Recalling Memories
• Memory is affected by the nature of your
engagement with the information
• Levels-of-Processing Theory
Recalling Memories
• Memory is affected by the nature of your
engagement with the information
• Levels-of-Processing Theory
– Consider this experiment:
List
CAT
pie
PILLOW
TREE
Method of Learning
• stating capitals or lower-case (surface processing)
•repeating words
• putting words into a sentence (deep processing)
Recall is tested some time later.
Recalling Memories
• Memory is affected by the nature of your
engagement with the information
• Levels-of-Processing Theory
– Consider this experiment:
List
CAT
pie
PILLOW
TREE
Result:
•Best recall with “deep”
processing
•Worst recall with “surface”
processing
Recalling Memories
• Memory is affected by the nature of your
engagement with the information
• Interpretation:
– the successful use of memory depends on the
number of connections that are made between
related items and the degree to which these are
initially activated
Recalling Memories
• context is critical!
– location, physiological state, etc. affect ability
to recall
– e.g. lists of words are recalled better when
recalled where they were first learned
• Similarities in context (especially smell) can
trigger vivid recollections
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Recall is a generative process rather than
simply calling up stored data
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Recall is a generative process rather than
simply calling up stored data
• Evidenced by the fact that episodic
memories can be distorted or completely
false under certain circumstances
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect - exposure to
information subsequent to storage of
memory can alter the contents of the
memory
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car
accident
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car
accident
– Then given the following question: “How fast
were the vehicles going when they ______”
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car
accident
– Then given the following question: “How fast
were the vehicles going when they ______”
– Different subjects were asked questions that
differed in the “magnitude” of the final word
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example:
– Subjects were shown a video depicting a car
accident
– Then given the following question: “How fast
were the vehicles going when they ______”
– Different subjects were asked questions that
differed in the “magnitude” of the final word
– The possible words were: Contacted, Hit,
Bumped, Collided, and Smashed
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Consider the following example:
– Average estimated velocity depended on the
nature of the question
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Misinformation Effect
• Interpretation:
– Episodic memory can be distorted by
subsequent information
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory for episodes in life can be illusory
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory for episodes in life can be illusory
• Consider the example in Loftus’ article:
– participant was induced to have an episodic memory of
being lost in a mall
Recalling Episodic Memory
• Memory for episodes in life can be illusory
• Consider the example in Loftus’ article:
– participant was induced to have an episodic memory of
being lost in a mall
– Even when told the memory is a false one, the
participant had difficulty recognizing it at an invalid
memory
Recalling Episodic Memory
• False Memories may arise when details of a
crime are in question as in eye-witness
testimony or repressed memories of abuse
during childhood
Implicit and Explicit Memory:
yet another distinction
• The successful recall of episodic memory
entails a conscious awareness for the
contents of the memory
Implicit and Explicit Memory:
yet another distinction
• The successful recall of episodic memory
entails a conscious awareness for the
contents of the memory
• Explicit Memory is any memory that is both
available and accessible by consciousness
Implicit and Explicit Memory:
yet another distinction
• Are all memories explicit? Is all
information stored in the brain subject to
conscious scrutiny?
Implicit and Explicit Memory:
yet another distinction
• Are all memories explicit? Is all
information stored in the brain subject to
conscious scrutiny?
• Implicit Memory refers to encoded
memories that are not part of the “contents”
of awareness
Implicit and Explicit Memory:
yet another distinction
• How can we know whether memory is
stored/recalled implicitly or explicitly?
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Free Recall - subjects can be asked to simply
recall and report as many items as possible - these
items are accessible as explicit memory
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete
a word stem with any word that comes to mind
after reading a list of words (no mention of testing
memory!)
__ack
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete
a word stem with any word that comes to mind
after reading a list of words (no mention of testing
memory!)
But how do you know that information is stored/recalled
implicitly? Couldn’t it be explicit?
Implicit Memory
• Consider the following distinction in recalling
items from a list of words:
• Twist - require subject to complete stem with a
word that wasn’t on the list - if a word from the
list is used preferentially, it was remembered
implicitly
Implicit Memory
Consider the implications regarding the nature of
consciousness and the connection between
neural activity and awareness
Implicit Memory
Consider the implications regarding the nature of
consciousness and the connection between
neural activity and awareness
Not all of the activity in your brain generates
experience - some is “sub”conscious or nonconscious
Repressed Memories
Elizabeth Loftus
“Derepressed memories”
• Loftus opens with several examples of court
cases that involve “derepressed memories”
• What is a repressed memory?
• What is a derepressed memory?
Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of
repressed memories
– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having
regained access to previously repressed
memories
Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of
repressed memories
– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having
regained access to previously repressed
memories
• What does Loftus challenge?
Loftus’ position in this article
• Loftus does not reject the notion of
repressed memories
– 18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having
regained access to previously repressed
memories
• What does Loftus challenge?
…That all “de-repressed” memories are accurate memories.
High Stakes
• Survivor of real abuse
might struggle for years
or decades with
consequences and need
to confront the
repressed memory in
order to recover
emotionally
• False accusation could
tear family apart and
send an innocent person
to jail
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
– reality of the memory is in question if it is
recalled under certain circumstances
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
– reality of the memory is in question if it is
recalled under certain circumstances
• What is the course of events that Loftus
finds worrisome?
What’s the issue?
• What does Loftus express concern about
regarding the derepression of memories?
– reality of the memory is in question if it is
recalled under certain circumstances
• What is the course of events that Loftus
finds worrisome?
Therapist or Popular
Book suggests that
patient consider
possibility of abuse
Patient engages in
intense effort to recall
An explicit
episodic memory
is achieved
What’s the issue?
• So we potentially have a situation in which
someone who is having troubles in life and is
seeking answers is told to determine whether or
not memories for abuse exist
• What are some techniques that are used to
“assist” recollection?
What’s the issue?
• So we potentially have a situation in which
someone who is having troubles in life and is
seeking answers is told to determine whether or
not memories for abuse exist
• What are some techniques that are used to
“assist” recollection?
– hypnosis, imagery, dream analysis, story telling
– Loftus presents evidence that such processes may lead
to invalid memories or overconfidence in the validity of
memories
Conclusion:
• We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating
evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true
• Therapists should engage in probing this possibility very
carefully
– avoiding suggestive questions
– remaining unconvinced without corroborating evidence
– being “gently confrontational” to encourage patient to
consider the possibility that the events didn’t happen
Next Time:
• Read about Subliminal Messages