THE IMPACTS OF ACCULTURATION ON VIETNAMESE WOMEN IN THE
UNITED STATES
Dianna Hoang
B.A., California State University, Sacramento, 2009
PROJECT
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
FALL
2011
THE IMPACTS OF ACCULTURATION ON VIETNAMESE WOMEN IN THE
UNITED STATES
A Project
by
Dianna Hoang
Approved by:
_____________________________, Committee Chair
Kisun Nam, Ph. D.
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Dianna Hoang
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
__________________________, Director
Robin Kennedy, Ph.D., MSW
________________
Date
Division of Social Work
iii
Abstract
of
THE IMPACTS OF ACCULTURATION ON VIETNAMESE WOMEN IN THE
UNITED STATES
by
Dianna Hoang
Historically, society has presented women as secondary to men. As the times change
so have the roles of men and women. Vietnamese American women bear the struggle
of living two worlds, but in one location, America. Before Vietnamese refugees and
immigrants entered the United States, they only knew their own traditional culture.
Upon arrival in their new country they had to assimilate to the modern culture of
America. Every day they are reminded of their constant struggle of identification,
what makes them Vietnamese or American? For the purpose of this exploratory study,
30 Vietnamese women voluntarily participated in the survey. This self-composed
survey aimed to explore topics of acculturation such as language, communication, and
culture, perspective on family and women’s roles, as well as education. From the
findings of this study, one could state that these women still encourage their traditional
culture, but realize that they must also adapt to American culture as well. Vietnamese
women are no longer remaining in the home as housewives, but are inspired to attain
iv
an education and work outside of the home. They must learn to adjust in order to
maintain both cultures, holding on to the importance of family, but becoming more
independent.
_____________________________, Committee Chair
Kisun Nam, Ph. D.
____________________________
Date
v
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this project to all the Vietnamese women,
first, second, and future generations to come.
We should recognize that we do live in and shall adapt to certain aspects of America,
but also retain what makes us Vietnamese.
In hopes that we will find a balance among the two cultures,
to better understand and maintain the two cultures.
The desire for everyone to come together,
for better communication,
and build upon a stronger and closer relationship amongst family members.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank my family for their unconditional love and
positive and strong emphasis on education. For their continual push to strive, moral
support, words of encouragement, and finances throughout my education experience and
journey. I could not have gone this far without their assistance. My innate feelings of not
wanting to disappoint them made me push myself harder, all because they believed in me.
To myself for the self-discipline and challenge to prove to myself that I can make things
happen when I take the time to focus and realize that I can achieve my goals, one baby
step at a time.
To my friends and a selected few of my title IV-E cohort for checking up on me to ensure
that I was on track to completing this project. I extend my sincere gratitude for their
continued support and encouragement. To my dear friend Somaly Kong, for giving me a
little encouragement through a simple gift of a pack of Hello Kitty pencils, to remind me
to begin writing my thesis.
To my advisor, Professor Kisun Nam for his willingness to help me, taking the time to
meet with me, guiding me, and working with me to ensure that I met the deadline to
successfully complete this piece of work on such a last minute notice. Also, to my first
advisor, Professor Serge Lee for assisting me as much as he could.
vii
To my tutor David Reynolds for support and editorial assistance in the writing process.
To the Asian Resources staff, especially my contact personnel, Stephanie Nguyen for
assisting me with my human subjects and administering my survey at their resource
centers. And to all the participants, without whom I would not have my data for this
research.
None of this would have been possible without ALL the people mentioned above.
THANK YOU.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM ............................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Research Problem ...................................................................... 10
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 10
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................... 11
Definition of Terms............................................................................................... 14
Assumptions.......................................................................................................... 15
Justification ........................................................................................................... 15
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 16
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 18
Reason for Migration ............................................................................................ 19
Three waves of immigration. ................................................................................ 20
Responses to migration. .................................................................................. 22
Acculturation......................................................................................................... 25
Communication. .............................................................................................. 29
Language. ........................................................................................................ 30
Family. ............................................................................................................ 31
Women’s role. ................................................................................................. 33
Education. ....................................................................................................... 37
Summary ............................................................................................................... 41
3. METHODS ................................................................................................................... 43
Design ................................................................................................................... 43
ix
Variables ............................................................................................................... 43
Participants ............................................................................................................ 45
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................... 45
Data Gathering Procedures ................................................................................... 46
Protection of Human Subjects .............................................................................. 48
4. FINDINGS .................................................................................................................... 50
5. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 73
Discussion ............................................................................................................. 73
Implications........................................................................................................... 77
Limitations ............................................................................................................ 78
Recommendations ................................................................................................. 79
Appendix A Consent Form (English Version).................................................................. 80
Appendix B Consent Form (Vietnamese Version) ........................................................... 82
Appendix C Survey (English Version) ............................................................................. 84
Appendix D Survey (Vietnamese Version) ...................................................................... 92
References ....................................................................................................................... 100
x
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1. Table 1 General demographics of Vietnamese women living in the United States.... 50
2. Table 2 Demographics for research question 1........................................................... 51
3. Table 3 Time frame entered the US * What is your proficiency level in reading Eng?
..................................................................................................................................... 53
4. Table 4 Time frame entered the US * What is your proficiency level in speaking Eng?
..................................................................................................................................... 54
5. Table 5 Current marital status * Imagine that your family will decide to buy a house.
Who would make the final decision to do so? ............................................................ 56
6. Table 6 Demographics for research question 2........................................................... 58
7. Table 7 Age * What do you consider yourself? .......................................................... 60
8. Table 8 Age * When addressing my elders, making no eye contact when speaking or
being spoken to is a sign of respect. ........................................................................... 62
9. Table 9 Age * When addressing teachers or professors, sitting quietly, but attentively
during class shows that you are respectful. ................................................................. 63
10. Table 10 Age * When you are at home, how often do you cook Viet food? .............. 64
11. Table 11 Age * When you are at home, how often do you cook non-Viet food? ...... 65
12. Table 12 Age * When you are at home, how often do you wear non-Viet style
clothing? ...................................................................................................................... 66
13. Table 13 Age * When you are at home, how often do you listen to Viet music? ...... 67
14. Table 14 Age * When you are at home, how often do you celebrate Viet holidays? . 68
xi
15. Table 15 Demographics for research question 3......................................................... 69
16. Table 16 What is your highest level of education in the US? * Are you currently
working? ..................................................................................................................... 71
xii
1
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM
Historically, society has presented women as secondary to men, with women
generally viewed as homemakers while men were seen as bread winners. As time has
changed, so have the roles for men and women. Contributing factors to this change may
include an individual’s life experiences, what they have learned and endured, being
accustomed to their specific culture, language, and values, learning of other cultures
when necessary, and assimilating thereafter. In addition there are events beyond an
individual’s control, such as the work of activists who fought for greater equality, and
against discrimination and sexism. Historically, Vietnamese wives were submissive to
their husbands. However once many Vietnamese women relocated to the United States
and increased their independence, it created challenges to traditional family values and
structure (Marino, 1998). In order for women to assist their family to survive regardless
of where they are living, it would be in their best interest to assimilate to that region.
As a second generation Vietnamese American woman, this writer is attempting to
understand the challenges endured by first generation Vietnamese women who escaped
Vietnam and are now living in the United States, in hopes of raising awareness of their
situation and to better assist these individuals. The majorities of these women was born
in Vietnam and are accustomed to its culture, traditions, values, and roles. After enduring
the Vietnam War, they had to alter their lives according to where they were placed after
leaving their homeland. Many of these women underwent culture shock as they
encountered their new life style in America and learned how to function accordingly in
2
order to survive in the United States. These women transitioned from the traditional
society of Vietnam to the modern society of the Unites States, leaving behind much of
what they have known while incorporating what they have learned in a modern society,
and learning to maintain a balance between the two cultures.
Background of the Problem
In hopes of discovering a brighter future, Asian Americans have come to the
United States with the idea of it being the land of hopes and dreams. Searching for better
living conditions, and a better environment than that which they were migrating from,
Asian immigrants to America were looking to improve their education and better their
employment opportunities. Tseng (2007) suggests that “getting a good education,
practical job skills training and finding and retaining employment” were all strategies for
success in their new country (p. 63). However, their journey was not easy in America as
they faced multiple barriers along the way. Every wave of immigrants endured dramatic
social, economic, and cultural transitions (Tseng, 1995). Asian Americans struggled to
survive and do well in American society, and, according to Tseng, what helped them was
their “ethnic resilience, perseverance, and solidarity” (p. 42). The term “Asian
American” refers to people living in the U.S. who are of Chinese, Japanese, Korean,
Filipino, Asian Indian, and Southeast Asian descent.
While Asian Americans may share some similarities in culture, they also
demonstrate differences. These include their historical experiences within their home
countries as well as their migration to the United States. For example, Daniels (1988)
suggests that the Chinese and Japanese immigrated to the United States for economic
3
reasons, and noted that the majority of their labor opportunities were in mining and
agriculture. Chinese immigrants started gold mining in 1848, and by the 1860s the
Chinese made up two-thirds of the mining labor force working in the Rocky Mountains
(Tsai, 1986). Another option for the Chinese was railroad building. Similarly the
Japanese began to migrate to the United States, specifically Hawaii, to work on the sugar
plantations (Azuma, 2002). While many Asian Americans came to America in hopes of
bettering their economic situation, others were forced to leave their country of origin for
their own safety.
Southeast Asians came to the United States not for economic reasons, but because
they were forced to leave due to the communist takeover of Southeast Asia. Southeast
Asian refers to people who are from countries located south of China, primarily Vietnam,
Cambodia, and Laos. These three Southeast Asian nations shared the horrors of war on
their soil during the latter half of the twentieth century. By 1975 all three nations were
controlled by Communist governments. After many years of fighting culminated in the
Fall of Saigon, the Communist North Vietnamese took over control of South Vietnam
(Nguyen, Y., 1999; Kelly, 1986; Kibria, 1993). Communist forces also took over Laos’
monarchy (Brown & Zasloff, 1976), and the Khmer Rouge took power in Cambodia
(Walque, 2006). It was a chaotic and dangerous time in these countries, and many
Southeast Asians feared for their life and fled the region (Kibria, 1993). These
immigrants risked everything to flee with no awareness of where to go, how to do so, or
how dangerous the journey would be; they just wanted to leave as fast as they could. The
primary reason all three nations began to empty out was because their citizens feared
4
persecution from their governments. In 1975, the same year the Vietnam War ended,
more than 130,000 Southeast Asians, the majority of whom were Vietnamese, fled their
communist governments and entered the United States (Chuong, 1994; Kelly, 1986;
Desbarats, 1985).
The Southeast Asians, more specifically the Vietnamese, migrated to the United
States in three major waves (Do, 2002; Kelly, 1986; Desbarats, 1985; and Nguyen, P.,
2008). The first wave in 1975 was mainly Vietnamese of high social status, who were in
danger because of suspected affiliation with the Americans or South Vietnamese during
the war. The second wave of refugees known as the “boat people” came between 1978
and 1981. Large numbers of Cambodians and Laotians entered the United States during
this wave. This group of refugees consisted of an array of social classes. The rest of the
refugees followed in the third wave with assistance from the United Nations and the
United States. According to the Office of Refugee Resettlement (n.d.), from 1975 to
1999, just fewer than 1,260,000 Southeast Asians immigrated to the United States.
From the time the Vietnamese people began migrating to the United States, some
Americans questioned their right to remain in America. This was exacerbated as
American society was enduring an economic recession in the late 1970’s, and there was
an increase in hostility towards the Vietnamese refugees and immigrants. They were
perceived by anti-immigrant Americans as taking away job opportunities. This continued
to the point of Vietnamese immigrants being blamed for the economic crisis, as they had
coincidently entered the United States at that particular time. Kelly (1986) asserted that
the timing of the Vietnamese arrival, and their entry into the work force, was when
5
America’s unemployment was at its peak. Instead of being viewed as refugees escaping
their home country in order to stay alive, there were misleading conceptions and
accusations of them being “economic migrants” who came specifically searching for jobs
(Freeman, 1995). In reality, many Vietnamese Americans entered the United States
legally as refugees. The majority of Vietnamese people immigrated to the United States
because of political problems that they encountered in their homeland; “We came to
America not for material gain but for freedom” (Freeman, 1989, as cited by H. Tran,
2002). However, as time went on for Vietnamese immigrants, financial support became
an essential aspect for survival, which lent credence to the claims of “economic
migrants.”
The traditional roles of the Vietnamese family were influenced and shaped by
Confucian ideology (Do, 2002; Freeman, 1995). The father plays the role of the
disciplinary authority figure of the household who makes all the important decisions.
The mother’s role is to care for her husband, parents-in-law, and her children in a way
that embodies nurturing, sentiment, and affection. Children are expected to obey and
respect their parents and elders without exception. Freeman (1995) identifies the
important family value of moral debt as a child’s unpayable obligation to their parents for
their sacrifices and unconditional love. As these youth entered America, they rapidly
absorbed the American culture through school and interactions with their American
peers. Marino (1998) noted that these youth quickly became “Americanized” and spoke
better English than their elders. Those elders who were having more difficulties with the
language barrier tended to remain true to their traditional values. In America, families
6
encourage children to become independent at an early age, while the Vietnamese view
independence negatively (Marino, 1998). Seeking the freedom America has to offer may
have led to the deemphasization of the Vietnamese culture. Traditionally, Vietnamese
women expected to act submissively toward their husband and generally not work outside
of the home. However, after entering the United States, husbands faced
underemployment or unemployment which made it almost mandatory for wives to seek
employment. Consequently, this lead to changes within the family structure (Dinh,
Sarason, B., and Sarason, I., 1994).
Due to the devastating experiences of the Vietnam War and the ensuing
migration, families and traditions were interrupted. The war caused the Vietnamese
people to have complicated and indecisive attitudes about their home country. On one
side, Vietnamese refugees shared robust anti-Communist thoughts. On the other, these
refugees preserved a strong sentimental attachment to their homeland, customs, and
traditions, and to the many relatives they left behind in Vietnam (Freeman, 1995). The
migration to the United States caused Confucian morals to be disrupted, and domestic
tension may have risen due to the newfound possibility of equality of power between men
and women (Marino, 1998). Dinh, Sarason, B., and Sarason, I. (1994) mention that
economic factors and Western cultural influences “may have effects on family roles that
results in conflicts between husband and wife and between parents and their children” (p.
472). However, regardless of such changes, many Vietnamese women continue to be
influenced by beliefs and values concerning family and gender stemming from their
homeland. Vietnamese immigrant women are affected by two contradictory cultures.
7
Compared to the traditional role of women in Vietnam as mothers and homemakers, in
America they encounter more opportunities for education and employment outside the
home, which enable greater independence. Even so, Vietnamese women maintain the
desire to preserve cultural continuity of their traditional role (Zhou & Bankston, 2001).
Many scholars have stressed the importance of family, including its traditions and
values, to Vietnamese Americans. The cohesiveness of Vietnamese family life was
upended by the disruptions of war and migration. Due to leaving their homeland at
different times, or becoming separated during their journey, families were often separated
during migration and ties were severed. After settling in America, Vietnamese
Americans attempted to reconnect and reestablish their relationships with other family
members in America, as well as those left behind in Vietnam. This lead to the alteration
of family boundaries that also challenged traditional gender and generational hierarchies
embedded in Vietnamese family life (Kibria, 1993). Potential intergenerational conflict
arose with Vietnamese born parents who insisted on holding onto traditional family
values, while their children tended to adopt western values and lifestyles (Dinh, Sarason,
B., and Sarason, I., 1994). These children often challenged their parents’ authority, to
which the parents felt the children rightfully owed respect and obedience. Traditionally,
parents had the dominant role within the family, but their children’s status within the
family grew in America due to their quicker adoption of English language skills and the
resulting ability assist the family in navigating daily life in their new country. Freeman
(1995) insists that while the Vietnamese people feared that living in America and
8
assimilating to its ways may cause loss and abandonment of their own traditions, they
nevertheless were appreciative of America for its opportunities.
Life experiences in America are different for Vietnamese Americans than life
experiences in Vietnam. This is a point of contention between native born and American
born Vietnamese Americans. Those born in Vietnam grew up learning a certain way of
life, and then endured difficulties attempting to acculturate themselves to mainstream
American society. It was imperative that these immigrants adopt the American way of
living to a certain degree in order to be able to maintain their survival in America.
Wanting to retain that which makes them Vietnamese, this group wants to instill their
cultural traditions into their American born children who are more likely to be
accustomed to, and assimilated into, the American culture. Tseng (2007) sees the
difficulties of “child development, parental control, and parent-child bonding challenges
as a result of the differing rates of acculturation to mainstream American society and
deculturation to their ethnic culture between the parents and their children” (p. 192).
Zhou and Bankston (2001) suggest that as parents and children struggle to adjust to their
new environment that it inhibits the adaptation process of merging the old and the new
ways. However, the merging of the old and new ways assists immigrant families in
adjusting to their new environment.
In the event that this ethnic group can be said to have succeeded in America that
success derives from their initiative work ethic respect for education and skills, and an
innovativeness that fit right in with American ideals (Freeman, 1995). Historically,
during the French rule of the late 1800s and early 1900s, only the wealthy in Vietnam
9
could afford an education, and Bergman (1974) reported that 95 percent of the
Vietnamese people were considered to be illiterate. Throughout the country at that time,
only 407,000 children were in school; of this number, only 17 percent were female. In
1945, Ho Chi Minh became the first president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
(DRV). Although it was a time of great turmoil, under Ho Chi Minh’s leadership the
percentage of school children who were female rose to 43.5 percent during the 1972-1973
school year. As of 1974, there were 4.8 million children in school in the DRV, 50 percent
of whom were female students (Bergman, 1974)
Chuong (1994) proclaims that Confucian ideology promotes excelling
educationally. Vietnamese people have a strong belief in good education; they consider it
the love of learning, a love that is deeply rooted in tradition (Jackson, n.d.). In their study
of family pressure and the educational experience of the daughters of Vietnamese
refugees, Zhou and Bankston (2001) found that Vietnamese immigrant families pushed
young women harder than young men towards academic performance because of the
affirmation of traditional gender roles. However, after interviewing the young women,
these researchers came to the conclusion that their reasoning was in part of the
socioeconomic conditions of the new land that place an importance of education for both
men and women, and not for the liberation of traditional gender roles. In America,
Vietnamese women have an equal opportunity to pursue a higher education. Keeping in
mind that the journey to America was not easy for refugees and immigrants who endured
many hardships along the way, it is not surprising that economic and educational
opportunities were indeed taken advantage of once they arrived (Freeman, 1995).
10
Statement of the Research Problem
For the purpose of this research, the researcher will be focusing on the
Vietnamese population, specifically women. Tseng (2007) noted through the courses of
displacement, resettlement, and adaptation, families have encountered multiple cultural
and social challenges. The four main categories of the migration experience include
migration, acculturation, life cycle, and family.
Since there is a lack of adequate information regarding the impact of acculturation
on Vietnamese women living in the United States, this study will examine Vietnamese
women’s experiences as they are now in the United States. The issue lies in the binary
between what is traditional and what is modern. As Vietnamese women learn to adapt to
American ways, they contemplate what traditions and values to retain from their
traditional culture and which to adopt from the American culture in hopes of becoming
self-reliant.
Purpose of the Study
The major objective for this research is to gain a better understanding of what the
impacts of acculturation have been on Vietnamese women that were born outside of the
United States. Now that they are living in America, the data can be analyzed to
determine the successes or failures in adapting to the American mainstream culture.
This study aims to determine:
-How has acculturation helped or hindered Vietnamese women living in America?
- Have Vietnamese-born women living in America changed their previous cultural
traditions and beliefs?
11
- Has higher education lead to more independence for these women?
Theoretical Framework
Payne (2005) noted that in social work the term “theory” accounts for three
different possibilities: models, perspectives, and explanatory theory. Models are a way to
help structure and organize how professionals approach a complicated situation.
Perspectives help a professional to see situations from a different point of view as well as
help professionals to think about what is happening in an organized way. An explanatory
theory explains why an action results in or causes particular consequences, and identifies
the circumstances in which it does so. The point to make here is that a professional takes
ideas and applies them where it may seem relevant to make sense of something or explain
the reason why a person does what they do.
One theoretical framework that applies to this researcher’s topic is the Systems
perspective. In reference to social work, Payne (2005) noted that systems theory is
important because it emphasizes social focus instead of individual patients or clients. At
the same time, this approach to social issues addresses working with individuals and their
interactions with their environment. In order to fully understand human behavior, it is
important to inspect the environment from which a person came from and also where a
person currently is. Doing so can provide a foundation for social workers to interpret and
examine the assessment of their clients. Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman (1997) stated that
people are constantly interacting with various systems in their environment such as
family, friends, work, community, social service, political, employment, religious, and
educational systems. The systems perspective’s concentration is on the interaction and
12
connection between people and their functioning in the environment that surrounds them
(Payne, 2005).
One form of systems theory in social work is ecological systems theory, and its
related concept known as the “person-in-environment” (Payne, 2005, p. 149; Greene,
2009, p. 200; Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p.16). Bronfenbrenner (1979), a well-known
psychologist of ecology, explains “the ecology of human development involves the
scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation between an active, growing
human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings in which the
developing person lives, as this process is affected by relations between these settings,
and by the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded” (p. 21). Greene (2009)
assumes that the ecological approach to human behavior involves the formation of a
person and his or her environment into a homogenous system or ecosystem that shapes
the other. The focus is not on the single effect of the environment on the person, nor the
person on the environment, but on the reciprocal relationship or transaction they have
with one another.
Some major concepts derived from the ecological perspective as described by
Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman (1997) are relevant to this topic of research. The social
environments that a Vietnamese Woman may be involved with are the laws and social
rules they must abide by, their home or family life, or the type of work and education
systems as an individual, group, or community setting among family, friends, or other
acquaintances. The transactions account for how a Vietnamese woman may
communicate or interact within her social environments. The process of adaptation is a
13
reaction to the changes that occurred as Vietnamese women evolved from their traditional
life in Vietnam to adapt to the American culture. From this perspective, people and their
environments can affect one other interchangeably. Vietnamese woman are coping as
they overcome their struggles of gaining greater equality, having the opportunity to
attend school, acquiring employment, and adjusting to their changing roles.
The transactions people have with the various systems within their environment
have an impact upon human behavior (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 1997). Combined with
the various systems are also various levels such as the microsystem, meso- or
mezzosystem, and the macrosystem (Greene, 2009; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 1997).
The microsystem is based on elements of an individual; in this case, what comprises a
Vietnamese woman. Historical contexts can play a factor, such as their roles and changes
thereof. The mesosystem refers to a small group of people. It can reference family,
work, school, media, part of a community, or social groups that Vietnamese women may
have been involved with as they migrated and relocated to America. The macrosystem
looks at the broader social contexts of systems in the society. Many aspects of adaptation
have been associated with a newcomers’ opportunity to participate in the economic,
social, and cultural institutions of the host society and to interact with its members
(Desbarates, 1985). It can also include, but is not limited to, larger communities, politics,
and organizations. This can relate to the process of gaining greater equality for
Vietnamese women in America, the laws and regulations that assisted the Vietnamese
through their migration, and other guidelines of American society that they must learn
and abide by as they interact and adapt to their new environment. Greene (2009) states
14
that ethnic minorities are faced with ecological challenges as a result of a history of
oppression and discrimination, not because of economic mishaps that suddenly arose.
Definition of Terms
Acculturation: the process of being involved and interactive between two independent
cultural groups; one is the host culture and the other is the minority culture. In essence,
the minority culture would adapt to the host culture’s way of life.
Americanize: When an individual adapts to American culture and values.
Culture: A shared set of beliefs, values, and behaviors of a particular ethnic, social, or
age group.
Failures: Fact of being insufficient; not achieving favorable or desired means; lack of
success.
Immigrant: An individual who emigrates from their country of origin to settle in another.
Independence: Not influenced or controlled by others in matters of opinion or conduct;
not subject to others authority; autonomous.
Refugee: Individuals who flee their homeland for safety because of issues regarding their
fear of political persecution or danger.
Successes: Accomplishment of favorable or desired performance or achievement;
achieving goals; attainment of wealth.
Values: a deeply held set of thoughts, beliefs, or perceptions of ideas, customs, principals,
standards or quality shared by members of a culture.
Vietnamese American: An American individual of Vietnamese descent.
15
Assumptions
There are slight differences depending on the age group of Vietnamese Americans
who migrated to the United States. It is assumed that those who are older are more
accustomed to, and hold onto, their traditional ways of living while living in America.
For those who migrated at a younger age, they tend to adapt to both traditional
Vietnamese culture and modern American culture. Compared to those who were born in
Vietnam, American-born Vietnamese Americans are more Americanized. The older,
more traditional Vietnamese Americans attempt to instill the Vietnamese culture in their
younger counterparts as they fear it will be dismissed or disregarded. They hope that
their efforts will be a reminder of what makes one Vietnamese. It is assumed, that those
individuals who are considered to be “Americanized” do not retain what is traditional in
their native culture. However, this group is also looked upon as the connection between
the two different worlds.
Another assumption is that as time passed Vietnamese women appreciated their
newfound equality between men and women. One aspect of roles in the traditional
Vietnamese culture was that women were submissive to men. This recent equality has
allowed for women to become more independent.
Justification
Social work is directed and focused on improving the interactions between
individuals and various systems in the environment (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 1997).
Social work is concerned with people’s social connections, relationships, and objectives,
for example social justice or social change and interpersonal work (Payne, 2005). A
16
Social worker’s role is to advocate for individuals who may not be able to advocate for
themselves or have the knowledge to know how to, in hopes of creating equal
opportunity for all.
Social work is a profession that works with diverse populations. Therefore, in
order to better serve a particular group or population, in this case Vietnamese women, it
is important that social work practitioners in the field make themselves aware of the
circumstances and life experiences, as well as historical background, of the populations
they are treating. Furthermore, on an individual basis each individual has their own story
to tell. As Vietnamese women continue to interact with American society, there may be
barriers that still inhibit their efforts of working towards their autonomy. They face the
challenge of transitioning from their traditional culture to the modern society of the
United States, while attempting to maintain a balance between the two cultures. Another
issue they are faced with is an attempt to accommodate their husbands’ traditional
patriarchal rule as they work towards their own independence. The focus is to assess how
the systems within the environment and Vietnamese women interact and affect one
another. A global assessment should be conducted to ensure practitioners are adequately
strengthening and accommodating their clients.
Limitations
As this researcher believes that Vietnamese refugees and immigrants endured a
variety of immigration experiences and challenges, and adjustment issues while living in
America, the findings from this research may not be appropriate for, but can be related to
American-born Vietnamese Americans. This research only engages those individuals
17
who live or work in the Sacramento area. Additionally, the issues covered in this
research deal with current social problems and concerns of Vietnamese refugee and
immigrant women that arise as a result of their resettling and adjustment to the United
States. Therefore, the use of this research may be less effective when considering
American-born Vietnamese.
18
Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This researcher chose the topic of Vietnamese women in America because there is
not enough information presented in regards to this particular population. Historically,
Vietnamese women did not have equal rights, culturally were submissive to men, and
today in America, have the opportunity to promote their independence. As Vietnamese
immigrants assimilated, “Americanization” brought greater equality in family relations
since the immigrant culture was traditional and hierarchical; women and children
experienced a growth in their individual freedom (Kibria, 1993).
Also, as a Vietnamese woman who was born in America, this researcher was
interested in the acculturation process of those who were foreign born and later
immigrated to America. This researcher took this opportunity to enhance her knowledge
and increase awareness of this population. Also, noting that some traditional cultural
values clash with American values, this researcher was curious about the history of the
process of adaptation of Vietnamese women as they migrated to the United States. In
addition this researcher looked at the changes these women underwent, how they
impacted families, and what current Vietnamese American families look like. Tseng
(2007) noted that through the stages of “displacement, resettlement, and adaptation…
families have encountered multiple cultural and social… challenges.” The four main
categories of the migration experience include “migration, acculturation, life cycle, and
family” (p. 87).
19
This chapter is a review of literature regarding the migration and acculturation of
Vietnamese refugees and immigrants to America. This chapter will examine the reason
for, three waves of, and responses to migration. Then, a discussion of acculturation with
appropriate headings of communication, language, family, women’s role, and education
will be provided.
Reason for Migration
In 1973, the United States signed the Paris Peace Accords, ending their military
involvement in the Vietnam War (Chuong, 1994). This resulted in Southeast Asians
fighting their own wars for a short period of time. Two years later in 1975, the “Fall of
Saigon” ended the Vietnam War and initiated the migration of the Vietnamese refugees
to their secondary countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippine, and Hong Kong.
After brief stay at various refugee camps in these secondary countries, some Vietnamese
refugees were resettled to the United States. Others resettled to a third country. As a
result of this war, the Communist takeover that followed, majority of Vietnamese,
Laotian, and Cambodian peoples embarked on a massive migration to America (Freeman,
1995). Tseng (2007) reported that from 1975 to 1992, there were 1.2 million refugees
and immigrants that arrived in the United States from Indochina-Vietnam, Cambodia, and
Laos. Of that total, the Vietnamese accounted for 69% (n=845,464).
With this diversity among the immigrants, the United States government
classified their legal status as either refugees or immigrants. Kibria (1993) classified
“political refugees” as those who left their country due to “political, religious, or other
forms of persecution” and “immigrants” as those who chose to emigrate (p. 14). Cao and
20
Novas (1996) also distinguished the difference of the two terms based on the conditions
surrounding their reason for departure from their homeland. Having very similar
definitions as Kibria, they included that refugees usually had little to no time to prepare
for their departure and that immigrants left their home voluntarily in pursuit of better
economic opportunities abroad. There have been three waves of Vietnamese immigration
into the United States since 1970s. The first two waves consisted of mainly Vietnamese
refugees who either were evacuated or escaped from the turmoil in Vietnam, while the
last wave consisted of Vietnamese immigrants searching for better prospects or family
reunification efforts through sponsorship.
Three waves of immigration.
The first wave of Vietnamese refugees began pouring into America between 1975
and 1977. Totaling approximately 700,000, this group typically was of high social status,
educated elites, and ex-military and government personnel (Freeman, 1995). This group
was persecuted by the Communist Vietcong for their association with the Americans and
South Vietnamese (O. Tran, 2001). They were either airlifted or traveled by boat to
America. According to Nguyen and Henkin (1982), in 1975 there was an estimated
130,000 who left Vietnam and arrived in Guam, Wake Island, Subic Bay (Philippines),
and Thailand. The majority of these later transferred to four camps once they arrived in
the United States: Camp Pendleton, California; Fort Chaffee, Arkansas; Eglin Air Force
Base, Florida; and Indiantown Gap, Pennsylvania.
Due to the intensification of political tyranny, the second wave of refugees
continued to arrive in America in 1978. This group was more diverse as compared to the
21
first wave. They tended to be less educated, had less exposure to the English language, if
any, and possessed an array of job skills (Freeman, 1995). The majority of this second
wave left Vietnam in small, overcrowded boats and became known as “boat people.”
While on these boat journeys, many of these people were attacked, raped, beaten, or even
killed by pirates. The majority of those who were fortunate to survive this journey
reached the shores of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Hong Kong, or the Philippines (O.
Tran, 2001). Nguyen and Henkin (1982) also noted Thailand as a designated area. These
locations typically consisted of overcrowded and unsanitary camps where the boat people
had to wait, sometimes from months and years, before they could permanently resettle in
America.
The third wave migration began in the late 1980s, and continues to this day.
Pfeifer’s (2008) research of the 2005 American Community Survey indicates that 46.7%
of Vietnamese immigrants arrived in the United States before 1990, 41.7% between 1990
and 1999, and 11.6% after 2000. Pfeifer stated that the majority of immigrants after 1990
reflected those who were sponsored by their Vietnamese American relatives. Compared
to the first two waves, this wave consisted of a diverse population, majority were of
families who commonly spent most of their lives working in rice fields or the fishing
industry (Chuong, 1994). Consequently, this meant that their children had minimal
education and suffered interruptions in their education from their time in Vietnam
through their journey to the United States. Chuong stated that Vietnam switched from a
Western (French) based education to a socialist curriculum where it was essential to
incorporate community and volunteer work. In addition to this change, while waiting to
22
resettle this group tended to remain in refugee camps longer where there was no formal
instruction offered. The number of immigrants was limited during this wave due to the
Orderly Departure Program (ODP).
As immigrants fled to America, they continued to have children. These children
are considered to be second generations. The term second generation refers to the
American-born children of parents who emigrated to the United States from an Asian
country. According to Segal (2002), this group can be identified as “Asians” or “Asian
Americans,” but not “Americans” on account that they grapple with different norms and
expectations of behavior between the culture of their ancestors and the culture of the
United States. Zhou and Bankston (1994) discuss of three possible patterns of reactions
to cultural conflict among the second generation, which are rebellion, in-group
conformity, and apathy. They explain that rebellion involves abandoning ones ethnic
connection for a new affiliation of becoming “American,” implying that rebels are
quickly adjusted because of their willingness to abandon old cultural patterns to embrace
new ones. In- group conformity refers to one adhering to their connection in the ethnic
community. Apathy insinuates escapism in the sense that an individual may rebel against
a group and in-group conformity. These imply that one may be underadjusted or
unadjusted to their ethnicity or undergo conscious withdrawal from the group society.
Responses to migration.
Since there was a continual outflow beginning with the first wave of Vietnamese
refugees migrating to their neighboring asylum countries, these countries did not know
how to deal with the 10,000 to 15,000 arriving per month (Chuong &Van, 1994). The
23
Vietnamese government was pressured by the world community to establish a resolution
to this situation. As a result, an orderly exit was implemented and it provided a safer
alternative option. The ODP was established by the United Nations High Commission
for Refugees and Vietnam in 1979. To be qualified for the ODP, an applicant must
obtain an exit permit from the Vietnamese government as well as satisfy the receiving
country’s eligibility requirements. Chuong (1994) reported that the Vietnamese
government considered these participants to be immigrants; however, they were still
permitted to accept refugee services (i.e. language and job training).
The ODP admitted the Vietnamese as legal immigrants directly from Vietnam to
the United States, bypassing the camps. Compared to refugees, immigrants chose to
leave their homeland. In most situations, the families who participated in the ODP were
sponsored by a relative who was already residing in the United States. However,
Freeman (1995) emphasized that a rule of thumb for immigrants is that they were the
responsibility of their sponsors and were not entitled to the same public assistance as
refugees, yet he also notes an exception in regards to not all relatives helping. Therefore,
the recently arrived relatives turn to public assistance. The purpose of this program was
to encourage safe, legal emigration rather than dangerous illegal escapes. This massive
flight lasted until 1982.
The United States Congress established the Refugee Act of 1980. According to
the Office of Refugee Resettlement, this program’s purpose is to assist and provide for
refugees to effectively resettle upon arrival in the United States, in hopes of them
becoming economically self-sufficient as soon as possible. The United States
24
government offered a variety of temporary public assistance to help the Vietnamese
refugees who were admitted through this program. Freeman (1995) writes that the
Vietnamese utilized assistance that included learning the English language, job training,
health coverage and living expense services.
A forgotten group was the Amerasians. They were the product of United States
service men and Vietnamese women during the Vietnam War. These individuals
remained behind with their mothers even after the war. However, the United States
eventually took responsibility and enacted the Amerasian Homecoming Act in 1982.
Chuong and Van (1994) noted this act offered the opportunity for the children of
American fathers living in Vietnam, as well as those from Korea, Laos, Cambodia, and
Thailand, to enter the United States without regards to their family members who remain
in Vietnam. Chuong (1994) reiterated that the Amerasian Homecoming Act was
amended in 1988, to also include those children’s family members to enter the United
States as well.
On a side note, in 1986, the Vietnamese government halted the ODP process for
Amerasians. Chuong and Van (1994) asserted that the Vietnamese were enraged that all
Amerasians were classified as refugees and not immigrants. Additionally, the emigration
officials in Vietnam disputed the term “refugee” for this particular group because it
suggests that they were mistreated and forced to leave Vietnam. While in fact it was their
choice to leave. The Vietnamese were upset that they were still looked upon as the bad
culprit.
25
Another program agreed upon between the United States and Vietnam was the
Humanitarian Operation (HO). This program was established in 1987 and lasted till 1993
for the resettlement of Vietnamese individuals who were affiliated with American or
South Vietnamese organizations that still remain in Vietnam (Chuong, 1994). More
particularly, this procedure referred to former political and reeducation camp prisoners to
allow them and their families to receive public assistance upon arrival in America.
Acculturation
Acculturation involves interactive experiences between two independent cultural
groups; one is the host culture and the other is the minority culture. In essence, the
minority culture would adapt into the host culture’s way of life. Additionally, as an
individual is introduced to a new culture, acculturation can be perceived as the process of
change in knowledge, attitudes, cultural beliefs, values, and practices (Burnam, Tellez,
Hough, & Escobar, 1987). Nguyen and Sanguinetti’s (1984) perspective of acculturation
involves a reorientation of ones personality to beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of the new
culture. This would require parallel learning opportunities. O. Tran (2001) declared
another alternative as multiculturalism or biculturalism. The sense of belonging; those
individuals would be capable of accepting, living, and interacting in both cultures. Tran
also stated that these individuals are obligated to both culture’s attitudes and behaviors,
instead of separating the two cultures and increasing one culture over the other.
Acculturation can improve one’s life to healthily adjust and can also hinder one’s
capability to function. This would depend differently for each individual as the effects
are determined by the acculturation process and stressors, such as family support or
26
education. In reference to refugees and immigrants, they encountered many challenges
during the process of resettling upon their entrance to America (Kelly, 1986). With no
regards as to the reason why refugees and immigrants left their homeland, each individual
brings with them their experiences, cultural heritage, values, and ethnic identity (O. Tran,
2001). Looking back at the place they once anticipated as their homeland no longer
exists. Overtime, as drastic changes occurred, what they envisioned of their homelands is
no longer the same (Tseng, 2007).
Migrants experience social, cultural, and life transitions challenges the moment
they arrive in the new society, in addition to the pressures linked to starting a new life
(Kibria, 1993). They are reminded every day of their resettlement that living in America
will differ uncomfortably compared to what they were used to while living in their
homelands. According to Tseng (2007), in their new life in America many have had to
face struggles of second class citizenship and other disadvantaged life conditions in the
processes of language and educational attainment, socioeconomic adjustments,
acculturation/deculturation, and other adaptation processes. Tseng continues to indicate
that due to their ethnic minority status, Vietnamese communities may never achieve
complete mainstream association partly because of cultural and structural barriers. On
the other hand, Vietnamese immigrants can turn to their families, friends, and ethnic
communities as resources.
Freeman (1995) elicits two apprehensions of Vietnamese Americans and their
families. It brings up the dichotomy of becoming Americanized a good thing or a bad
thing? One issue he identified is that the Vietnamese traditions are threatened the more a
27
person adapts to American society. The second is the clash between those individuals
who arrived earlier were more Americanized compared to those who arrived at a later
time. Freeman described two equally derogatory terms for each cluster, “bananas” and
“FOB.” The term bananas is referenced to those who arrived at an earlier time, who have
yellow skin on the outside but white values and behaviors on the inside, insinuating that
they sold out their culture. FOB is an acronym for fresh off the boat, which references
those who arrived more recently, implying that they still adhere to their traditional ways
and were likely to live in poverty unless they adapt to American society. Spenger (n.d.)
stated that complete conformity to American ways of the Vietnamese would be immoral
signifying certain characteristics of their original culture should remain. There is a
decision that Vietnamese Americans need to decide, which of these two extremes they
coincide with, or if they can somehow chose somewhere in between so that they can be
successful living in America while holding onto selected aspects of their culture.
In addition to the adult immigrants, this transition was also a difficult and
confusing procedure for children immigrants as well. In a similar predicament, they too
are caught between the pressure to adjust to the mainstream society, as well as preserve
their own culture (Zhou & Bankston, 1994). However, given this predicament, children
immigrants must choose and learn from two cultures whereas in contrast to the adults,
they were already accustomed to their native culture. No matter the situation, what
helped the Vietnamese family undergo these changes where their resilient support system
and inspiration to succeed; not just for oneself, but for relatives and the reputation of the
family (Freeman, 1995).
28
Kibria (1993) narrated a native-born, named Binh, life’s story as he attempted to
adapt and assimilate after arriving to the United Stated. Binh and his three sons left
Vietnam leaving behind his wife to care their parents. His plan was to send money back
to his family in efforts to help them escape Vietnam after he has settled. Through his
struggles, he contested “…that’s why I left, for freedom and for my children to have an
education. The best thing about life in America is that we’re free to do what we want, but
the worst thing is that the culture and customs make people rotten” (p. 4). He mentioned
what troubled him the most about life in America was the change he saw in his sons.
Noticing that they no longer respected or listened to him, he faulted them of becoming
Americanized. This story reiterates Binh as sticking to his traditional values. In essence,
this could be a misunderstanding due to miscommunication or no communication
between the family members. Even with American influence, children strive for their
parent’s acceptance, but sometimes do not know how to reciprocate to their parents
(Kibria, 1993).
Along with other disadvantaging factors, there are no doubt Vietnamese
immigrants and refugees needed help with their social adjustment process until they were
able to get on their own feet and manage their self-sufficiency. Tseng (2007) recognized
that as time passes, the more Vietnamese Americans became acculturated with American
culture, the easier it was for them to incorporate the multiple facets of American society.
The dichotomous and integrated concepts of “traditional” and “modern” are deeply
problematic ways of understanding societies and social change. Kibria (1993) suggested
that it is unrealistic to assume continuous development in a steady and consistent
29
undeviating movement of values and behaviors from traditional to modern. Kibria
insisted that scholars have argued that traditional values and social reforms may coincide
in synchronization with modern one.
Communication.
Vietnamese people communicate differently than people from Western cultures.
For example, when communicating with one’s elders, Vietnamese Americans are
reminded to always show them respect both linguistically and extralinguistically (L.
Nguyen, n.d.). In other words, one must pay attention to both their verbal and non-verbal
cues. L. Nguyen suggests that this rule requires an individual to position themselves in
front of an elderly person, direct their eyes downward making the least amount of eye
contact as possible, and with their feet not crossed but instead flat on the ground. This
rule is also applied when communicating with those individuals who are of higher status,
such as a student talking to their teacher.
According to Spenger (n.d.) the Vietnamese prefer compromise as opposed to
confrontation. Their approach is more indirect and tactful, as they consider pleasing
others to be important. L. Nguyen (n.d.) asserts that in Vietnam, an individual thinks
very carefully before speaking, and, therefore, Vietnamese people tend to misinterpret the
American style of speaking one’s mind.
In contrast, Americans are taught to use a direct, straightforward, and assertive
approach, and not to shy away from confrontation (Spenger, n.d.). These two different
approaches can lead to a disconnect in communication if one is not aware. The afore
mentioned example of non-verbal cues can also be misinterpreted as simply a normal
30
reaction of embarrassment at not understanding or being able to answer in the new
language. Many westerners may view this as suspicious or paranoid behavior (L.
Nguyen, n.d.).
Language.
The majority of Vietnamese immigrants who came to the United States lacked
English skills upon their arrival (Chuong, 1994). According to Kelly (1986), the first
wave refugees consisted of more educated personnel, and therefore were more fortunate
compared to the second and third wave refugees. Kelly suggested that these later
refugees had less exposure to the English language, and, consequently, learning these
skills were more challenging.
American born Vietnamese, of course, are more comfortable with the English
language as compared to their native born counterparts (Tseng, 2007). Vietnamese
Americans often depend on their American born children to communicate and interface
with mainstream society. As these American born Vietnamese are more acculturated,
having been born and raised in America, they are of assistance to their native born family
members. Tseng found that this lead to a role reversal whereby these American born
children were the hope of their native Vietnamese families, as the link to being successful
in American society.
Suro, Kocchar, Passel, Escobar, Tafoya, Fry, Benevides, and Wunsch (2007)
retrieved data from the U.S. Census of 2004 showing that for Vietnamese living in the
United States 11.8% spoke only English at home, 33.1% spoke Non-English at home but
31
can speak English “very well”, and 55.1% spoke Non-English at home and can speak
English less than “very well.”
Family.
In Vietnam the family is the basic unit of society, and the cohesiveness of
personal relationships is valued (L. Nguyen, n.d.). L. Nguyen finds intelligence and
wisdom to be deemed more valuable in Vietnam than physical competency, and while
physical beauty and grace are important attributes, virtue is admired the most. Kibria
(1993) assessed the characteristics of Vietnamese family life and believed familial ties
and loyalty were of great importance and were a resource providing support for coping
with changes. Bui and Morash (1999) considered a traditional Vietnamese family to
include extended family members consisting of minimally two to three generations living
in the same home. Traditional Vietnamese family gender relations and values were
influenced by Confucian ideology that comprises a social hierarchy and defines
appropriate demeanor for each member in the society (P. Do, 2002; Bui & Morash,
1999).
As portrayed through Confucian principals, women were submissive to men (Bui
& Morash, 1999). Unlike men, Vietnamese women could not inherit land, had limited
socio-political and economic influence, were mainly illiterate, were married through
parental negotiation, and could not obtain a divorce (Drummond & Rydstrom, 2004).
There was a strong inclination for sons to carry on their father’s patronage. Inevitably,
children were taught to behave according to the principal of filial piety, which shows
respect, love, and obedience to their parents (H. Tran, 2002). Huynh (2004) writes of a
32
husband’s obligation to divorce his wife if she commits any one of seven offenses:
infertility; adultery; neglect of parents-in-law; talkativeness; theft; jealousy; and incurable
disease.
L. Nguyen (n.d.) noted that America is an individualistic society which focuses
more on personal accomplishment and competitiveness. Since their arrival in America,
the Vietnamese family has been undergoing major changes due to the disruptions of the
war and the mass exodus starting in 1975 (Freeman, 1995), as well as the influence of the
individualistic orientation found in Western culture (T. Tran, n.d.). These disruptions
have brought about changes in generational structure, a decrease in household size, an
increase in the number of women outside the home, and an improvement in social
education (D. Do, 1991:93, in Freeman, 1995). Women’s access to resources has risen,
consequently becoming a source of tension between men and women in Vietnamese
American families. While Vietnamese women embraced their greater influence and
contribution to their family, they did not take advantage of this influence to challenge
traditional conceptions of gender relations and family life (Kibria, 1993).
For parents and grandparents, they see themselves as having sacrificed greatly to
provide their children a better life in America, only to suspect that their children have
abandoned them. They are devastated when their children distance themselves and
disobey their authority (Freeman, 1995). They then blame American law, which
interferes with traditional discipline; television, which offers new ideas to children;
schools, which present alternative values and lifestyles that undermine parental authority;
and economic opportunities in America, which enable children to be more independent,
33
weakening parental control over children. These immigrant parents often cannot connect
or cope with their children’s Americanized values or American cultural expectations for
parenting (Tseng, 2007). T. Tran (n.d.) commented that despite these changes, profound
family feelings and ties remain strong and endure. With constant modernizing
transformations of immigrant families, perhaps the most fundamental was a movement
toward greater generational and gender equality in families.
Women’s role.
Confucian philosophy traditionally prescribed that women follow ethical
principles and appropriate behavior, principally aimed at training girls to become virtuous
women and desirable matches for marriage (Drummond & Rydstrom, 2004). The
subservient nature encouraged among Vietnamese women is shown through the notion of
the “Three Obediences:” As a child, the daughter owes unconditional obedience to her
father; when she marries, she transfers her obedience to her husband; and even after her
husband’s death she is still not free, for she is then bound to obey her eldest son
(Freeman, 1995; Huynh, 2004; Drummond & Rydstrom, 2004; Kibria, 1993; Bergman,
1974; Bui & Morash, 1999; L. Nguyen, n.d.; Salinas, n.d.). In addition to the three
obediences, women shall also practice, process, and conform to the four virtues: 1.
Labor- be skillful in domestic work, 2. Appearance- be serene in beauty, 3. Speech- show
etiquette in speech, and 4. Conduct- show piety in principles (Freeman, 1995; Huynh,
2004; Drummond & Rydstrom, 2004; Kibria, 1993; L. Nguyen, n.d.).
Drummond and Rydstrom (2004) elaborate further details of the four virtues.
Labor taught women to be productive and hardworking, as well as appreciate other’s
34
labor. A woman was trained to cultivate her prosperity through her apparel, yet she was
to preserve an immaculate and modest presence. A woman was trained to demonstrate
her poise by restraining from verbal emotions, indicating that she cares for and respects
those around her. Lastly, conduct concentrated on a woman’s demeanor. These writers
point out that all four virtues are equally significant, and one is not of worth without the
others. Though these merits are prominent and still encouraged, American culture
challenges the effort to maintain these traditional virtues in Vietnamese girls, as the
younger generation is gradually exposed to countless foreign stimuli and various sets of
values and opportunities.
Regardless of their limited rights and secondary place in the family, the role of
Vietnamese women in both family and general society should not be underestimated. In
addition to the aforementioned assets, a wife must obey her mother-in-law, and, in
general, women are prescribed to focus on the household and childbearing tasks (Salinas,
n.d.). Along with the housework, they partake in domestic activities such as petty
commerce or family businesses including, but not limited to, selling woven goods,
vegetables, fruit, or fish at the village market. The economic uncertainties of post-war
Vietnam combined with the establishment and maintenance of social control, had a
comprehensive impact on women’s gender roles, simultaneously boosting individual selfsufficiency (Long, 2008).
We still hear proverbs in the United States such as, “a Woman’s place is in the
home,” that redirect and reinforce a woman’s subordination to a man (Bergman, 1974).
As women in Vietnam began to engage in a variety of non-traditional money making
35
enterprises in America, women’s financial contributions have ascended in comparison to
men’s. In Bui and Morash’s 1999 study of 20 Vietnamese women, they found that 90
percent worked and contributed to the family income. Although the women were more
likely to be employed in low status occupations, the majority of them (60%) contributed
at least 50 percent to meeting their family’s expenses (1999). The researchers found that
this was possible because the array of job opportunities available to women were more
readily accessible than those available to men. They listed women’s jobs such as a house
cleaner, a hotel maid, or a food service worker for example, while the traditional
unskilled male occupations that the husbands sought were not as necessary in America.
These changes experienced in America lead to a role reversal compared to what
was considered traditional in Vietnam. Freeman (1995) claims that one or two males
would be able to make sufficient income to maintain even an extended family in
Vietnam; the same could not be said in America. Kibria (1993) found that in Vietnam a
woman’s economic participation is inferior and marginal to that of a man, who is viewed
as the primary breadwinner. The menial wages the men earn in America (Tseng, 2007)
lead to women entering the workforce. The workplace introduced alternative options for
transforming family and gender relations, and at times required it (Freeman, 1995). As
women were more occupied with work, they were not investing as much time in their
traditional roles in the family. However, after being exposed to the concept that women
can achieve freedom and self-sufficiency, Vietnamese women may respond more
strongly against the traditional role than their American counterparts (L. Nguyen, n.d.).
36
The increasing economic opportunity for women caused strain between men and
women in Vietnamese American families (Kibria, 1993). L. Nguyen (n.d.), noted that
husbands were not used to the change and began to feel threatened. Nevertheless women
did not intentionally shy away from the traditional family system. Kibria (1993)
indicated that women use this to their advantage to support the family; as Vietnamese
American women still value some aspects of the traditional family system like its
indigenous collectivism and cooperation. What was considered to be the weakest link in
the Confucian chain was the strength and determination of the peasant rebellion
(Bergman, 1974). A tradition of people persevering oppression overtime gave women
the willpower to fight back. Long (2008) suggests that as Vietnamese women became
more Americanized, they were also transforming into liberated feminists, either
knowingly or unknowingly.
Through European occupations, wars, and urbanization in Vietnam, the concept
of Western feminism created changes in manners and customs, but Vietnamese
immigrants have retained characteristics of the traditional Vietnamese family while in the
United States (Bui & Morash, 1999). Nguyen and Sanguinetti (1984) anticipated that
Vietnamese women would adopt multiple Americanized beliefs, attitudes, and practices,
yet concluded their identity as Vietnamese women would remain. Nguyen and
Sanguinetti announced the likelihood of the Vietnamese adapting to the American
educational and economic systems, in which, women have the opportunity to work
outside the home, are educated equally or more so than men, and can still ensure a good
family life (Booth, n.d.).
37
Education.
Another facet of the Confucian tradition is the importance of education. T. Tran
(n.d.) wrote that “Vietnamese Confucianism teaches that human nature is basically good,
and the best way of all to maintain and develop this human goodness is through education
and self-cultivation” (p.55). Kim (2002) contends that cultural values influenced by the
Confucian tradition place a high value on education, hard work, and social solidarity as a
means of achieving mobility. A tradition immersed in respect for an educated person is
based on the strength of the individual to pursue a better life for himself and for his
family (Jackson, n.d.).
Historically, Vietnamese women had limited education, if any, and were easily
occupied by the many expectations that society and the men in their family had for them
(Salinas, n.d.). The Vietnamese adopted the Chinese system of education that
circumvented women from scholarly pursuit. It was believed that they had no need for
education, and should not obtain any more than the basic reading and writing skills and
the four basic math operations, insultingly suggesting that education was wasted on
women (Bergman, 1974).
In her book Women of Vietnam (1974), Bergman pointed out women’s
movements through associations. She noted that for Vietnamese women, their political
agenda focused on socialism as a solution. One major feature of the book was women’s
focus on attaining access to education. The majority of the women who initiated these
associations were daughters of middle-class families and the educated elite. In 1918,
French money sponsored the first Vietnamese women’s periodical, a weekly called
38
Women’s Bell. Its editor proposed that women should be allowed enough general
education to be able to improve the performance of their duties as wives and mothers. By
1919, the French had opened up the educational system to women, but only to those who
could afford it. At that time, about eight percent of all women were in school.
By 1926 some of these educated women organized, and cautiously proposed more
radical changes. One individual, Dam Phuong, founded a local group called the
Women’s Labor-Study Association. For the association’s opening ceremony, she sought
verbal support from a renowned revolutionary nationalist male figure, Phan Boi Chau.
The goal of this association was “To build for women a sense of self-development by
means of new occupational skills and within the boundaries of both Eastern and Western
virtue and intelligence” (p. 49). This Association organized women’s classes in cooking,
sewing, weaving, and other skills considered acceptable for women, however they also
made a soft-spoken call for women to reject the “Three Obediences” and to travel.
Eventually other coalitions were formed, such as the Union of Women for the Liberation
of South Vietnam in 1961, and the Women’s Committee to Defend the Right to Live in
1970, a feminist organization.
Many Vietnamese families who came to America did not expect their children to
be able to pursue education, especially higher education, in their home country. At the
time, education, especially at the higher levels, was obtainable only for the elites, not the
masses (Freeman, 1995). In the past century Vietnamese society underwent numerous
changes, yet the Vietnamese held on to specific behaviors and values regarding
39
education, and carried it with them to the United States (Caplan, Choy, & Whitmore,
1991). Freeman (1995) confirmed their great love and enthusiasm for learning.
Family is highlighted as a key component of a refugee student’s success.
According to Freeman (1995), parents who commend their children to do well for the
pride of the family resulted in high- achieving students, and those students, for whatever
the reason, who did not do well, were shamed if they fell below expectations. In contrast,
Freeman reported children that perform poorly due to their parent’s lack of involvement,
attention, or focus. Tseng (2007) additionally mentioned that some parents, being less
acculturated, did not fully comprehend the education expectations, and lacked the
knowledge, even if they wanted, to help. In corroboration, Vietnamese students feel
obligated to succeed for the sake of their parents and other family members.
Refugees and immigrants endured a life changing journey to acquire the
economic and educational opportunity presented in America that will allow them to
become self-reliant. There is a long tradition of admiring and longing for higher
education, something from which most people were excluded and could only imagine. It
is now their prerogative to take advantage of these opportunities (Freeman, 1995). There
is no doubt Vietnamese families have an unconditional commitment to support the
pursuit of an education. The difference in America is the opportunity to attain higher
education.
A study of educational success among children of the boat people conducted by
Caplan, Choy, and Whitmore (1991) found that acknowledgement lays in the values the
refugee families brought with them. These researchers asked the refugee family
40
participants “what values they held to be the most important?” and found that 98 percent
referenced education and achievement, a cohesive family, and hard work. They also
reached the conclusion that the two values of least importance were fun and excitement
and material possessions. Kim (2002) found that the perilous journey, resettlement
challenges, adaptation process, and social structure disadvantages were all difficult, not to
mention adjusting to the unfamiliar social construct of the American school system those
immigrants encountered. And yet in terms of educational achievement, Vietnamese
immigrants excelled academically in spite of their hardships (Kim, 2002). Freeman
(1995) presumed the younger the student and the longer they were associated with
American schools the higher their GPA, as it was assumed the more fluent in English a
student was, the more successful they would be.
Freeman (1995) found that many Vietnamese students came to America as boat
people and possibly missed up to three years of schooling while they were in refugee
camps. Among this group were families with limited or no ability to speak English.
According to Kim (2002), the resettlement process, along with the dilemma of language
and acculturation barriers, may have prohibited some immigrants from entering age
appropriate grade level schooling. Chuong (1994) wrote that immigrant parents, being
unfamiliar about practices in American schools and concerned for their children’s
education, attempted to rectify this lack of knowledge by fabricating their children’s ages
by subtracting a couple years. This was done in the hope that by starting their children at
a lower grade level, their children would have time to recuperate from their time lost in
the camps to be able to perform adequately in school. Due to students facing tremendous
41
language, cultural adaptation, and psychological readiness obstacles, preparation for
American schools, if offered in the refugee camps, was insufficient without appropriate
assistance. Le (1991) declared that immigrant and refugee children had two educational
objectives, achieving basic knowledge and skill and sustaining the acculturation process
of mainstreaming in the new culture and society.
Tseng (2007) reported that the percentage of Asian Americans at major public and
private universities nationally has increased dramatically over the last three decades.
Reeves & Bennett (2004) reported on the 2000 United States Census findings of
Vietnamese population for educational attainment, age 25 and older, that 23.4% have
some college or an associate’s degree and 19.4% have a bachelor’s degree or more.
Vietnamese refugees and immigrants have come a long way to get to where they are
today. They endured a perilous journey as they escaped their homeland due to
Communism. They were faced with multiple barriers in their new home such as
language and culture. Despite these barriers, women had the opportunity to progress as
their roles changed. Traditionally, women did not have the opportunity to get an
education, and now it was possible for them to succeed.
Summary
After reviewing the literature it can be stated that the Vietnamese migration was
not an easy journey to endure. On top of that, they also struggled through the
acculturation process. This chapter intended to illustrate to the reader the migration
experience and the comparison under each heading of acculturation, how the Vietnamese
experienced their traditional culture in Vietnam and the American culture in the United
42
States. There was a concentration on Vietnamese women and a discussion of how this
process was a struggle for them. It challenged them against their traditional society,
culture, and values, as well as, how to cope and learn to adapt to their new society. The
next chapter will introduce the method utilized to administer surveys to collect data from
Vietnamese women participants based on their experience on the impact of their
acculturation process in the United States.
43
Chapter 3
METHODS
Design
This is an exploratory research study utilizing quantitative design, as the rate of
acculturation to America for Vietnamese women that were born and raised in Asia is still
not clearly understood. Because the impacts of acculturation on Vietnamese women have
not been thoroughly explored, and because there is a lack of knowledge on the topic
(Royse, 2008), an exploratory design was most appropriate to gather the information
needed. This research project will examine the transformation of the Vietnamese culture,
its language and communication skills, women’s roles, and perspectives on education as a
result of acculturation due to Vietnamese women living in the U.S.
Variables
The major questions are:
Question 1. How has acculturation helped or hindered Vietnamese women living in
America?
The dependent variable for question 1 is the life of Vietnamese women living in
America. The independent variable is acculturation in reference to language,
communication, and culture. This variable was measured by asking participants to
identify their language proficiency in Vietnamese and English, to agree or disagree with
the provided examples of communication behaviors, and whether they identified with
Vietnamese or American customs.
44
Question 2. Have Vietnamese-born women living in America changed their previous
cultural traditions and beliefs?
The dependent variable for question 2 is the Cultural traditions and beliefs. This
variable was measured by asking participants their racial identity, Vietnamese or
Vietnamese American, how important it is for them to maintain Vietnamese traditional
culture, and if they intend to raise their children the same way they were raised. The
independent variable is their perspectives on family and women’s roles. This variable
was measured by their perspective through a series of questions and their opinion of
provided statements regarding housework, work outside the home, and education.
Question 3. Has higher education lead to more independence for these women?
The dependent variable for question 3 is the independence of these women, in
terms of their ability to survive on their own successes and finances in order to care for
themselves and their family unit; this is to include the individuals’ education attainment
in the United States and current employment status. This variable was measured by a
series of questions on their current state of being regarding the subject matter. The
independent variable is their perspective on their own educational attainment while living
in America. This variable was measured by asking participants to verify their satisfaction
level in relation to their education level, identify their highest level of education
completed in the United States, as well as identify the barriers they faced in attaining
their education.
45
Participants
All 30 Vietnamese women who participated in this research project reside in
Sacramento, CA. The participants were all over the age of 18, and were born in Asia
prior to coming to the United States. Vietnamese women born in the U.S. were not
eligible as research subjects. Before administering the surveys, this researcher developed
a Vietnamese language version of the consent form and survey in order to not exclude
those who may not be able to read and write English.
The snow ball sampling method was used to recruit prospective participants. This
sampling method is intended to increase the number of participants who are linked in
some way in situations where participants are difficult to locate (Royse, 2008). This
researcher initially began recruiting prospective participants for this study, and receiving
referrals for other potential candidates at Asian Resources, located at 5709 Stockton
Blvd, Sacramento, CA 95824. Asian Resources is a nonprofit social and human service
organization that offers a variety of services that includes ethnic services, refugee
programs, education workshops, welfare, counseling, vocational trainings, social
services, community services, and referrals. Permission from Asian Resources was
obtained prior to any recruitment.
Instrumentation
The instrument used in this study was a survey designed to obtain information
from research subjects and measure variables. This survey was developed by the
researcher (see Appendix C). The survey contains four sections with a total of 22
questions for Vietnamese women covering demographics, acculturation in reference to
46
language, communication, and culture, family/women’s roles/perspectives, and their
perspective on educational attainment. There are seven demographic questions in regards
to the participants’ age, place of birth, immigration status, marital status, and level of
education prior to arriving in America. There are four questions in regards to the
participants’ proficiency in reading, writing, speaking, and understanding the Vietnamese
and English languages. There is one section with seven statements in regards to their
behavior while communicating with elders. There are four questions in regards to the
participants’ perspective of preference of culture. There are five questions that focus on
the participants’ perspectives of family and the role of women. There are eight questions
in regards to the participants’ current perspective of their educational attainment, barriers,
and satisfaction. Additionally, there is one optional question at the end where
participants can comment on their greatest success and greatest barrier while living in the
US.
Data Gathering Procedures
This researcher began to recruit prospective participants by first searching the
web for local Asian/Vietnamese agencies. Of the multiple agencies this researcher
contacted and left messages for, only Asian Resources returned the call with interest and
followed through by agreeing to participate. However, a few of the other agencies did
refer this researcher to prospective participants. I contacted these individuals via phone
or email, and requested that they complete the survey at Asian Resources at their
convenience within the timeframe.
47
After this researcher introduced herself and the research topic to Stephanie
Nguyen, contact personnel for Asian Resources, we discussed the requirements for
participants, the consent form, the survey, and how this researcher would like to
distribute them. After being notified of the agency’s guidelines, we agreed on the best
compromise for both parties.
This researcher’s main contact through Asian Resources was Stephanie Nguyen.
Stephanie noted that due to confidentiality this researcher could not physically meet with
Asian Resources’ clients, but she allowed this researcher to drop off the consent forms
and surveys to her. She noted that she and her co-workers would encourage clients who
met the criteria to participate in this research project, and would ask if the clients were
interested in participating. If the clients agreed, Stephanie stated that she or her coworkers would distribute the consent form and survey to the clients. Once the clients
completed the survey, the workers placed the consent forms and surveys in designated
folders located in Stephanie’s office. This researcher dropped off 30 surveys, 60 consent
forms, and two folders to Stephanie. More was provided as needed. This researcher
collected the surveys and consent forms weekly until the minimum number of required
participants were met.
All of the surveys were collected from Asian Resources. The data gathered was
entered and analyzed by using a statistical SPSS program. This researcher personally
inputted the information into SPSS for statistical testing and analysis. The surveys were
checked for errors or missing data before entering into SPSS. The information was
labeled and coded in the software.
48
Not having any physical control over self-administering the surveys, made
collecting data difficult in a timely matter. The best that could be done was to keep in
constant contact the personnel from the agency for continual updates.
Protection of Human Subjects
A Request for Review by the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects
was submitted and approved by the California State University, Sacramento Division of
Social Work, prior to administering the survey and collecting data. This study is
considered to have “minimal risk” as psychological discomforts may occur when
answering survey questions. Participants were encouraged to stop at any time if this
occurred and contact Asian Pacific Community Counseling at (916) 383-6783, or Mercy
Education Resource Center Counseling Department at (916) 737-6026.
Each participant’s right to privacy and safety was protected as no personal
information regarding the identity of the participants was collected with the data.
Subjects voluntarily decided whether to participate in the research or not, and indicated
informed consent before participating. Each participant in the study was given a consent
form (See Appendix A). This form explained the purpose of the survey, as well as the
risks, benefits, and their right to withdraw from the study or to stop answering questions.
The consent form also indicated that confidentiality would be strictly upheld in order to
protect their privacy. The participants consented by signing the consent form. The
signed consent forms and completed surveys were stored separately in a secured drawer
located at the researcher’s home. The data was destroyed approximately one month after
49
the project was filed with Graduate Studies at California State University, Sacramento.
The human subject approval number is 10-11- 110.
50
Chapter 4
FINDINGS
With the assistance of Asian Resources this researcher was able to successfully
obtain 30 returned consent forms and surveys from the Vietnamese women who
participated in this research. Of the 29 participants who answered the survey questions,
there were nine participants (30%) who reported their age between 18-32 years old, seven
participants (23.3%) who reported their age between 33-48 years old, and 13 participants
(43.3%) who reported their age at 49 years or older. Eight participants (26.7%) indicated
that they were not currently married, while 21 participants (70%) indicated that they
currently were married. When asked about the timeframe of when they entered the
United States, nine participants reported between 1975-1981, ten participants reported
between 1982-1996, and ten participants reported from 1997 to the present. One
participant (3.3%) did not report themself in the previous categories. In reference to their
racial identity, 17 participants (56.7%) consider themselves Vietnamese and 12
participants (40%) consider themselves Vietnamese Americans.
Table 1
General demographics of Vietnamese women living in the United States
Variables
%
Age
18-32
33-48
49 +
Missing
Current marital status
not married
30.0
23.3
43.3
3.3
26.7
51
married
Missing
Time frame entered the U.S.
1975-1981
1982-1996
1997-present
Missing
Racial Identity
Vietnamese
Vietnamese American
Missing
70.0
3.3
30.0
33.3
33.3
3.3
56.7
40.0
3.3
Total (N)
30
SECTION 1
Research Question 1: How has acculturation helped or hindered Vietnamese women
living in America?
Table 2
Demographics for research question 1
Variables
Proficiency in reading
Vietnamese
Proficient
Very Proficient
Proficiency in writing
Vietnamese
Not proficient at all
Proficient
Very proficient
Proficiency in speaking
Vietnamese
Proficient
Very Proficient
Proficiency in understanding
Vietnamese
%
40.0
60.0
6.7
36.7
57.6
30.0
70.0
52
Proficient
Very Proficient
26.7
73.3
Not Proficient at all
Proficient
Very Proficient
26.7
56.7
16.7
Not Proficient at all
Proficient
Very Proficient
26.7
60.0
13.3
Not Proficient at all
Proficient
Very Proficient
Proficiency in understanding
English
Not Proficient at all
Proficient
Very Proficient
Educational Level in
Vietnam
Elementary
Middle School
High School
N/A
Considered themselves
Self-reliant
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
Preferred to work and
earn money
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
Preferred to be a
housewife
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
36.7
46.7
13.7
Proficiency in reading
English
Proficiency in writing
English
Proficiency in speaking
English
16.7
66.7
16.7
16.7
33.3
33.3
16.7
6.7
70.0
23.3
3.3
66.7
30.0
16.7
16.7
53
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
16.7
46.7
3.3
30
Total (N)
Hypothesis 1: The earlier Vietnamese women came to the United States, the more
proficient they became with the English language.
Table 3
Time frame entered the US * What is your proficiency level in reading Eng?
Time frame
entered the US
19751981
19821996
1997present
Total
Crosstabulation
What is your proficiency level in
reading Eng?
not proficient
very
at all
proficient proficient Total
Count
0
7
2
9
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
2.2
5.3
1.6
9.0
2
2.4
5
5.9
3 10
1.7 10.0
5
2.4
5
5.9
0 10
1.7 10.0
7
7.0
17
17.0
5 29
5.0 29.0
Table 3 shows that the older generation may have better English reading skills
than the younger generation, with marginal significance (χ2=8.629, p=0.071). None of
the sample which entered the country between 1975 and 1981 reported “not proficient,”
54
while more than two of them were expected to do so. At the same time, five of the
younger generation participants, against the expectation of 2.4, reported they are not
proficient at all at reading English. Likewise, more older generation participants (two
compared to 1.6) and less younger generation participants (zero compared to 1.7)
reported themselves as “very proficient” in English reading skill.
The time frame of entering the United States is not significantly associated with
the writing proficiency (χ2=7.736, p=0.102).
Table 4
Time frame entered the US * What is your proficiency level in speaking Eng?
Crosstabulation
What is your proficiency level in
speaking Eng?
Time frame
entered the US
19751981
19821996
1997present
Total
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
not proficient
very
at all
proficient proficient Total
1
5
3
9
3.1
4.3
1.6 9.0
2
3.4
6
4.8
2 10
1.7 10.0
7
3.4
3
4.8
0 10
1.7 10.0
10
10.0
14
14.0
5 29
5.0 29.0
Table 4 shows that the older generation may have better English speaking skills
than the younger generation, with statistical significance (χ2=9.888, p=0.042). Only one
55
of the participants that entered the country between 1975 and 1981 reported “not
proficient,” while more than three of them were expected to do so. At the same time,
seven participants from the younger generation, against the expectation of 3.4, reported
that they are not proficient at all in speaking English. Likewise, more older generation
participants (three compared to 1.6) and less younger generation (zero compared to 1.7)
reported themselves to be “very proficient” in speaking English.
The time frame of entering the United States is not significantly associated with
the understanding proficiency (χ2=5.942, p=0.203).
Hypothesis 2: The younger the Vietnamese women, the more likely they prefer to
work and earn money.
The age of Vietnamese women is not significantly associated with them being
more likely to prefer to work and earn money (χ2=4.024, p=0.403).
Hypothesis 3: The older the Vietnamese women, the more likely they prefer to be
a house wife.
The age of Vietnamese women is not significantly associated with them being
more likely to prefer to be a house wife (χ2=11.588, p=0.171).
Hypothesis 4: Those who received some education in Vietnam continued to attend
school in the United States.
The relationship between those who received some education in Vietnam and
continued to attend school in the United States is not statistically significant (χ2=13.786,
p=0.315).
56
Hypothesis 5: Regardless of their marital status, Vietnamese women still prefer to
work and earn money.
The relationship between marital status and Vietnamese women preferring to
work and earn money is not statistically significant (χ2=0.578, p=0.749).
Hypothesis 6: Those who claim themselves to be self-reliant obtained a higher
level of education or are currently employed.
Those who claim themselves to be self-reliant is not significantly associated with
obtaining a higher level of education (χ2=6.310, p=0.613) or being currently employed
(χ2=3.907, p=0.419).
Hypothesis 7: Those who came to the United States at an earlier time consider
themselves self-reliant.
Those who came to the United States at an earlier time are not significantly
associated with their self-reliance (χ2=3.245, p=0.518).
Hypothesis 8: Compared to traditional Vietnamese family roles, Vietnamese
women are now beginning to partake in family decisions
Table 5
Current marital status * Imagine that your family will decide to buy a house. Who would
make the final decision to do so?
57
Crosstabulation
Current
marital
status
Total
not
Count
married Expected
Count
married Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Imagine that your family will decide to buy a
house. Who would make the final decision to do
so?
reported
reported
reported other (no
female
male
gender specified) Total
6
4
0 10
6.4
2.1
1.4 10.0
12
11.6
2
3.9
4 18
2.6 18.0
18
18.0
6
6.0
4 28
4.0 28.0
Table 5 shows that women may begin to partake in family decisions regardless of
their marital status, with marginal statistical significance (χ2=4.770, p=0.092). Six
participants who are not married reported that the “female” would make the final
decision, while more than six were expected to do so. Twelve participants, who are
married, against the expectation of 11.6, reported that the “female” would make the final
decision. At the same time, four participants who are not married, compared to the
expected 2.1, and two married participants, compared to the expected 3.9, reported that
the “male” would make the final decision to buy a house. Four married participants
reported “other” with no gender specified. Of those who are not married no one reported
“other.” This may be due to the possibility of multiple family members living with
married couples.
58
SECTION 2
Research Question 2: Have Vietnamese-born women living in America changed their
previous cultural traditions and beliefs?
Table 6
Demographics for research question 2
Variables
%
Importance of
maintaining Vietnamese
traditional culture
Important
Somewhat Important
Very Important
40.0
16.7
43.3
Absolutely No
Maybe
Absolutely Yes
3.3
20.0
76.7
No influence at all
Moderate influence
Adequate influence
Heavy influence
N/A
16.7
20.0
33.3
26.7
3.3
Not important at all
Important
Very important
3.3
46.7
50.0
Not at all
Often
Very often
33.3
56.7
10.0
Intension of raising their
children the same way they
were raised growing up
Family influence in their
Education
Importance of education
How often do you wear
Vietnamese style clothing?
How often do you wear
non-Vietnamese style clothing?
Not at all
20,0
59
Often
Very often
43.3
36.7
Not at all
Often
Very Often
6.7
60.0
33.3
Not at all
Often
Very often
23.3
63.3
16.7
Not at all
Often
Very often
6.7
43.3
50.0
Not at all
Often
Very often
10.0
70.0
20.0
30
How often do you listen
to Vietnamese music?
How often do you listen
to non-Vietnamese music?
How often do you celebrate
Vietnamese holidays?
How often do you celebrate
Non-Vietnamese holidays?
Total (N)
Hypothesis 1: Older Vietnamese women may identify themselves as Vietnamese,
while younger Vietnamese women may associate themselves more as Vietnamese
Americans.
60
Table 7
Age * What do you consider yourself?
Crosstabulation
What do you consider yourself?
Vietnamese Vietnamese American Total
Age 18-32 Count
2
6
8
Expected Count
4.6
3.4
8.0
33-48 Count
Expected Count
49 + Count
Expected Count
Total
Count
Expected Count
3
4.0
11
7.4
16
16.0
4
3.0
2
5.6
12
12.0
7
7.0
13
13.0
28
28.0
Table 7 shows that older Vietnamese women may identify themselves as
Vietnamese, while the younger Vietnamese women may associate themselves more as
Vietnamese Americans, with statistical significance (χ2=7.965, p=0.019). Eleven
participants from the 49 or older age group, against to the expected 7.4, considered
themselves to be Vietnamese, while only two participants from the 18-32 age group,
compared to the expected 4.6, considered themselves Vietnamese. Likewise, six
participants from the 18-32 age group, against the expected 3.4, considered themselves to
be Vietnamese Americans, whereas only two participants from the 49 or older age group,
compared to the expected 5.6, consider themselves Vietnamese Americans.
Hypothesis 2: Those individuals who resided in America for a longer period of
time may associate themselves as Vietnamese Americans while the recent
newcomers may associate themselves as Vietnamese.
61
The relationship between individuals who resided in America for a longer period
of time and associate themselves as Vietnamese Americans, or recent newcomers
associating themselves as Vietnamese is not statistically significant (χ2=0.551, p=0.759).
Hypothesis 3: Those individuals who claim that it is important to maintain
Vietnamese traditions intend to raise their children the same way they were raised
growing up.
The relationship between how important it is to maintain the Vietnamese
traditions and intentions of raising their children the same way they were raised is not
significant (χ2=2.059, p=0.725).
Hypothesis 4: The older Vietnamese women agree more with the provided
examples of communication behaviors found in Vietnam.
The relationship between older Vietnamese women and agreement with the
statement “I communicate with dignity and respect when communicating with my parents
or elders” is not statistically significant (χ2=2.193, p=0.334).
62
Table 8
Age * When addressing my elders, making no eye contact when speaking or being spoken
to is a sign of respect.
Crosstabulation
When addressing my elders, making no eye contact when
speaking or being spoken to is a sign of respect.
strongly
disagree
Age 18- Count
56 Expected
Count
57 Count
+ Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count
disagree
2
1.8
neutral agree strongly agree Total
2
3
8
2 17
1.8
3.5
4.7
5.3 17.0
1
1.2
1
1.2
3
2.5
0
3.3
7 12
3.7 12.0
3
3.0
3
3.0
6
6.0
8
8.0
9 29
9.0 29.0
Table 8 shows that older Vietnamese women agree with the statement “When
addressing my elders, making no eye contact when speaking or being spoken to is a sign
of respect,” with statistical significance (χ2=10.907, p=0.028). Two participants from the
18-56 age group, against the expectation of 1.8, and one participant from the 57 or older
age group, while more than one were expected to agree, reported that they “strongly
disagree” with the statement. The older generation (seven compared to 3.7) and less
younger generation (two compared to 5.3) reported that they “strongly agree” with the
statement.
63
Table 9
Age * When addressing teachers or professors, sitting quietly, but attentively during class
shows that you are respectful.
Crosstabulation
When addressing teachers or professors, sitting quietly, but
attentively during class shows that you are respectful.
disagree
Age 18- Count
56 Expected
Count
57 Count
+ Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count
neutral
agree
strongly agree
Total
1
1.2
4
2.9
11
8.2
1 17
4.7 17.0
1
.8
1
2.1
3
5.8
7 12
3.3 12.0
2
2.0
5
5.0
14
14.0
8 29
8.0 29.0
Table 9 shows that older Vietnamese women agree with the statement “When
addressing teachers or professors, sitting quietly, but attentively during class shows that
you are respectful,” with statistical significance (χ2=10.316, p=0.016). One participant
from the 18-56 age group, compared to the expectation of 1.2, and one participant from
the 57 or older age group, against the expectation of .8, reported “disagree” to the
statement. Most of the older generation (seven compared to the expected 3.3) and only
one of the younger generation (compared to 4.7) reported “strongly” agreeing with the
statement.
These three statement examples were taken from the literature review section of
traditional communication behavior for the Vietnamese. These results may be accurate
64
due to older Vietnamese women having more knowledge and identifying more with the
traditional customs than compared to their younger counterparts.
Hypothesis 5: That older Vietnamese women hold onto the Vietnamese culture
more than the American culture, while younger Vietnamese women adopt the
American culture more than the Vietnamese culture.
Table 10
Age * When you are at home, how often do you cook Viet food?
Age
18-56 Count
Expected
Count
57 +
Total
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Crosstabulation
When you are at home, how
often do you cook Viet food?
often
very often
12
5
7.6
9.4
Total
17
17.0
1
5.4
11
6.6
12
12.0
13
13.0
16
16.0
29
29.0
Table 10 shows that older Vietnamese women tend to cook Vietnamese food
more often than their younger counterparts, with statistical significance (χ2=11.023,
p=0.001). Eleven participants from the 57 or older age group, against the expectation of
6.6, reported cooking Vietnamese food “very often.” At the same time, seven of the
younger generation, compared to the expected 9.4, reported cooking Vietnamese food
65
“very often.” Likewise, the more older generation (one compared to 5.4) and less
younger generation (12 compared to 7.6) reported cooking Vietnamese food “often.
Table 11
Age * When you are at home, how often do you cook non-Viet food?
Crosstabulation
Age
18-56 Count
Expected
Count
57 + Count
Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count
When you are at home, how often do you
cook non-Viet food?
not at all
often
very often
3
14
0
5.9
10.6
.6
Total
17
17.0
7
4.1
4
7.4
1
.4
12
12.0
10
18
1
29
10.0
18.0
1.0
29.0
Table 11 shows that younger Vietnamese women tend to cook non-Vietnamese
food more often than their older counterparts, with statistical significance (χ2=7.517,
p=0.023). Fourteen participants from the younger generation, against the expectation of
10.6, reported cooking non-Vietnamese food “often.” At the same time, only four of the
older generation, compared to the expected 7.4, reported the same. On the other hand,
the majority of the older generation (seven compared to 4.1) and only three of the
younger generation (compared to 5.9) reported “not at all.”
The frequency results of cooking Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese food according
to the participant’s age may be due to their experience and exposure to a specified
66
cuisine. More obvious, older Vietnamese women have resided in Vietnam for a longer
period of time, are more familiar with the cuisine and therefore cook Vietnamese food
more frequently. Whereas, younger Vietnamese women may have less exposure to
Vietnamese cuisine due to their length of stay in Vietnam and have an open palate to try
non-Vietnamese cuisine in America
The relationship between older women and wearing Vietnamese style clothing
often is not statistically significant (χ2=3.165, p=0.205)
Table 12
Age * When you are at home, how often do you wear non-Viet style clothing?
Crosstabulation
When you are at home, how often do you
wear non-Viet style clothing?
not at all
Age
18-56 Count
Expected
Count
57 + Count
Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count
often
very often
1
3.5
9
7.0
7
6.4
Total
17
17.0
5
2.5
3
5.0
4
4.6
12
12.0
6
6.0
12
12.0
11
11.0
29
29.0
Table 12 shows that younger Vietnamese women are more likely to wear nonVietnamese style clothing more often than their older counterparts, with marginal
significance (χ2=5.795, p=0.055). Seven participants from the younger generation,
against the expectation of 6.4, reported wearing non-Vietnamese style clothing “very
67
often.” At the same time, four of the older generation, compared to the expected 4.6,
reported the same. On the other hand, the more older generation (five compared to 2.5)
and less younger generation (one compared to 3.5) reported “not at all.”
Table 13
Age * When you are at home, how often do you listen to Viet music?
Crosstabulation
Age
18-56 Count
Expected
Count
57 + Count
Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count
When you are at home, how often do you
listen to Viet music?
not at all
often
very often
2
13
2
1.2
10.0
5.9
Total
17
17.0
0
.8
4
7.0
8
4.1
12
12.0
2
2.0
17
17.0
10
10.0
29
29.0
Table 13 shows that older Vietnamese women tend to listen to Vietnamese music
more often than their younger counterparts, with statistical significance (χ2=9.794,
p=0.007). Ten participants from the older generation, against the expectation of 4.1,
reported listening to Vietnamese music “very often.” At the same time, only two of the
younger generation, compared to the expected 5.9, reported the same. Alternatively, the
more older generation (zero compared to 0.8) and less younger generation (two compared
to 1.2) reported “not at all.”
68
The relationship between younger Vietnamese women and listening to nonVietnamese music is not statistically significant (χ2=3.610, p=0.164)
Table 14
Age * When you are at home, how often do you celebrate Viet holidays?
Crosstabulation
Age
18-56 Count
Expected
Count
57 + Count
Expected
Count
Total
Count
Expected
Count
When you are at home, how often do you
celebrate Viet holidays?
not at all
often
very often
1
12
4
1.2
7.6
8.2
Total
17
17.0
1
.8
1
5.4
10
5.8
12
12.0
2
13
14
29
2.0
13.0
14.0
29.0
Table 14 shows that older Vietnamese women tend to celebrate Vietnamese
holidays more often than their younger counterparts, with statistical significance
(χ2=11.355, p=0.003). Ten participants from the older generation, against the expectation
of 5.8, reported celebrating Vietnamese holidays “very often.” At the same time, only
four of the younger generation, compared to the expected 8.2 reported the same.
Alternatively, the more older generation (one compared to 0.8) and less younger
generation (one compared to 1.2) reported “not at all.”
The relationship between younger Vietnamese women and celebrating nonVietnamese holidays is not statistically significant (χ2=1.310, p=0.519).
69
Hypothesis 6: Education is more important to an individual when they have
family influence.
The importance of education is not significantly associated with an individual
when they have family influence (χ2=8.055, p=0.234).
SECTION 3
Research Question 3: Has higher education lead to more independence for these women.
Table 15
Demographics for research question 3
Variables
%
Highest education level
in the United States
N/A
Master Degree
Bachelor Degree
Associate Degree
High School
Diploma/Adult Ed
Satisfaction of current education level
Yes
No
Missing
Current employment status
Full time
Part time
Not working
If still living at home or with other family
members, how motivated are you to be
independent?
Somewhat motivated
23.3
3.3
13.3
20.0
40.0
50.0
43.3
6.7
46.7
16.7
36.7
10.0
70
Very motivated
Extremely motivated
Does not apply to me
Missing
Total (N)
20.0
33.3
33.3
3.3
30
Hypothesis 1: Those who have lower levels of education prefer to be a housewife.
Those who have lower levels of education are not significantly associated with a
preference to be a housewife (χ2=23.255, p=0.107).
Hypothesis 2: Those who have lower education levels still live with family
members.
The relationship between having lower education levels and still living with
family members is not statistically significant (χ2=15.125, p=0.235).
Hypothesis 3: Vietnamese women who obtained no higher than an Associate’s
degree while living in America can still work and provide for their families
financially.
71
Table 16
What is your highest level of education in the US? * Are you currently working?
Crosstabulation
What is your highest
high school
level of education in the diploma/adult ed
US?
Associate degree
bachelor degree
master degree
N/A or does not
apply to me
Total
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Count
Expected
Count
Are you currently
working?
full part
not
time time working Total
4
2
6 12
5.6
2.0
4.4 12.0
3
2.8
3
1.0
0
2.2
6
6.0
4
1.9
0
.7
0
1.5
4
4.0
1
.5
0
.2
0
.4
1
1.0
2
3.3
0
1.2
5
2.6
7
7.0
14
14.0
5
5.0
11 30
11.0 30.0
Table 16 shows that Vietnamese women who obtained no higher than an
Associate’s degree while living in America can still work, with statistical significance
(χ2=16.932, p=0.031). Four of those who have obtained no more than a high school
diploma or equivalent (compared to 5.6) and three of those who have obtained at least an
72
Associate’s degree (compared to 2.8) reported working full time. In contrast, six of those
who have obtained no more than a high school diploma or equivalent (compared to 4.4)
and zero of those who have obtained no more than an Associate’s degree (compared to
2.2) reported not working. However, by looking at the overall results, it suggests that
those who have no more than a high school education or equivalent are more likely to be
unemployed, while those who obtained higher education have all indicated that they are
employed. This may be the result of old age at the time of arrival to America or having
less opportunity to access education due to job searching for financial means upon arrival
to America.
The relationship between Vietnamese women who obtained no higher than an
Associate’s degree while living in America and providing for their families financially is
not statistically significant (χ2=7.722, p=0.461).
73
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
This chapter will discuss significant findings and address the research questions
regarding the impact of acculturation on Vietnamese women in the United States. In
addition, implications of the findings for social work practice and policy, limitations for
this particular study, and recommendations for future research will be discussed.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore the experience and journey of
Vietnamese women through their process of acculturation in America. By doing so, this
researcher developed the following three research questions: 1) How has acculturation
helped or hindered Vietnamese women living in America?; 2) Have Vietnamese-born
women living in America changed their previous cultural traditions and beliefs?; and 3)
Has higher education lead to more independence for these women? These questions
assisted this researcher in exploring Vietnamese women’s experiences while living in the
United States. In order to better assist this population, we, as social workers, should learn
more of their background as well as their past and present experiences to better
understand this population.
For the first question, this researcher hypothesized that the longer Vietnamese
women resided in America, the more proficient they would be with the English language.
This study found that Vietnamese women who arrived in America at an earlier period of
time may have more proficiency in English reading and speaking skills than those who
arrived more recently. The same could not be said about writing and understanding
74
English. Considering that historically, a majority of women in Vietnam were not able to
attain education, this result is rather impressive. In total, at least half of all participants
reported having at least some proficiency in the English language encompassing reading,
writing, speaking, and understanding.
Another hypothesis was that Vietnamese women in America are now beginning to
partake in family decision making. The participants were given a hypothetical statement
and question that read “Imagine that your family will decide to buy a house. Who would
make the final decision to do so?” Traditionally in Vietnam, as the bread winner and
man of the house, the father or husband, depending on the family dynamic, would usually
make the final decision for the family. Of the 28 participants who responded to this
question, 18 reported a “female,” 6 reported a “male,” and 4 reported “other” with no
gender specified, would make family decisions of importance.
In regards to the second question, this researcher assumed correctly that older
Vietnamese women would consider themselves Vietnamese and younger Vietnamese
women would consider themselves Vietnamese American. The sense here is that older
Vietnamese women would always consider themselves Vietnamese because it is
ingrained in them based on the fact that they are originally from Vietnam and that it may
be difficult for them to associate themselves as Americans. Also, that they hold onto
their culture and traditions more so than their younger counterparts. Younger
Vietnamese women may consider themselves Vietnamese Americans, possibly due to the
fact that assimilation and learning American culture could have come easier to them.
75
Also being younger, they may not have been old enough at the time they left Vietnam to
adapt to the traditions of their country of birth.
According to another hypothesis, two of the three given statements were found to
be true to older Vietnamese women in regards to communication behaviors. Statements
of making no eye contact and sitting quietly but attentively are signs of respect when
conversing with elders, as stated in the literature review.
This researcher also hypothesized that older Vietnamese women hold onto the
Vietnamese culture more so while younger Vietnamese women are more likely to adopt
the American culture. This was determined by asking how often participants cooked,
wore clothes, listened to music, and celebrated holidays of Vietnamese or nonVietnamese origin. The data suggests that older Vietnamese women reported cooking
Vietnamese food, listening to Vietnamese music, and celebrating Vietnamese holidays
“very often.” Meanwhile, younger Vietnamese reported cooking non-Vietnamese food
and wearing non-Vietnamese clothing “often.” All other variables indicated were not
significantly associated and therefore not reported here. As mentioned before, these
preferences can be due to their familiarity and experience with each culture.
Lastly, for the third question this researcher hypothesized that Vietnamese women
who reported having lower levels of educations, particularly no higher than an associate’s
degree, can still work. Of the 18 respondents (60%) who obtained at least an associate’s
degree, seven reported currently working full-time, five reported working part-time, and
six reported not working at all. This may be associated with the older Vietnamese
women who arrived in America during the earlier period. As these immigrants may have
76
abruptly left their country and entered a new one, they had less of an opportunity to attain
education, as their priority was to search and obtain employment to earn money for their
families.
As part of the survey, a question regarding barriers encountered while receiving
education in America was asked. The top three barriers chosen by participants were lack
of finances, lack of communication (language barrier), and, tied for third place, lack of
transportation and lack of knowledge regarding how to register for classes. However, 50
% of the participants reported being satisfied with their current education level.
Participants were also given an optional question at the end of the survey. It
asked about participants’ greatest success and hardest barrier while they have been living
in America. Common themes arose for those participants who opted to answer this
question. For successes, some participants listed coming to America, getting an
education, having a job, getting married, buying a home, or having children. For barriers,
a few participants listed an array of opinions, such as having a language barrier, lack of
finances, difficulty finding assistance or resources, trouble keeping the family together
and raising children to be successful, and difficulty learning to adjust to American
culture. One participant noted that both her greatest success and hardest barrier was
raising five children on her own. About a third of the participants misunderstood this
question, answering how a person can become successful (try hard, obtain an education,
work harder) rather than what has been their greatest success.
77
Implications
As social workers work with diverse populations, it is good practice to be
culturally competent. Not only is it important to be culturally competent, the work
product may be enhanced further if workers were able to immerse themselves in different
cultures. This way, workers would be able to truly understand their clients and know
how to better serve them without stereotyping or discriminating against them. If social
workers become even minimally aware of different cultures, it can help social workers to
identify what services are needed or how to better work with and assist these individuals.
This study will help service providers and social workers to learn about
Vietnamese people and their culture. Often, when Vietnamese people, especially women,
have issues, they tend to keep their problems within the family and hope to resolve their
own issues instead of searching the outside world for help. The Vietnamese people tend
to feel discontent reaching out to others for help, unless there are workers or agencies
who they can identify with to help ease that discomfort. Once workers become more
familiar with the Vietnamese, they can better identify their support systems and reach out
to this population.
In essence, social workers are inclined to search for resources for their clients. At
the same time, they should also be searching and networking with other possible ethnic
communities and agencies, which can open up more opportunities for both the worker
and the client. In this sense social workers would obtain an abundance of resources and
clients could receive the assistance and resources they require.
78
Social workers should advocate for something similar to a Vietnamese resource
center. A center could welcome all Vietnamese, but be catered specifically to
Vietnamese women. This center should function as a one stop shop, with Planned
Parenthood or Birth and Beyond for mothers, drug and alcohol rehabilitation or treatment
centers for addicts, and generally providing the necessities for Vietnamese women and
families. Service providers could facilitate classes or support groups to discuss possible
topics such as men vs. women or traditional vs. American culture. This center could
address communication barriers by offering English learning classes, discuss how to
better communicate within families, as well as tackling self-esteem problems and
empowering individuals. Essentially, this could be a place that offers educational
courses, support groups, counseling services, and resources to the Vietnamese. If
successful it could possibly expand to cater to a majority of Asians that reside in a certain
geographical area.
Limitations
There were several limitations to this study. First the sample size was small
because this researcher was not able to obtain a large number of participants who were
willing to take the survey. Second, all of the participants were associated with Asian
Resources in Sacramento, CA. Due to confidentiality concerns from Asian Resources,
this researcher was not able to meet with the participants directly, and therefore the
surveys were administered and collected by Asian Resources. Third, not all of the
participants fully completed the surveys; some chose not to answer all of the questions,
resulting in missing data. In addition, there was no standardized instrument used. This
79
researcher prepared a survey that seemed long to the participant’s eyes, which may have
resulted in them not thoroughly completing the survey.
Recommendations
This researcher recommends further research on this topic. Since this particular
study had several limitations, this researcher would like to see those limitations addressed
to achieve more accurate results. A larger sample size would be preferred, and, if
possible, that sample should come from a more widespread geographic location, in order
to attain more realistic statistics. As this study was limited to only Vietnamese women
born outside of the United States, maybe including American-born Vietnamese citizens
would allow for a comparison of topics noted in the survey. Also, perhaps providing
incentives for a fully completed returned survey in order to retrieve better more accurate
outcomes would be helpful. In addition, it would be helpful to explore more details about
what barriers participants faced, what they believe would have been helpful in their stay
in America, and how to incorporate the two worlds in order to be successful in America.
In another direction, future study can explore what barriers they are currently facing and
what can be done to assist them if resources are scarce. This way, service providers and
social workers can gain information and see if similar themes arise, and therefore be able
to assist current and future clients.
80
APPENDIX A
Consent Form (English Version)
81
Consent Form
You are being invited to participate in a research project being conducted by
Dianna Hoang, a second year Masters of Social Work student at California State
University, Sacramento, Division of Social Work. One of the major objectives for the
research is to gain a better understanding of what the impacts of acculturation have on
Vietnamese women that were born outside of the United States.
Although the information gathered might not benefit you directly, what is learned
from this survey could benefit future workers by helping them become aware of
Vietnamese women’s perspective, attitudes, culture and values. If you agree to participate
you will be asked to complete a survey about your experiences living in the United
States. The survey will take between fifteen to twenty minutes of your time. After
completion, please place the survey and signed consent form in their designated manila
envelope provided by this researcher. The second copy of the consent form is for you to
keep.
The completed surveys and signed consent forms will be placed in separate
envelopes and will be stored in a secured lock drawer. Only this researcher will have
access to the drawer. Once this study is completed this researcher will dispose of all
surveys and consent forms by shredding all paperwork.
Unfortunately, you will not be receiving any kind of compensation for your
participation. However, this researcher appreciates your participation. It is hoped that
knowledge gained from you will help advance knowledge of Vietnamese women living
in the United States.
By signing this form, you acknowledge that your participation in this survey is
entirely voluntary and indicates that you are consenting to participate in the survey. Your
answers will be fully confidential. You may refuse to participate with no negative
consequences. You are not required to answer questions that make you feel
uncomfortable and may stop if you begin to feel any discomfort. If you experience any
distress at any time after completing this survey, please contact the Asian Pacific
Community Counseling at (916) 383-6783 or Mercy Education Resource Center
Counseling Department at (916) 737-6026.
If you have any questions you are more than welcome to contact this researcher.
Dianna Hoang can be contacted at (xxx) xxx-xxxx or at xxxxx@saclink.csus.edu. Her
advisor, Kisun Nam, research professor in the division of social work at California State
University, Sacramento, can be contacted at (916) 278-7069 or at kisun.nam@csus.edu.
This researcher would like to thank you for your time and participation.
_____________________________/__________
Participant Signature
Date
82
APPENDIX B
Consent Form (Vietnamese Version)
83
Hình Thức Tán Thành
Bạn đươc mời và tham gia trong chương trình dò hỏi dự án đươc tiến hành bơi
Diana Hoang, lá học sinh nàm thứ II của cư nhân xã hội học tai California State
University, Sacramento. Một trong những mục tiêu chính cho dư án đố hiểu biết hơn sư
thay đôi văn hóa mà người đàn bà Việt Nam đã́ sanh ra không phản tai Hoa Kỳ.
Là một phụ mữ Việt Nam sịnh ra ngoái nước Mỹ, tôi tinh chắc răng sư hiểư biết
vế thay đổi văn hóa của họ đã thấm nhần kinh nghiệm trong người đàn bà Việt Nam.
Thiết nghĩ nhủng tin tức này sẽ giúp bạn có một đường hướng rỏ rêt. Học hỏi được trong
sư tìm hiêu này có thể giúp bạn làm việc trong tương lai để tránh được quan điệm của
người đàn bà Việt Nam, thái độ, văn hóa, và gía trị. Nếu bạn đồng ý tham gia, bạn sẽ
được yêu cầu hoàn thành một thám nghiệm những câu hỏi vỡ́ ̣́i những kinh nghiệm sống
của bạn tại Hoa Kỳ. Cuộc trắc nghiêm chỉ tốn khoảng 15 phút cho tối 20 phút của bạn.
Sau khi hoàn thành, làm ơn bỏ và phong bì. Cho người nghiên cứu.
Khi hoàn thành thực nghiệm và ký tên vào sự ưng thuặn đơn này rồi sẽ để vào
những phong thư khác nhau, và được cất giữ cận thẩn trong ngăn kéo mật đượi bảo vệ.
Chỉ có người quản ly chương trình này mới có quyền điều hành và mở những tủ kéo này.
Cho tới lúc người thanh tra nghiên cứu và học xong thì hồ sỏ sẽ được bãi bỏ bằng cách
thủ tiẻu hồ sỏ này.
Nếu mà bạn không nhân đươc thù lao cho công việc này. Dù sao, người đề án sẽ
cám ỏn viêc làm của bạn. Hy vọng rằng su ̣́ hiểu biết của bạn sẽ giup cho những người đàn
bà Việt Nam đang sống tại mỹ nên biết thêm.
Ký trong đơn này, bạn hiểu rằng sự tham gia trong đề àn này là bạn đồng ỳ những
gì đã tìm hiểu. Những câu trả lời của bạn sẽ được bì mât. Bạn có quyền từ chồi tham gia
những hậu qủa tiêu cực. Bạn cũng không phải trả lṍ i những câu hỏi mà bạn cảm thầy
không thoải mái. Nếu bạn cảm thấy bi tộn thương bất cứ lúc nào làm ỏn gọi tới Asian
Pacific Community Counseling at (916) 383-6783 hoặc Mercy Education Resource
Center Counseling Department at (916)737-6026.
Nếu bạn có thắc mắc, bạn hãy vui còng liên lạc với người nghiên cứu chương
trình là Diana Hoang. Tai số điện thoai (xxx) xxx-xxxx. Người cồ vần cứa cô là Kisun
Nam, là giào sư tìm hiểu trong lanh vực xã hội học tai California State University,
Sacramento, hoặc gọi số (916) 278-7069, kisun.nam@csus.edu.
Nghiên cứu này muốn cảm ơn bạn đã dành thời gian và sự tham gia của bạn.
____________________________/_____________
Chữ ký người tham gia
Ngày tháng năm
84
APPENDIX C
Survey (English Version)
85
The Impact of Acculturation on Vietnamese Women in the United States
Section I: Demographics
Directions: Please examine the following questions or statements and mark the one that
best applies to you.
1. Your current age: ___ (18-24) ___ (25-32) ___ (33-40) ___ (41-48) ___ (49-56) ___
(57+)
2. Please state your country of birth: ______________________________.
3. With the following options, please identify the time frame when you came to the
United States:
___ (1975-1977)
___ (1978-1981) ___ (1982-1996)
___ (1997-Present)
4. Immigration Status: ___Permanent Resident (green card) ___U.S. Citizen
___ Non-Resident Alien (Student) ___ Decline to State
5. Current marital Status:
___ Single
___ Live with a partner
___ Married
___ Separated
___ Divorced
___ Widowed
6. While living in Vietnam, did you attend any school?
___ Yes (If yes, proceed to question #7)
___ No (If no, go to section II)
7. If yes, which school did you attend when moving to America: ___ Not Applicable
___ Elementary ___Middle School ___ High school ___ Some College ___ College
graduate
Section II: Acculturation
LANGUAGE
Directions: Please mark or circle the answer that best applies to you.
1. When you are at home, how often do you speak the Vietnamese language? (Please
circle one)
a. Not often at all
c. Often
86
b. Somewhat often
d. Very often
2. Check only ONE that applies to you in each row of reading, writing, speaking, and
understanding. When it comes to the Vietnamese Language, please identify what is your
proficiency in…
1=Not
proficient
at all
2=Moderately 3=Proficient 4=Somewhat 5=Very
proficient
Proficient
proficient
Reading
Writing
Speaking
Understanding
3. When you are at home, how often do you speak the English language? (Please circle
one)
a. Not often at all
c. Often
b. Somewhat often
d. Very often
4. Check only ONE that applies to you in each row of reading, writing, speaking, and
understanding. When it comes to the English Language, please identify what is your
proficiency in…
1=Not
proficient
at all
2=Moderately 3=Proficient
proficient
4=Somewhat
Proficient
5=Very
proficient
Reading
Writing
Speaking
Understanding
COMMUNICATION
Directions: Please read the statements below, and check only ONE that applies to you in
each row. Do you agree or disagree with the following:
87
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree Strongl
y
Agree
I communicate with dignity and
respect when communicating with
my parents or elders.
I communicate using Western
traditions when communicating with
my parents or elders.
I communicate how I see fit when
communicating with my parents or
elders.
When addressing my elders, making
no eye contact when speaking or
being spoken to is offensive.
When addressing my elders, making
no eye contact when speaking or
being spoken to is a sign of respect.
When addressing teachers or
professors, sitting quietly, but
attentively during class shows that
you are respectful.
When addressing teachers or
professors, asking questions in class
shows that you are respectful.
CULTURE
Directions: Please choose the answer that best applies to you.
1. Do you consider yourself: ___ Vietnamese ___ Vietnamese American
Explain why:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Do you intend to raise your children the same way you were raised growing up?
a. Absolutely Yes
b. Maybe
c. Absolutely No
88
3. How important is it for you to maintain the Vietnamese traditional culture? Would you
say…
1=Not
Important at all
2=Slightly
Important
O
O
3=Important
O
4=Somewhat
Important
5=Very
Important
O
O
4. When you are at home, how often do you…
1=Not
at all
2=Slightly
Often
3=Often
4=Somewhat
Often
5=Very
Often
Cook Vietnamese food?
Cook non- Vietnamese
food?
Wear Vietnamese style
clothing?
Wear non-Vietnamese
style clothing?
Listen to Vietnamese
music?
Listen to non-Vietnamese
music?
Celebrate Vietnamese
holidays?
Celebrate nonVietnamese holidays?
Section III: Family/Women’s Role/Perspective
Directions: Please mark the one that best applies to you and your living situation.
1. Imagine that your family will decide to buy a house. Who would make the final
decision to do so?
a. Mother
c. Grandmother
e. You
89
b. Father
d. Grandfather
f. Other: ______________
2. Who in your household is currently working and provides income for the family?
(Circle all that applies)
a. Mother
b. Father
c. Grandmother
d. Grandfather
e. You
f. Other:_______________
3. Please read the statements below, and agree or disagree with the following:
Strongly Disagree Neutral
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
I prefer to work and earn money.
I prefer to be a house wife.
I am a self-reliant individual.
I still believe in and follow the
“three obediences” of traditional
Vietnamese culture.
4. Answer the following questions if you had a spouse or partner while living in Vietnam.
Solely
I
Solely
He
Both,
but
mainly I
Both, but
mainly He
Both
equally
Who earned money for the
family?
Who was responsible for the
household chores?
5. Answer the following questions if you had a spouse or partner while living in America.
Solely
I
Who earned money for the
family?
Who was responsible for the
household chores?
Solely
He
Both,
but
mainly I
Both, but
mainly He
Both
equally
90
Section IV: Perspective of Educational Attainment
Directions: Please mark or circle the answer that best applies to you.
1. Your highest level of Education in the United States: ___ High School Diploma/Adult
Ed ___ Associate Degree ___ Bachelor’s Degree ___ Master’s Degree ___ Doctorate
Degree
2. A. Are you satisfied with your current level of education? ___Yes ___ No
Please explain your reason:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
B. If you answered “No” above, do you have plans to further your education level?
___ Yes
___ No
1. If Yes, you have plans to further your education level, but currently are not
enrolled in school, what is preventing you from doing so at this moment?
a. Finances
b. Full time job
c. Language barrier
d. Don’t know what steps to take to enroll in school
e. Other (Specify:________________________________________________)
3. A. Are you currently working?
___ Full-Time ___ Part-Time ___ Self-employed ___ Not working
B. If yes, what is your current job title? _____________________________________
4. How important is education for you? Would you say…
a. Not important at all
b. Somewhat important
c. Important
d. Very important
5. How much have your family members influenced you in achieving your education?
a. No influence at all
b. Moderately influenced
c. Adequately influenced
d. Influenced a lot
91
6. If you are currently in college, how motivated are you to complete your current degree
objective?
a. Not motivated at all
d. Very motivated
b. Slightly motivated
e. Extremely motivated
c. Somewhat motivated
f. Does not apply to me
7. For those of you who are still living at home or with other family members, how
motivated are you to be independent?
a. Not motivated at all
b. Slightly motivated
c. Somewhat motivated
d. Very motivated
e. Extremely motivated
8. Mark all that apply:
A. For those of you who attended high school in the United States, did any of these
items below serve as barriers while you were getting your education during high
school?
___Transportation
___Lack of communication/language
___Finances
___Discrimination
___Help with homework
___Lack of knowledge
___Does not apply to me
___Other (Specify:_________________________________________________)
B. For those of you who attended college in the United States, did any of these items
below serve as barriers while you were getting your education during college?
___Transportation
___Lack of communication/language
___Finances
___Discrimination
___Help with homework
___Lack of knowledge
___Does not apply to me
___Other (Specify:_________________________________________________)
Please feel free to leave additional comments for the following question.
While you have been living in America, what would you consider to be your greatest
success and what was you hardest barrier?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
This researcher would like to thank you for your time and consideration.
92
APPENDIX D
Survey (Vietnamese Version)
93
Sự Thay Đỗi Văn Hóa Của Người Phụ Nữ Việt Nam Trong Xã Hội Hoa Kỳ
Chương I: Hính Thức
Hướng Dẫn: Làm ỏn soạn nhṹng câu hỏi hoặc ý tưởng và điền vào những gì bạn cho là
đúng nhất.
1. Tuổi hiện tại: ___ (18-24) ___ (25-32) ___ (33-40) ___ (41-48) ___ (49-56)
___ (57+)
2. Làm ơn ghi nơi sanh: ______________________________.
3. Với nhừng điều chọn sau đây, làm ơn khai năm tới Hoa Kỳ:
___ (1975-1977)
___ (1978-1981) ___ (1982-1996)
___ (1997- hiện tại)
4. Trình trạng di trú: ___ Thường trú vô hạn kỳ (thé xanh) ___ Quồc tich mỹ
___ Thường trú không chính thừc (học sinh)___ Miễn khai báo
5. Trình trạng hôn nhân:
___ Độc thân
___ Chia cách
chồng/vợ
___ sống với đối tác
___ Hôn thú
___ Ly dị
___ Góa
6. Thời gian còn ở Việt Nam, bạn có đi học không?
___ Có (Nếu có, điền vào câu số 7) ___ Không (Nếu không, điền vào chương II)
7. Nếu có, bạn đã học tới đâu khi vào nước mỹ:
___ Tiểu học (tư lớp 1-5) ___ Trung học (tư lớp 6-12) ___ Vào đại học___ Học xong
đại học
Chương II: Sự Thay Đội Văn Hóa
Ngôn Ngữ
Hướng Dẫn: Làm ỏn đánh dấu hoặc khoanh tròn những gì bạn nghĩ đúng nhầt.
1. Khi ở nhà bạn có thường nói tiêng Việt? (Xin khoanh tròn một)
a. Không thường xuyên
c. Thường xuyên
b. Cũng thường xuyên
d. Rất thường xuyên
94
2. Đánh đấu chỉ có môt, mà áp dụng cho bạn cho mỗi hàng cho tập đọc, viết, nói, và
hiểu biết. Khi áp dụng và tiếng Việt, làm ơn xác đinh khả năng của bạn.
1= Không có 2= Khả năng
khả năng
vừa phải
3= Có khả
năng
4= Khả năng 5= Đủ khả
vừa biết
năng
Đọc
Viết
Nói
Hiểu biết
3. Khi ở nhà bạn có thường nói tiêng Anh? (Xin khoanh tròn một)
a. Không thường xuyên
c. Thường xuyên
b. Cũng thường xuyên
d. Rất thường xuyên
4. Đánh đấu chỉ có môt, mà áp dụng cho bạn cho mỗi hàng cho tập đọc, viết, nói, và hiểu
biết. Khi áp dụng và tiếng Anh, làm ơn xác đinh khả năng của bạn.
1= Không có 2= Khả năng
khả năng
vừa phải
3= Có khả
năng
4= Khả năng
vừa biết
5= Đủ khả
năng
Đọc
Viết
Nói
Hiểu biết
Xã Giao
Hương Dẫn: Làm ỏn đọc bản văn dưới dây, và khoăn tròn môt câu mà bạn nghĩ áp dụng
cho bạn có đống ý hoặc không đống ý những gì sau đây:
Sẽ
không
đồng ý
Tôi tìm hiểu đước sự sự nhân phẩm và
tôn trọng khi giao tiếp với cha mẹ hoặc
người lớn.
Không
đồng ý
Trung
lập
Đồng
ý
Sẽ
đồng
ý
95
Tôi tìm hiểu đước sự truyền thống
phương Tây khi giao tiếp với cha mẹ
hoặc người lớn.
Tôi tìm hiểu đước sự những gì bạn nghĩ
là đúng khi giao tiếp với cha mẹ hoặc
người lớn.
Khi hướng dẫn người lớn làm việc, bạn
không nhìn thẳng vào mắt của người lớn
khi nói chuyện hay khi bắt đầu nói công
kích.
Khi hướng dẫn người lớn làm việc, bạn
không nhìn thẳng vào mắt của người lớn
khi nói chuyện hay khi bắt đầu nói cữ chĩ
tôn trọng.
Khi nói chuyện với thầy cô, ngồi im
lặng, nhưng vẫn chăm chú để chứng tỏ
bạn kính trọng.
Khi nói chuyện với thầy cô, đặt những
cảu hỏi chưng tỏ bạn có sứ tôn trọng.
Văn Hóa
Hướng Dẫn: Làm ơn lưạ́ chọn những câu trả lời đúng nhầt.
1. Bạn thiẽ́ t nghĩ bạn là: ___ Người Việt Nam ___ Người Việt-Mỹ
Làm ỏn giải thích lý do:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Bạn dự đinh sẽ núoi con cưa bạn như cuộc đời của bạn trong thời thơ ấu?
a. Tất nhiên
b. Có thể
c. Không bao giờ
3. Quan trọng thế nào khi bạn gìn giu truyền thống Việt Nam? Bạn sẽ nói...
1=
không quan
trọng
[]
2= Quan trọng
vừa phải
[]
3= Quan trọng
4= Cuñg quan trọng
[]
[]
5= Rất quan
trọng
[]
96
4. Khi ở nhà, làm thế nào bạn có thường xuyên …
1= Không
thường
xuyên
2= Hơi
thường
xuyên
4= Cũng
thường
xuyên
3=
Thường
xuyên
5= Rất
thường
xuyên
Nấu thức ăn Việt?
Nấu thức ăn nước ngoài?
Mặc áo-quần của Việt
Nam?
Không mặc aó-quân của
Việt Nam?
Nghe nhạc Việt Nam?
Nghe nhạc ngoại quốc?
Mừng lễ hội Việt Nam?
Mừng lễ hội nước ngoài?
Chương III: Gia Đình/Địa Vị Đàn Bà/Quan Điểm
Hương Dẫn: Làm ỏn điền vào nhưñg gì bạn nghĩ đuńg nhất cho bạn và trong cuộc sống
của bạn.
1. Thiết nghĩ gia đình bạn sẽ quyết định mua nhà. Ai là người sẽ quyết định?
a. Mẹ
c. Bà
e. Bạn
b. Cha (ba)
d. Ông
f. Người khác
2. Ai là người trong gia đình bạn đàng đi làn và cung cầp tài chánh cho gia đình?
(Khoàn tròn những gì áp dụng cho bạn)
a. Mẹ
c. Bà
e. Bạn
b. Cha (ba)
d. Ông
f. Người khác
3. Làm ơn đọc dưới đây, và đồng ý hoặc không đầng ý những gì dưới đây:
Sẽ không
đồng ý
Tôi muốn đi làm và kiếm tiền.
Không
đồng ý
Trung
lập
Đồng
ý
Sẽ
đồng ý
97
Tôi muốn trở thành người nội trợ.
Tôi muốn tự lực cá nhân.
Tôi vẫn tin vào "Tam Tòng" của
truyền thống vắn hòa người Việt
Nam.
4. Trả lời những câu hỏi dưới đây nếu bạn đã có bạn đời hay đã lập gia đình khi sống ở
Việt Nam.
Chỉ
có tôi
Chỉ có
anh ta
Cả hai,
nhưng tôi
nhiều
nhất
Cả hai,
nhưng anh
ta nhiều
hơn
Cả hai
bằng
nhau
Ai là người kiếm tiền cho gia
đình?
Ai là người gành trách nhiệm
cho cả gia đình?
5. Trả lời những câu hỏi dưới đây nếu bạn đã có bạn đời hay đã lập gia đình khi sống ở
Hoa kỳ.
Chỉ
có tôi
Chỉ có
anh ta
Cả hai,
nhưng tôi
nhiều
nhất
Cả hai,
nhưng anh
ta nhiều
hơn
Cả hai
bằng
nhau
Ai là người kiếm tiền cho gia
đình?
Ai là người gành trách nhiệm
cho cả gia đình?
Chương IV: Quan Điểm Trình Độ Học Vấn
Hướng Dẫn: Làm ỏn chấm hoặc khoắn tròn nhưñg câu trả lơ ̣́i mà bạn nghĩ đúng nhất.
1. Trình độ học vấn cao nhất của bạn tại Hoa Kỳ: ___ Chứng chỉ trung học/chương trình
học vấn người lớn ___ Đai học ___ Cữ nhân ___ Cao đặng ___ Tiến sĩ
98
2. A. Bạn có thoả mạn với sư học vấn của bạn không? ___ Có ___không
Làm ỏn giải thích lý do:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
B. Nếu bạn trả lời không, bạn có dự đinh cho sự học vấn trong tương lai của bạn
không?
___ Có
___không
1. Nếu bạn có dự định sự học vấn trong tương lai, nhưñg hiễ́ ̣́n tại, thì chủa đi
học, có sự gí đã ngăn càn bạn?
a. Tài chính
b. Bận rổn trong công việc
c. Trở ngại trong ngôn ngữ
d. Không biết ghi danh đi học
e. Ý kiền khác: _______________________________
3. A. Bạn đang làm việc không?
___ Cả thời gian ___ Bán thời gian ___ Làm chủ ___ Không làm.
B. Nếu có, bạn đang làm công việc gì? __________________________________
4. Sư học vấn có quan trọng cho bạn không? Còn bạn...
a. Không quan trọng
c. Quan trọng
b. Cuñg quan trọng
d. Rất quan trọng
5. Trong gia đình có ảnh hưởng bạn đạt đến sư học vấn không?
a. Không ảnh hưởng mấy
c. Ảnh hưởng vừa đủ
b. Ảnh hưởng vừa phải
d. Rất ảnh hưởng
6. Nếu bạn đang học đại học, Khả năng thúc đẩy bạn học xong nhưñg gì bạn đang học?
a. Không động cơ mấy
d. Rất thúc đậy
b. Thúc đậy một chút
e. Quyết cố gắng
c. Thúc đậy phần nào
f. Không áp dụng với tôi
99
7. Nếu bạn còn đang sống trong gia đình hoặc nhưñg người khác trong nhà, bạn có khả
năng tự lập như thế nào?
a. Không động cơ mấy
d. Rất thúc đậy
b. Thúc đậy một chút
e. Quyết cố gắng
c. Thúc đậy phần nào
8. Điền vào tất cả nhưñg câu đúng:
A. Nếu bạn đã học trung học tai Hoa Kỳ, nhưñg điều gì sau đây đã ngăn cản bạn trong
thới gian
đang học trung học?
___ sự vận chuyển
___Anh văn kèm
___ Tài chính
___ Kỳ thị
___ Cần giúp làm bài tập
___ Kém học vấn
___ Không áp dụng với tôi
___ khác (đặc biệt:_______________________________________________)
B. Nếu bạn đã học đại học tai Hoa Kỳ, nhưñg điều sau đây đã ngăn cản bạn trong thới
gian đang học đại học?
___ sự vận chuyển
___Anh văn kèm
___ Tài chính
___ Kỳ thị
___ Cần giúp làm bài tập
___ Kém học vấn
___ Không áp dụng với tôi
___ khác (đặc biệt:_______________________________________________)
Ban cứ thoại mái với nhưñg ý kiến của bạn.
Thời gian bạn đang sông tại Hoa Kỳ, bạn cảm nhận thế nào để trở nên người thành công
nhất, và nhưñg gì đã cản trở bạn?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Là người tìm hiểu, chúng tội cám ơn thời giờ với sự hiểu biết của bạn.
100
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