by means of trying out new experiences, but not making a commitment to any aspect of exploration (Bergh, 2005, p. 2). Thus, this late adolescent population may be even more likely to have a diffused identity following the trauma and uncertainty of leaving the family of origin for life on the streets (Marcia, 1993, p. 111). This phase of identity formation is characterized by a lack of commitment to explore or ability to entertain cognitions toward or contributing to a discussion on the subject of identity formation (Bergh, 2005, p . 2). These homeless youth do not engage in thinking about their identity in relation to their family of origin, instead they focus on survival and developing street smarts also known as survival skills (Mounier & Andujo, 2003, p.

1197). This shift in cognitive attention into survival mode becomes a pseudo identity in
38 and of itself. Thus, life as a homeless late adolescent has a profound affect on the formation of an individual’s identity and interrupts the normal maturation process.
Brain Development
The adolescent brain is not fully developed until the age of twenty four
(Promislow & Bugbee, 2001; Brain Development Cooperative Group & Evans, 2005;
ACT, 2002; Williamson, 2005; Casey, Tottenham, Liston & Durston, 2005; & Spear,
2000). The brain develops from back to front starting with the cerebellum, which controls physical coordination. The amygdala, where extreme emotions are emanating develops next followed by the nucleus acumbens, which is responsible for motivation. Finally, the prefrontal cortex can function as a referee that is responsible for judgment and reasoning
(Brain Development Cooperative Group & Evans, 2005; Partnership for a drug-free
America, 2007). Until an adolescent turns twenty five their brain is going through a pruning process similar to the process that occurs during the toddler stage of development. The teen brain efficiently discards neural connections that are not used and strengthens the connections it has used (National Institute of Mental Health, [NIMH],
2001).
Future Orientation
An adolescent develops a sense of the future through forming a self-identity based on the type of environment that stemmed from his/her family of origin. The cognitive ability to look into the future and imagine a future self is fully developed by the middle of adolescence. The abstract thought required to imagine the future is a skill that allows

39 hypothetical behaviors to be considered when assessing potential future outcomes
(Hutchison, 2003, p. 265).
Attachment Theory
Attachment in early childhood plays an intricate role in a youth’s ability to move through the developmental stages of adolescence. “Almost two decades after birth, a host of academic, social, and personal variables correlate with the kind of mother who gazed down at her child in the cradle” (Amini, Lannon, & Lewis, 2001, p. 75). The lack of a secure relationship with a primary caregiver as a child, or an interruption in a previously secure attachment with that caregiver has a negative impact on a person once they reach adolescence (Bartholomew, 1994, p. 23; Shorey, Snyder, Yang, & Lewin, 2003, p. 686).
The resulting non-secure attachment affects a person’s ability to hope, which should develops normally through meeting the daily needs of an infant as they learn explore their world. Most children who are exposed to adversity do well, however those who do not, may have difficulties throughout their lives (O’Connell, 2008, p. 100). Reactive
Attachment Disorder “RAD” is found in youth who have been denied a secure attachment from birth (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4 th
ed.)
Text Revision [DSM IV-TR], 2007, p. 127). There are inhibited type and disinhibited type youth with RAD. In the inhibited type an individual has disturbances in social relatedness and fails to initiate or respond in a developmentally appropriate way. This lack of appropriate social interaction which resulted from attachment problems continues into adolescence and interferes in a youth’s ability to have healthy interdependent relationships (Amini, Lannon, & Lewis, 2001). This same problem manifests in the

disinhibited type, however the attachment to others is indiscriminant where by no selectivity is employed in relation to encounters with new people (DSM IV-TR, 2007,
40 p.128). The DSM IV-TR (2007) caveats that no direct link between RAD and antisocial or other personality disorders are known, but disturbances in early years may increase the risk for other disorders later in life (p. 130). A study to assess attachment in late adolescents conducted by Cowan & Cowan (2005) identified that the quality of couple relationships in an adolescents’ family of origin is a good predictor of the quality of relationships a late adolescent develops (p. 285).
The amount of closeness within the mother child attachment is reported as a buffer against depression in adolescents (Xiaojia, Natsuaki, Neiderhiser, & Reiss, 2009, p. 633). Establishing individual working models of attachment for each caregiver as a child develops is the starting point of social connectedness (Dykas & Cassidy, 2007, p.
42). An adolescent grows into adulthood through interacting with family and peers to figure out who they are and who they want to become. The impact parents’ affect has on an adolescent is powerful. Paley, Conger, and Harold (2000) studied adolescents over one year to determine if parents’ negative affect had an impact on an adolescent’s social interactions. They found that parental affect expressed toward adolescents has a direct impact on adolescent social behavior for both mothers and fathers (p.772). Disruptive negative interactional patterns may be traced back to the perceived regard from parents.
Rekart, Mineka, Zinbarg and Griffith (2007) concluded that emotional disorders in adolescents have a link to an individual’s perception of lack of control over the environment (p.431). Attachment in early childhood predicts “…the feelings of

41 uncontrollability, lower mastery, and helplessness, and difficulties feeling secure in interpersonal relationships in adolescence (p. 432). Attachment beyond adolescence were studied and Dinero, Conger, Shaver, Widaman, and Larsen-Rife (2008) found that the quality of parent-child interaction during adolescence predicts attachment style in adults
(p.630). This literature demonstrated the strength of attachment from birth through the adolescent years.
Summary
In this review of the literature this researcher attempted to define the homeless late adolescent population using available statistics to guesstimate the scope of the problem. Further more the research broadened the understanding of the many pathways adolescents’ take into homelessness. The need for refining how we count the homeless transitional age youth population was discussed in relation to funding programs to help this disenfranchised group. Hope was explored to understand its historical significance in human behavior grounded in western culture through religion and psychology. Hope’s role in assisting an adolescent transition into adulthood was the focus of this research.
This researcher explored how hope develops in an individual to understand its function during adolescence. Then the phase of life described as adolescence and its theoretical frameworks were defined to explain how identity and attachment play a role in one’s ability to be hopeful.
.

Chapter 3
METHODS
This chapter discusses the use of exploratory study design coupled with a quantitative research instrument to further the understanding of hope levels among homeless late adolescents. Outlining the benefit of selecting this research method over others in an effort to accomplish the goal of this study, this section will cover the design
42 elements, the instrument, and method of data collection, method of data analysis, limitations and precautions taken to protect human subjects.
Research Question
What is the baseline of hope in the homeless late adolescent population who utilize the drop in shelter services in San Joaquin County, California?
Research Design
This exploratory study of hope among homeless late adolescents uses the Miller
Hope Scale “MHS” to collect quantitative data for analysis (Miller, 1988). This is a descriptive survey using a six point Likert scale. The questions assess three subcategories of hope, which include, a) satisfaction with self, others and life; b) avoidance of hope threats; and 3) anticipation of future (Miller, 1988). The Miller Hope Scale has been applied to a variety of populations with substantiated reliability and validity. Permission was obtained from Dr. Judith Fitzgerald Miller with the stipulation on this researcher to report internal reliability of the instrument upon conclusion of the study. The MHS was originally developed for use with cancer patients in medical settings to determine hope as

a factor in critical illness remission. This researcher determined that the scale is well suited for use with the homeless late adolescent population since there are surprising
43 similarities between this group and cancer patients. Each group has been forced to take stock of what is important and where they need to focus their energy to accomplish a stated goal (survival). Homeless youth face obstacles that continually appear to dash hopes of things getting better, where cancer patients experience the same set of emotions when faced with declining test results. In this way, low hope might serve the same function in each population.
The literature review uncovered that there are no specific data currently available that studied hope in this homeless late adolescent population. It was not feasible to attempt to answer other valid questions relating to improving hope in this population until a baseline of hope was established. “[Exploratory research] …is undertaken when little is known about the topic under study” (Marlow, 2005, p. 34). This led to the necessity of exploring this subject rather than attempting to establish causality. This research will be a springboard from which to address program development aimed at improving homeless late adolescents hope levels in future studies. The assumptions, as stated previously, are that an increased hope level will improve the homeless late adolescents’ chances at future success in transitioning into adulthood and obtaining permanent housing.
Study Variables
The stated purpose of this study is to assess hope levels among homeless late adolescents. The hope levels will be measured using the Miller Hope Scale (Miller,
1988). The scale operationalizes three subcategories helpful in assessing hope levels as

follows: a) satisfaction with self, others and life (Factor I); b) avoidance of hope threats
44
(Factor II); and 3) anticipation of future (Factor III). The use of the word “Factor” in the
MHS is not related to statistical factor analysis. Factor I consisted of 22 items with questions such as “I feel loved,” “I am Satisfied with my life,” and “I am flexible with life’s challenges” (Miller, 1988). Factor II consisted of 12 negative items requiring reverse scoring with questions such as “I am not interested in life,” “I feel trapped,” and
“I do not have inner strength” (Miller, 1988). Factor III consisted of 6 items including “I spend time planning for the future,” and “I value my freedom” (Miller, 1988). C. R.
Snyder’s Hope Theory will be applied to the data to make sense of how this measurement applies to the study population and the variable hope.
Instrumentation
The Miller Hope Scale was the instrument utilized in this research. It consisted of a series of forty statements with one of six responses requested, ranging from “strongly agree to “strongly disagree” with three choices in between. Several items require reverse scoring to minimize subjects anticipating the proper answer. As stated above Dr. Judith
Fitzgerald Miller, Associate Dean for Graduate Programs and Research at Marquette
University College of Nursing in Milwaukee, Wisconsin developed the instruments. This researcher obtained written permission to use the scale with stipulation on reporting findings at the conclusion of this study. “The instrument was critiqued by psychometric and content experts, content validity established and was pretested on 75 subjects.
Psychometric properties of the refined instrument were determined by studying 522

45 healthy adults” (Miller, 1988, p. 7). A copy of the instrument and permission letter to use in this research can be viewed in Appendices A and B.
Study Design
The population sampled for this study is homeless late adolescents between the ages of 16 through 21. These youth are either over eighteen or legally emancipated minors pursuant to California Family Code 7002 (State of California Law, 2009). The study participants are able to consent for themselves. This does not mean the researcher should include all participants if a professional determination is made that it may cause undue emotional harm. Precautions to maintain ethical standards and safety were employed by thoroughly covering the research purpose, methods and design when applying to the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects. “Federal regulations and court decisions intended to outline ethical conduct for researchers and clinicians do not provide clear guidelines for working with runaway and homeless youth” (Meade &
Slesnick, 2002, p.450). Protocol for the Protection of Human Subjects was followed and application submitted and approved at the “minimal risk” level. In order to reduce the risk associated with study participation the researcher used subjective determination to exclude individuals who were high-risk homeless late adolescents. This included those youth currently altered by street drugs and those in severe crisis, which included suicidality.
The sample was obtained using a convenience sampling composed of individuals who utilized the drop in services at Family and Youth Services of San Joaquin County.
This agency provides food and bathroom facilities to meet the immediate needs of the

adolescent homeless population. Twenty homeless late adolescents were asked to participate in a survey over the course of one year on “their thoughts about the future”
46
(personal communication, various dates). An informed consent was obtained and the participants were notified that they could opt out at any time. Subjects were also informed that they were welcome to no cost therapy if the survey elicited any negative feelings that they would like to talk about with a professional. A quiet therapy room was provided for each subject to remain undisturbed while filling out the survey.
Data Gathering Procedure
This researcher contacted the Director of Youth and Clinical Services at Family &
Youth Services of San Joaquin County (FAYS) (formerly: The Center For Positive
Prevention Alternatives (CPPA)) for permission to use the drop-in center population for research. After submitting a letter of intent to the Executive Director, permission was granted seen in Appendix C. Each subject was given a white 9 x 11 self-sealing envelope with a copy of the Consent to Participate as a Research Subject, a Demographics form, and the Miller Hope Scale seen in Appendix D and B. The researcher explained the procedure to each subject before collecting the signature page of the packet. The subject was instructed to anonymously enclose the MHS and the demographics page in the envelope for later analysis. The subject was instructed to keep the consent information sheet, which included contact information for the researcher, the thesis advisor overseeing this research at the University, and a no cost therapy appointment line.
The completed sealed envelopes were locked in a case in the office of the researcher located at Family and Youth Services of San Joaquin County (FAYS), 729 N.

California Street, Stockton, California, 95202. The data were analyzed using SPSS 13.5
47 for Mac OS X and graphpad.com a free web based statistical calculator. First the researcher coded each question and survey to arrive at a total hope score. Then assigning three subcategories to unique ranges of survey questions allowed the researcher to run tests on Factor I, Factor II, and Factor III, which further defined the type of hope the population employed. Descriptive statistics were run to explore the variables and identify any relationships among them. Further comparisons were run against three other studies mean scores that utilized the same instrument. Comparison studies were selected based on the demographics of the populations under study involving poverty, and cancer patients. The researcher determined that homelessness, poverty, and cancer diagnoses are all variables viewed as hopeless human conditions, thus making them suitable for comparison with the homeless late adolescent population in this research. The university students’ mean score, used by Miller to develop the instrument, will represent the normal population comparison.

Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Introduction
The intent of this study was to establish a baseline of hope in the homeless late adolescent population. This was accomplished by utilizing the Miller Hope Scale
“MHS,” which consisted of forty questions with scores ranging from 40 to 240. Lower scores indicated lower hope and higher scores equaled higher hope. The scale was then
48 divided into three subscales of satisfaction with self, others and life (Factor I); avoidance of hope threats (Factor II); and anticipation of future (Factor III). As stated in Chapter
Three the use of the word “Factor” in the MHS is not related to statistical factor analysis.
Factor I consisted of 22 items with questions such as “I feel loved,” “I am Satisfied with my life,” and “I am flexible with life challenges” (Miller, 1988). Factor II consisted of 12 negative items requiring reverse scoring including questions such as “I am not interested in life,” “I feel trapped,” and “I do not have inner strength” (Miller, 1988). Factor III consisted of 6 items including “I spend time planning for the future,” and “I value my freedom” (Miller, 1988). Additional demographic data were collected for age, education level, ethnicity, and housing. Gender was intentionally excluded from the data collection since the literature clearly demonstrated no differences in hope scores between male and female subjects (Snyder, Lopez, Shorey, Rand & Feldman, 2003, p127; Snyder, Hoza,
Pelham, Rapoff, Ware, Danovsky, Highberger, Rubinstein, & Stahl, 1997, p. 419;
Edwards, Ong, Shane, & Lopez, 2007, p. 227).

49
The number of participants was small and the group was not homogenous. A more appropriate sample would include more than 40 youth (n≥40+), however, locating large numbers of homeless late adolescents was prohibitive due to the invisibility of this subpopulation. Thus a convenience sample of twenty-one youth who were supplied surveys was obtained, but the researcher excluded one survey since it was not complete.
One of the stipulations to consent for participation was that if the subject did not want to finish the survey they could anonymously enclose it in the envelope, incomplete. The remaining twenty surveys were included in the statistical analyses (n=20). The sample size of (n=<30) is more likely to produce skewed results. The central limit theorem states that the larger the samples size the more likely results will follow a normal distribution
(Weinback & Grinnell, 2004). The results gleaned from this smaller sample n=20, is still applicable to the field of social work as it reflects the level of hope in one center, located in one county. The number of homeless adolescents in San Joaquin County, California is estimated from between 130-240 (CCYFC, 1990; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2005; San
Joaquin County Sheriff, 2006). The sample size of n=20, specifically for the Family and
Youth Services (FAYS) drop in center, was a convenience sample that may be representative of the local population using the mean number of homeless adolescents of approximately (M=185) arrived at by adding 130 plus 240, and dividing by 2. Then n=20 participants is approximately 11% of the homeless adolescent population in this county.
It took the researcher over one year to identify appropriate subjects in order to screen out
TAY who were altered by street drugs or severe mental illness. The results of this study point to the need for future research which is addressed in Chapter Five.

Descriptive statistics were run including frequency distributions, mean, median,
50 standard deviation, variance, and skewness, standard error of skewness, range, minimum and maximum scores were run on the participants’ mean score and sub-scales. Pearson’s correlations were computed to identify strength of the relationships between the variables. Further comparisons utilizing t-tests were run to compare the homeless transitional aged youth population to the African American rural southern adolescent youths’ mean hope score of (M=172.42), cancer patients’ mean score of (M=174.38), and university students’ mean hope score of (M=164.40) and finally Cronbach’s alpha was computed.
Demographics
The minimum age of all participants was 17 and the maximum age 20, with a range of 3 as seen in Table 1. As observed in Table 2, 5% of the subjects were 17 years old, 60% were 18, 15% were 19, and 20% were 20 years old.
Table 1
Age at Time of Survey Descriptive Statistics n
Mean
Std. Deviation
Valid
Missing
Variance
Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness
Kurtosis
Std. Error of Kurtosis
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Age
20
0
.889
.789
.750
20
.512
-.497
.992
3
17
18.50

51
Table 2
Frequency of Age at Time of Survey
Valid 17
18
Frequency
1
12
19 3
20 4
Total 20
Percent
5.0
60.0
15.0
20.0
100.0
Cumulativ e Percent
5.0
65.0
80.0
100.0
Data were collected on education, ethnicity and housing status. These are descriptive statistics presented via a nominal scale. Under the demographic of education, as demonstrated in Table 3, 50% of the subjects reported finishing “Some High School,” and 10% of the subjects left the education system while attending “Middle School.”
These two nominal categories can be combined and infer that 60% of the sample may be labeled as “drop outs”, while 40% of the subjects obtained a “High School Diploma or equivalent.”
Table 3
Frequency of Education
Frequency Percent
Valid Some High School 10
High School
8
Diploma/GED
Middle School 2
Total 20
50.0
40.0
10.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
50.0
90.0
100.0
The demographic of ethnicity was requested but not required. While 30% claimed
Caucasian, 25% claimed African American, 25% claimed Hispanic/Latino, and 20% declined to state an ethnicity as demonstrated in Table 4.

52
Table 4
Frequency of Ethnicity
Valid Caucasian
Black/African
American'
Hispanic/Latino
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent
6
5
5
16
4
20
30.0
25.0
25.0
80.0
20.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
37.5
68.8
100.0
All subjects lived in San Joaquin County, had no permanent housing, and used the drop in services at Family and Youth Services of San Joaquin County. The distributions of housing status for the study participants were homeless (living on the streets) or temporarily housed (couch surfing or in homeless shelters). As seen in Table 5, the study revealed with n=20, 5% of the sample was homeless and 95% were living in temporary housing accommodations.
Table 5
Frequency of Housing
Valid Temporary
Housing
Homeless
Total
Frequency
19
1
20
Percent
95.0
5.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
95.0
100.0
Scatterplots were created with Total Hope and each respective factor to reveal potential outliers and any curvilinear patterns. All three scatterplots demonstrate positive correlations. Factor I and Factor III have little residual from the regression line and thus strong correlation. Factor III contains an outlier which extends the range of the line

53 downward. Factor II revealed a truncated range and a weaker correlation. One participant reported lower hope scores on a survey which pulled the overall mean down. Due to the sample size this survey was included. One survey taker, # 14, scored lower on everything than everyone else. One survey taker, # 20, scored higher on everything than everyone else. See Appendices E, F, and G for Figures 1 – 3.
Data Analysis
A bivariate correlation was used to determine the relationship between the variables of Total Hope, Factor I, Factor II, and Factor III. To interpret the correlations in
Table 6, Cohen's (1988) conventions may be used. He stated that a correlation coefficient of .10 represents a weak association; a correlation coefficient of .30 is a moderate association; and a correlation coefficient of .50 or larger represents a strong correlation.
The results indicated that the strongest correlation (r =.961, p < .000) was for Total Hope and Factor I. The next largest correlation (r = .916, p < .000) was for Total Hope and
Factor III, which also represents a large association. The correlation for Total Hope and
Factor II (r = .662, p <. 001) trails behind the other two factors but is still within a large association. The correlation of Factor I and Factor III (r = .914, p <. .000) is very high, reflecting intercorrelation. Although the correlation of Factor I and Factor II (r = .443, p
<. 051) misses the .05 significance mark, it represents a moderate association. The smallest association is between Factor II and Factor III (r = .425, p <. 062),which represents a moderate association but not a significant finding. In all, the data represent a moderate to large positive association. These results demonstrate the strength of how well the individual factors relate to the total hope score.

54
Table 6
Correlations Matrix
T-HOPE
SCORE
FACTO
RI
FACTOR
II
FACTOR
III
TOTAL HOPE
SCORE
FACTOR I
FACTOR II
Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
FACTOR III Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) n
1
20
.961(**)
.000
20
.662(**)
.001
20
.916(**)
.961(**)
.000
20
1
20
.443
.051
20
.914(**)
.000
.000
20 20
.662(**)
.001
20
.443
.051
20
1
20
.425
.062
20
.916(**)
.000
20
20
.425
1
20
.914(**)
.000
.062
20
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Next, t-tests were run to compare the mean and standard deviation of the homeless late adolescents’ total hope score from this research (M=177.4, SD=37.72) with cancer patients from McGill’s study (M=174.38, SD=23.02), university student norm sample from Miller (M=164.46, SD=16.31) and African American rural southern adolescents from Hendricks’ study (M=172.57, SD=32.40) as seen in Table 7 (McGill,
1993; Hendricks, 1993; Miller, 1988). The study populations appear to be opposite from the anticipated finding, resulting in homeless TAY having the highest mean total hope score, next to cancer patients. The rural southern adolescents’ total hope score was next, followed by healthy university students with the lowest total hope score.

55
Table 7
A Comparison of the Long, McGill, Hendricks, and Miller Studies
Long’s McGill’s Hendrick’s
Study Study Study n=20 n=81 n=1004
Means Means Means
Miller Hope
Scale/
Subscales
Possible
Range
Scale/
Subscale
Item
Scale/
Subscale
(Std.Dev)
Scale/
Subscale
(Std.Dev)
Scale/
Subscale
(Std.Dev)
Hope
Factor I
(Satisfaction with Life)
Subscale
40-240
1-6
22-132
1-6
177.4
(37.72)
99.6
(24.97)
174.38
(23.02)
Not
Available
172.57
(32.40)
97.64
(19.20)
Factor II
(Avoidance of Hope
Threats)
Subscale
Factor III
(Anticipatio n of Future)
Subscale
12-72
1-6
6-36
1-6
48.05
(11.09)
34.55
(8.3)
Not
Available
Not
Available
48.6
(11.55)
28.11
(6.12)
Miller’s
Study n=522
Means
Scale/
Subscale
(Std.Dev)
164.46
(16.31)
Not
Available
Not
Available
Not
Available
The two-tail t-test which compared homeless late adolescents with Miller’s university students’ norm group is considered to be statistically significant with a p value of 0.0013 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 5.10 to 20.78. This means the highest hope group and the lowest hope group are significantly different. The p value of African

56
American rural southern adolescents ( p ≤ 0.5107) and McGill’s cancer patients
(p<0.6489) were not considered statistically significant, see Table 8.
Table 8
Comparison t-tests Between Long’s Homeless TAY and:
McGill’s Study Hendrick’s Study Miller’s Study p value 0.6489 0.5107 0.0013 t-test df
0.4567
99
Std. error of df 6.612
0.6580
1022
7.341
3.2428
540
3.990
Table 9 reports descriptive statistics on the mean (M=177.40), median 185.00, standard deviation (SD =37.72), variance 1422.67, skewness -1.009, standard error of skewness
0.512, minimum score 81.00 and maximum 228.00 with a range of 147.00. The data had a slightly negative skew, which was consistent with both of the comparison populations.
Factor II is slightly platykurtic, Factor III is more leptokurtic and Factor I and TOTAL
HOPE have normal kurtosis. Over all there were no major problems with kurtosis in this data sample. The negative skew found in this study is consistent with the negative skew in the three comparison groups. Cronbach’s alpha measures validity and reliability across populations under study. The content validity for this study resulted in an alpha = .94, which was consistent with McGill’s alpha = .95, Hendricks alpha = .92, and Miller’s alpha = .93 respectively. This research study has reliably reported hope in the homeless late adolescent subpopulation.

57
Table 9
Total Hope Score Descriptive Statistics n Valid
Missing
Mean
Median
Std. Deviation
Variance
Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness
Kurtosis
Std. Error of Kurtosis
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Overall Findings
20
0
177.4000
185.0000
37.71835
1422.674
-1.009
.512
.974
.992
147.00
81.00
228.00
The major finding of the analysis was that this homeless late adolescent population reported high hope scores on the MHS. Interestingly, there was no significant difference between the mean score of the TAY sample as compared to the African
American rural southern adolescents or the cancer patients.
An unexpected result of this study was that the homeless late adolescent population scores were significantly higher than the healthy university student norm population comparison group. This result contradicts an anticipated finding that assumed homeless late adolescents of this study would have low hope scores. A more indepth discussion of this result is explanation in
Chapter Five.

58
Chapter 5
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Significant Findings
After the researcher analyzed all of the data, it became clear that hope alone is not the ingredient that promotes successful outcomes. The assumptions of the study were not supported and this researcher believes that future studies should consider alternative variables when exploring the traits of homeless late adolescents and successful outcomes.
It is possible that the reason there is so little research published on this topic is due to negative findings. These homeless late adolescents in this study have statistically higher hope scores than Miller’s study of healthy university students (Miller, 1988).
Additionally, the African American rural southern adolescents (Hendricks, 2005) and cancer patients (McGill, 1993) reported lower hope scores compared to the homeless transitional age youth “TAY” scores. Homeless TAY have higher hope than all of the three comparison study groups, yet are not motivated to achieve their positive vision of the future. Thus, they remain homeless while being hopeful. Making sense of the data was challenging, resulting in the researcher giving consideration to a variety of reasons for the outcome.
The idea of false hope comes into play here, acting as a protective buffer against the reality of homeless youths’ dire circumstances. This false hope is an extreme positive delusion (Shorey, Snyder, Rand, Hockemeyer, & Feldman, 2002). In the review of literature, Mounier et al. (2003) described ego-defenses that employ denial and other mechanisms to protect the “self” from a painful reality. This form of resiliency prevents

59 homeless late adolescents from honestly admitting hopelessness to them selves or others.
Coupled with the street culture of identifying as an “outsider,” these homeless TAY may unconsciously sabotage their own progress by denying that they might have problems which they cannot solve internally. The street culture imbues homeless TAY with power in an “us against them” mentality, blaming society for their circumstance and their rejection of assimilation into the larger community (Auerswald et al., 2002). The findings suggest further research to investigate which traits in homeless late adolescents would be useful in guiding successful outcomes, such as transitioning into adulthood with permanent housing.
Important Findings
The lack of significance found in comparison to the rural southern adolescent group indicates that possibly adolescents have higher hope in general in comparison to healthy adults. The internal validity for the rural southern adolescent population was established by reducing the number of questions on the Miller Hope Scale “MHS”
(Miller, 1988). The study cited length of survey as problematic in the early adolescent sample age 11-14. This researcher determined that the homeless late adolescent population fit closer to the age of the healthy adult populations studied and kept all forty questions on the survey. In retrospect, maybe the revised MHS would have been a more reliable instrument for the subpopulation of homeless late adolescents in this study. The use of the FAYS drop in center where emergency services are provided may have created an atmosphere of urgency and not been conducive to the contemplative inquiry required to complete the survey instrument. However, the mean total hope score for the elderly

60 cancer patients in McGill’s study, were even higher than the early adolescents’ mean total hope score from Hendrick’s study. This finding reduces the likelihood that age has an impact on hope scores.
Snyder’s Hope Theory
Snyder found that high hope correlates to positive future orientation (Snyder, et. al. 2003). Positive future orientation is correlated to strong self-esteem (Shorey, et al.,
2007). Homeless late adolescents have high hope and positive future aspirations, but very low self esteem. What explains this? One quality of high hope youth involves the ability to develop several pathways to overcome obstacles. This is not the case for the homeless
TAY population in this study who were simply subsisting. In fact, the contrary appears to be true. Many TAY who utilize the drop in center at Family and Youth Services of San
Joaquin County “FAYS” do not have the capacity to envision an alternative solution to a problem they are facing. They get “stuck” once an obstacle is encountered and excuses replaced problem solving strategies.
Applying Snyder and colleagues’ (2000) definition of hope, which is a positive motivational state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful goaldirected energy and planning to meet those goals. A cognitive set that is based on a reciprocally-derived sense of successful goal-directed determination and planning to meet goals. Both components are required for hope to manifest in changed behavior. Snyder’s theory concretely demonstrates how hope assists an individual in overcoming obstacles.
Breaking it down into functional processes gives some credence to the need for future research on other traits that inspire successful outcomes in the homeless TAY population.

61
Snyder further describes processes of gateway, pathway, and agentic thinking that build on one another to maintain hope and continue the motivation toward goal achievement
(1999). The key ingredient here may actually be the continued motivation toward goal achievement. This explains the lack of published research correlating hope and successful outcomes in the adolescent population. Without motivation, hope appears to be a mere cognitive and emotive process with no power to effect a change in behavior.
According to Hope Theory, the homeless TAY population appear to have half of the ingredients needed for successful outcomes; homeless TAY have high hope, but lack the impetus to achieve. Taylor, et al. addressed this lack of motivation resulting in the absence of an individual’s purpose or mission for some long term goal (2004). Based on the results of Factor III (anticipation of future) in this research, homeless late adolescents had plenty of long-term positive aspirations, but appear to lack the know how to obtain them. While sitting under a bridge a young person can be perfectly comfortable dreaming about a better future and have no motivation to develop the steps (pathways) to achieve that better future (agency) (Snyder, 2000). Since motivation was outside of the scope of this research, this researcher cannot draw conclusions that link motivation and hope in the homeless TAY subjects.
Spurious Variable
There is another possible explanation to understand why homeless late adolescents have such high mean total hope scores. Marlowe-Crowne’s (1964) Social
Desirability Scale “SDS” could be utilized to determine discriminate evidence for validity with the TAY population. The unusually high mean total hope score may be the

62 result of subjects responding in a socially desired way verses honest self-appraisals. The protective mechanisms in place in homeless late adolescents may have led them to reply in a manner that will be viewed favorably by the researcher. At the onset of the study, the researcher determined that establishing trust with the youth before inviting them to participate in the survey would guard against fictitious responses. This precaution was taken to protect against fabrication, but may have produced the opposite result. The researcher observed that the youth were eager to engage and consistently initiated contact. The TAY subjects may have been trying to please the researcher after a positive rapport had been established.
Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary psychology attempts to explain human traits as an adaptation to achieve primary functions. The first function is to ward off predators and protect self from harm and the second function is to attract a mate for procreation. The harm experienced can involve psychological anxiety and not simply the threat of physical harm. When homeless late adolescents adapts to their environment, their world view has to conform to the situation.
Evolutionary psychologists…ask people what they are doing and why they are doing it, although, such self-reporting is often unreliable. This isn’t necessarily bad; even such unreliability can tell us something interesting about human motivations and our capacity for self-deception (McNeill, 2009).
Denial is used as a protective mechanism to shield the homeless TAY from their harsh reality and to make life palatable when situations begin to become overwhelming. The

brain must accommodate to make sense of and accept the situation, thus perpetuating
63 homelessness. When a belief is held that there is no way to change the situation, they adapt. Denial is used not simply as an ego defense mechanism, but in order to subsist in unlivable or dangerous conditions. This function is unconscious and the trait ensures survival (Baily & Gillespie, (2002). Disassociating is used in the same fashion. A homeless late adolescent may face abuse on the streets, but mentally they escape by disassociating (mentally leaving the situation) while their physical presence remains
(Tyler, Causce, & Whitbeck, 2004). Homeless late adolescents create an internal world that derives safety and security from fantasy while physically existing without either.
Having high hope can be a result of adaptation to a turbulent environment.
Limitations
The young people’s complex emotional issues they have resulting from their pathways into homelessness interfere with subjective reporting in this study. The MHS, while appropriate for adult populations, may not be the best instrument to assess hope in homeless late adolescents. The inherent limitations of survey data are subjectivity, inaccuracy due to outright lying, misunderstanding of the question, the placebo effect, and responses based on social desirability (Heffner, 2001; Marlowe, & Crowne, 1964).
Even though the researcher took precautions to reduce these limitations, they still appeared to have a noticeable impact on the data collected. The higher than expected mean hope score results contradicts observations made by the researcher. In the course of building rapport with the homeless late adolescents’, this researcher observed that many of the subjects demonstrated behavior that would support a lack of hope such as, refusing

64 to practice personal care activities. Many made statements that further support the hypothesis, admitting that “it’s no use, I’m not going to get a job anyway”(anonymous, personal communication, September 2, 2009), or “I’ve never had a Christmas, why bother expecting one now”(anonymous, personal communication, September 10, 2009), and “I don’t care if you do care, it doesn’t change anything”(anonymous, personal communication, September 15, 2009) are a few examples of the expressions of hopelessness. The sample size was small and would have produced more generalizable results with n≥40 subjects.
Implications
The literature review also uncovered problems with forecasting and reporting the scope of homelessness among late adolescents. Securing funding for services and housing based on speculation doesn’t seem appropriate in the current economic climate.
Government dollars as well as private donor dollars are disappearing and without hard facts, funding programs to serve invisible populations will be nearly impossible. As demonstrated in the literature review, with home foreclosures reaching record numbers and unemployment skyrocketing, it seems logical to create alternative methods for projecting current and future homelessness of late adolescent. Advocating for services for this population should start with identifying the true scope of the problem. As a start towards accurately identifying the number of homeless adolescents’, it is necessary to begin recording demographic information including age during homeless counts. Survey takers will need to always remain cognizant that many homeless adolescents lie about their age to avoid encounters with law enforcement and Child Protective Services. Once

the TAY population is more accurately identified, providing for this disenfranchised populations’ need requires an increase in joint collaborations with experts from several
65 disciplines in order to create more comprehensive services.
Relevance To Social Work
In the field of social work, professionals working with the homeless late adolescent subpopulation face challenges when looking for the causes of habitual homelessness. Researching the impact of a variety of factors in an effort to eradicate the problem takes time and money. This study clearly demonstrates that hope alone is not going to help lift these youth out of homelessness, negating the need for future research specifically on hope and homelessness in this population. Social work professionals use an Ecological perspective to view clients and help them move from crisis to stasis. As this perspective looks at interactions of an individual with systems on the micro, meso, exo, and macro systems levels, ample opportunity exists to identify strengths and limitations (Hutchison, 2003). Use of an eco-map with the homeless late adolescent population may help them by creating a visual image of how hope needs motivation to ensure that the resources provided result in fulfillment of their goals. It may help them take responsibility for effecting a change in their environment.
Suggested Further Research
A more objective measure accounting for observable behavior, physiology, and subjective cognitions combined would result in an improved understanding of how hope may motivate successful outcomes in the homeless late adolescent population (Edwards,
Ong, & Shane, 2007, p. 237). This study uncovered the need for research to identify

66 which traits, in addition to hope, are linked to successful outcomes in this invisible population. Funding for a larger study of this homeless TAY population, with published findings would help social workers on the front lines develop appropriate programs to serve them.

APPENDICES
67

APPENDIX A
Miller Hope Scale (MHS)
68

MILLER HOPE SCALE©
Circle one number for each statement which best describes how much you agree with that statement right now. The numbers refer to:
Very
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree
Strongly
Agree
Very
Strongly
Agree
69
3 4 5 6 1 2
There are no right or wrong answers .
1. When I ask for help I usually receive it.
1
2. I am positive about most aspects 1 of my life.
1 3. I look forward to an enjoyable future.
4. I am flexible in facing life’s challenges.
5. There are things I want to do in life.
1
1
6. I am able to set goals I want to achieve.
1
7. My life has meaning. 1
8. I make plans for my own future. 1
9. I am able to imagine a positive outcome to most challenges.
1
*10. Time seems to be closing in on me. 1
11. I have energy to do what is important to me.
1
*12. I find myself becoming uninvolved 1 with most things in life.
13. I intend to make the most of life. 1
14. I am positive about the future. 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

MILLER HOPE SCALE©
Page 2
Very
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree
Strongly
Agree
Very
Strongly
Agree
70
1 2 3 4 5 6
There are no right or wrong answers .
*15. I am not interested in life.
16. I have ability to handle problems.
1
1
*17. I feel trapped, pinned down. 1
18. My personal beliefs help me feel 1 hopeful.
19. I value my freedom. 1
20. I spend time planning for the future. 1
21. I am able to accomplish my goals 1 in life.
22. I am valued for what I am.
23. I have someone who shares my
1
1 concerns.
*24. I am hopeless about some parts of my life.
25. I look forward to doing things I enjoy.
1
1
*26. It is hard for me to keep up my interest in activities I used to enjoy.
1
*27. It seems as though all my support 1 has been withdrawn.
28. I am satisfied with my life. 1
29. I am needed by others. 1
*30. I do not have any inner strengths. 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

MILLER HOPE SCALE©
Page 3
Very
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree
Strongly
Agree
Very
Strongly
Agree
71
1 2 3 4 5 6
There are no right or wrong answers .
31. I know I can get through difficulties. 1
*32. I will not have good luck in life. 1
*33. I am so overwhelmed, nothing I do 1 will help.
34. I try hard to do things that are 1 important to me.
35. I feel loved. 1
36. I try to find meaning in life events. 1
*37. I am bothered by troubles that prevent my planning for the future.
1
*38. I feel uninvolved with life.
39. I trust that things will work out.
1
1
40. I can find reasons to keep positive 1 about my health.
* = Reverse score these items
© Copyright, 1986, Judith Fitzgerald Miller
JFM:bja 4/91 revised 5/92
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

72
APPENDIX B
Authorization to use Miller Hope Scale
Hello Cynthia,
Please see Dr. Miller’s note below, as well as the 4 attachments to this message.
Please let me know if you have any difficulty opening them or have any questions.
Best wishes,
Kelly
Kelly M. Hillard
PhD Program Assistant
Marquette University College of Nursing
Clark Hall, 263
Tel: (414) 288-3869
Fax: (414) 288-1597 kelly.hillard@marquette.edu
Visit: http://www.marquette.edu/nursing/Academic/PhD.shtml
Dear Cynthia,
Thank you for your interest in my work on hope.
An abstract from my dissertation as well as the Miller Hope Scale (MHS) are enclosed.
You have my permission to use the MHS in your proposed research. I am requesting persons who use the MHS to provide me the following at the completion of the research:
1. The internal consistency alpha coefficient of the MHS with your sample.
2. A copy of the computer print-out of the subjects scores on each item of the MHS so that I can continue factor analysis of the MHS.
3. An abstract of your research findings using the MHS which includes a description of the sample.
Permission to use this developed scale is dependent upon the above.
The instrument is based on the following definition of hope which is not included in the enclosed materials.

"Hope is a state of being characterized by an anticipation for a continued good state, an improved state or a release from a perceived entrapment. The anticipation may or may not be founded on concrete, real world evidence. Hope is an anticipation of a future which is good and is based upon: mutuality (relationships with others), a sense of personal competence, coping ability, psychological wellbeing, purpose and meaning in life, as well as a sense of 'the possible'." (Miller,
1986, p. 52) .
My dissertation is available through Dissertation Abstracts International, (1-800-521-
3042).
Please use the following reference in referring to the MHS:
Miller, J.F. (1986). Development of an instrument to measure hope. Doctoral
Dissertation, University of Illinois at Chicago.
Miller, J.F., & Powers, M.J. (1988). Development of an instrument to measure hope.
Nursing Research, 37, 6-10.
I am currently using a 6 point Likert scale to omit the undecided option:
1 = very strongly disagree; 2 = strongly disagree;
3 = disagree; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree;
6 = very strongly agree.
The last three items on the scale are the Hope in Illness Subscale, which are not needed for evaluating hope. These three items are not part of the Miller Hope Scale.
Best wishes for success with your research efforts.
Sincerely,
Judith Fitzgerald Miller, PhD, RN, FAAN
Associate Dean for Graduate Programs and Research
Marquette University College of Nursing
PO Box 1881
Milwaukee, WI 53201-1881
Office: 414 288-3869
FAX: 414 288-1597
JFM:kmh
73

APPENDIX C
Agency Authorization Letter
74

75

76
APPENDIX D
Consent and Demographic Forms
Consent to Participate in Research
You are invited to participate in an important study to further the understanding of homelessness among late adolescents. This research will be conducted by Cynthia Long, a Master of Social Work student at the Division of Social Work, California State
University, Sacramento. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between homelessness and hope among adolescents.
Procedures:

After reviewing this letter of consent and agreeing to participate in the study, the signed consent form can be given to the researcher.

The researcher will then distribute the survey to each participant. The instrument/survey should take approximately fifteen minutes to complete.

As a participant in the survey, you can decide to opt out at any time or choose to skip specific questions.

Upon completion the participant turns the survey in to the researcher.
Risks:

The content of some questions on the survey may elicit emotional responses to your current living circumstance. In the event that unwanted emotions are brought forth, the center provides free counseling services for study participants.

These services are obtained through asking the researcher for an appointment or by calling (209) 929-6700 to schedule an appointment with a youth services counselor at The Center for Positive Prevention Alternatives 729 N. California
Street, Stockton, CA 95204.
Benefits:

The research will assist youth service staff members as well as social worker professionals to better understand the relationship between hope and homelessness among adolescents.
 The survey may increase the participant’s awareness of their own feelings and beliefs about hope and its relationship to their homelessness.

The results could also lead to additional services to address homeless adolescents needs and uncover topics for further study.

77
Confidentiality:

Your name is not required and your confidentiality will be protected.

Your completed survey will be kept in a locked office at CPPA and used for research purposes only. The survey results may be transported back and forth to
CPPA by the researcher for further analysis at the researchers home.

The final research report will not include any identifying information of the participants in the study.

The original surveys will be destroyed one month after the project is filed with the office of Graduate Studies at California State University, Sacramento.
Compensation:

Participants will not receive any kind of compensation for filling out the survey.
Right to Withdraw:

Participants have the right to opt out of this survey at any time during the process.

You may also choose not to answer a single/specific question on the survey.
If you have any further questions fell free to contact the researcher, Cynthia Long at
(209) 929-6720 Monday through Wednesday, 8:30 A.M. to 5:30 P.M.
If you need additional information regarding the study procedures please contact the researcher’s thesis advisor, Sue Taylor, Ph.D., at California State University, Sacramento by phone (916) 278-7176 or email at taylorsa@csus.edu.
Consent to Participate as a Research Subject
I have read the research study description on the Consent to Participate in
Research cover letter. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I will not be compensated for my time or responses. My signature or initials indicates that I have received a copy of this letter and I agree to be a subject in this study.
Signature or initials: __________________________ Date: _______________
If you have any questions you may contact the researcher, Cynthia Long at (209) 929-
6720.
Or, if you need further information feel free to contact the researcher’s thesis advisor:
Sue Taylor, Ph.D.
California State University, Sacramento
(916) 278-7176

taylorsa@csus.edu
Demographic Information :

Please provide the following demographic information for the survey.
_______________ Age?
If under18, are you emancipated? When? _______________
Gender?
Sexual Orientation?
_______________
_______________
Highest level of education completed? _______________
Do you identify with an ethnic group? Which group(s)? 1._______________
Mother’s occupation (currently employed Y/N)?
2._______________
_______________
Father’s occupation (currently employed Y/N)?
Current living arrangements (permanent/temporary)?
_______________
_______________
78

APPENDIX E
Figure 1
Total Hope and Factor I
Scatterplot with regression line for Factor I and Total Hope Score
Total Hope and Factor I
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0 y = 1.4525x + 32.734
R 2 = 0.9244
Factor I
79

APPENDIX F
Figure 2
Total Hope and Factor II
Scatterplot with regression line for Factor II and Total Hope Score
Total Hope and Factor II
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0 y = 2.2498x + 69.299
R
2
= 0.4376
Factor II
80

APPENDIX G
Figure 3
Total Hope and Factor III
Scatterplot with regression line for Factor III and Total Hope Score
Total Hope and Factor III
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0 y = 4.1626x + 33.583
R
2
= 0.8391
Factor III
81

82
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