Digital Media
Dr. Jim Rowan
Chapter 2
First, some
mac software you will be using
(found in the application folder)
• Grab - used to do a screen capture
• TextEdit - used as a simple word
processor
• PhotoBooth - used to take your picture
with the built in camera and take video
with the built in camera
• Preview: Change image file formats
About file formats and extensions
(like .au, .doc, .ppt, .mov)
• Indication to us (the humans) what kind
of file this is
• Some software looks at the extension
– so... some software will try to open files
with improper extensions
– results in “file corrupted” error message
– try it... change the extension from .doc to
.jpg
File formats and extensions
• Some software looks at the data in the file for
more definitive answer (the header)
• important file-related information is encoded in the data
of the file
• for example: some image formats have color tables to
reduce the size of the file
• some video just saves the changes from one frame to the
next
• we’ve seen the header before when we used hexFiend
to look at images… image size is stored in the header
The Question:
• How do you put stuff in a computer
– so that you can manipulate it
– so that you can send it
– so that someone else can see and use it?
• How do you represent the real world in
a digital world?
The answer:
•
•
•
•
•
Represent the real world as numbers
Store the numbers
Transmit the numbers
Retrieve the numbers
Display them in a form humans
understand
Today:
• Overview of things to come…
• About the real world
• About digital representation
• From the first day’s lecture we saw
different types of real world stuff as a
bunch of numbers
Note on paper
Picture
Song: fieldsOfGold.mp3
Video
So… it’s all just numbers, and
binary numbers at that!
First we must talk about
numbering systems!
First, Numbering systems:
Decimal
Binary
Hexadecimal
Which statement is True?
5 + 5 = 10
1 + 1 = 10
7 + 1 = 10
F + 1 = 10
well… it depends…
5 + 5 = 10 (in decimal)
1 + 1 = 10 (in binary)
7 + 1 = 10 (in octal)
welcome to numbering systems!
Numbering systems
• Humans: decimal
– Humans: 10 fingers, 10 digits
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9 10
• Computers: binary
– Computers: 1 finger, 2 digits
–0&1
Hexadecimal
• Humans and Computers: hexadecimal
– Hexadecimal: 15 fingers, 16 digits
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Why Hexadecimal?
• You can use one hexadecimal instead of 4 binary
digits
• While this seems complicated.. it is actually easier
(after some practice!) for humans to deal with 16
different digits than 4 0s and 1s
• In Hex: 0123456789ABCDEF
• In binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110
0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
How many different things?
• In Decimal 1 digit can represent 10 different things:
– 0123456789
• In Decimal 2 digits can represent 100 different things:
– 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12… 97 98 99
• In Binary 1 digit can represent 2 different things:
– 0 and 1
• In Binary 2 digits can represent 4 different things:
– 00 01 10 11
• In Hexadecimal 1 digit can represent 16 different things:
– 0123456789ABCDEF
• In Hexadecimal 2 digits can represent 256 different things:
– 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 1A 1B 1C 1D 1E 1F 20 21… F9 FA FB FC FD FE FF
How many different things?
• So… how many things can you count with 4 hex digits?
– USE THE FORMULA!
– [number of digits in the numbering system]**[number of
digits used]…
– [16]**[4] = 65,536
• How many things can you count with 4 decimal digits?
– [number of digits in the numbering system]**[number of
digits used]…
– [10]**[4] = 10,000
• How many things can you count with 4 binary digits?
– [number of digits in the numbering system]**[number of
digits used]…
– [2]**[4] = 16
Counting…
with a different number of fingers
(it’s the same process but different number sets)
• 10 fingers: Counting in decimal
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 then… start over with 0
and increment the digit to the left ==> 10
• 1 finger: Counting in binary
– 0, 1 then… start over with 0 and increment the
digit to the left ==> 10
• 16 fingers: Counting in hexadecimal
– 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F then…
start over with 0 and increment the digit to the left
==> 10
Binary Coding
• Data for a computer... Binary
– zeros and ones
• Data for humans... Hex
– 1 Hexadecimal represents 4 binary digits
• Data for humans… ASCII (the alphabet)
– 2 hex codes ==> 1 ASCII code
For example ==>
Example: ASCII Code
• Humans and Computers: ASCII
– The ASCII code for C is
• in hexadecimal: 43 (In decimal: 67)
• which is binary: 0100 0011
Stuff in the Real World
to
Stuff on a computer… HOW?
• A note…
– Letters of the alphabet-> bits (0s and 1s)
• A picture…
– Reflected light -> bits (0s and 1s)
• A song…
– Pressure waves in air -> bits (0s and 1s)
• A video…
– Pressure waves in air and Reflected light ->
bits (0s and 1s)
HOW?
After numbering systems we
need to know a bit about the
real world, about:
Discrete
&
Continuous
Phenomena in the Real world:
discrete vs continuous
•
•
•
•
Things in the real world can be discrete
They either ARE or they ARE NOT
These things can be counted
Examples:
– The number of cars in the parking lot
– The number of beans in a jar
Phenomena in the Real world:
discrete vs continuous
• Things in the real world can be continuous
• Continuous can’t be counted, it must be
measured
• Examples:
– Atmospheric pressure
– Height of an ocean wave
– Frequency of a sound wave
The problem is...
computers can only count
• Discrete data is easy for a computer
– count it and store it as a number
• Continuous data... easy? not so much
– music:
• sample the music and then…
• encode as a collection of numbers
– pictures:
• measure the amount (intensity) and frequency of light
(color) in a number of spots of light (pixels)
• encode the frequency and the intensity as a collection of
numbers
Question...
• If computers only store 0s and 1s...
• How does all this continuous stuff end
up in a computer so that we can save it
and play it back?
• Answer
– Continuous data must be converted to
discrete data through sampling
From the Real World
…and Back!
Converting continuous phenomenon to digital data:
-You must SAMPLE to convert it to discrete
Sampling consists of two processes
1) stop to take a measurement
the number per time period is called the sample rate
2) take and store the measurement
the number of different values each sample can take
on is called the quantization level
Digital data back to continuous phenomenon:
– Display samples using “sample and hold”
• Play the sample for the duration of the sample time
Sampling…
• more on this a bit later…
• there’s other stuff to consider before we
jump into sampling
Before we go further with sampling:
What this stuff means:
Bit: binary digit
Byte: 8 Bits
KB: kilo byte (1000 bytes)
MB: mega byte (1,000,000 bytes)
GB: giga byte (1,000,000,000 bytes)
TB: tera byte (1,000,000,000,000 bytes)
KBPS: kilo (1,000) bits per second
MBPS: mega (1,000,000) bits per second
A note to the Geeks…
• The rest of you guys… pay no attention
to this slide… it’ll just upset you!
• Yes, I know that within the world of
computers 1K is not 1000 but is 1024
• For this class let’s just lie to the rest of
the folks and keep it to ourselves!
Also… note this!
• Communications are usually stated in
bps (bits per second)
• File size is usually stated in bytes
• AND: there are 8 bits per byte
– you will have to convert from one to the
other when you do download/upload
calculations
A bit about network access
•
•
•
•
dial up connection
ADSL
T1
T3
Network access...
• dial up connection
– phone modem
– asymmetric
• 56,000 bps (bits, not bytes) max downstream
(internet to modem)
• 33.6 kbps upstream (modem to internet)
– rarely get these speeds
Network access...
• ADSL
– asymmetric digital subscriber line
– over copper phone wires
– limited to short distance from phone switch
– asymmetric
• 6.1 mbps downstream
• 640 kbps upstream
Network access...
Commercial internet users
• T1 connection 1.544 mbps
• T3 connection 44.7 mbps
• Provide web servers for others to put
websites on
• Large commercial enterprises will have
their own web server
Time-to-download/upload
calculations
• The Speeds:
– Dial-Up
• 56,000 bps internet to modem (downstream)
• 33,600 bps modem to internet (upstream)
– ADSL
• 6.1 mbps (million bps) downstream
• 640 kbps (thousand bps) upstream
– T1
• 1.544 mbps
– T3
• 44.7 mbps
NOTE!
bps is bits per
second while filesize
is stated in
bytes
And now for a little
SAMPLING!
Sampling is the process of looking at stuff
VERY frequently then taking a measurement
and storing the measurement
• Next class… sampling!
But...
How many samples do you
need?
It depends…
So let’s look at sampling…
single sample
single sample
single sample
(sample and hold)
two samples
two samples
two samples
(sample and hold)
three samples
three samples
three samples
(sample and hold)
four samples
four samples
four samples
(sample and hold)
five samples
five samples
five samples
(sample and hold)
Taking it a lot farther…
Taking it a lot farther…
How frequently should I
sample?
• too few
– small file size (good)
– not a faithful representation when replayed
• too many
– large file size (bad)
– excellent representation when replayed
• The Nyquist rate
– twice as many samples as the frequency being
captured
– Results in an ok file size
– Results in faithful representation when replayed
CD quality is
44,100 samples per second
• Why?
– Human hearing response is in the range of 20
to 22,000 cycles per second
• Nyquist sample rate =
highest frequency to be captured = 22,050 CPS
2 x 22,050 = 44,100 samples per second
Looking at FieldsOfGold.mp3…
• 4 minutes and 59 seconds long
• 1,201,173 bytes in length
Can this be right?
• CD quality
– 44,100 samples per second (sample rate)
– 16 bit samples (quantization level is 16 bit)
– 16 bits can store 65,536 different levels
• (2**16 = 65,536 individual levels)
FieldsOfGold.mp3
• 4’59 = 299 seconds long
• 299 x 44,100 samples per second
= 13,156,000 samples
• 13,185,900 x 2 bytes/sample (2 bytes = 16 bits)
– 26,371,800 bytes
•
•
•
•
Stereo: 2 channels => 52,743,600 bytes
Should be 52+ megabytes!
Why does it show only 1.2 megabytes?
HMMMmmm...
FieldsOfGold.mp3
• Why 52+ megabytes not 1.2 megabytes?
– wait for it…
FieldsOfGold.mp3
• Why 52+ megabytes not 1.2 megabytes?
• This is an MP3!
• The data is COMPRESSED!
• If you had the song on a CD it would be 52+
megabytes long and in .aiff format
Two types of compression
• Lossy
• Lossless
run length encoding
table compression
.mp3 audio
.jpeg images
Further reading
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist_rate
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_%
28signal_processing%29
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp3
The side effects of sampling:
sampling artifacts
Sampling Artifacts
are the negative side effects
caused by having to sample
continuous data
Sampling Artifacts
• Under-sampling: not enough samples
being taken of continuous data can
produce undesired artifacts
• Examples might be:
– Moire’ patterns on images
– retrograde motion on video
Sampling Artifacts (cont.)
• Not enough quantization levels when
sampling continuous data can produce
undesired artifacts
• Examples might be:
– too few grey levels: gradients become steps
– too few brightness levels: posterization
Sampling Artifacts
Retrograde Motion
4 samples/cycle, 2 cycles
2 samples/cycle, 2 cycles
Sampling Artifacts (cont.)
• Audio
– too few amplitude levels, quantization
noise
• 8 bits (256 amplitude levels) produces
discernable noise
• 16 bits (65,536 amplitude levels) CD
quality, no discernable hiss
– general sound “fuzziness” or a “flat”
sound
How can you store an image
on a computer?
• Bitmapped images
• Vector graphics
Images, bitmapped
• Are stored as arrays of pixels
• Can be stored directly
– TIFF & PNG for example
• Can have an associated color map
– JPEG for example
• Generating these pixels from the stored
model is called rendering
Images, vector graphic
• Are stored as mathematical descriptions
• Often smaller than bitmapped
• Size of the file is independent of
resolution or image size
• Not suitable for some type of images
Example & Comparison
• Bitmapped graphics
– Defined as spots (pixels) of color
– Has problems scaling
– File size unaffected by image complexity
– File size affected by the image size
• Vector graphics
– Defined by their mathematically described parts
– File size affected by image complexity
– File size unaffected by the image size
(scaling is easy)
Moving images
• Captured live with camera
– iMovie
– Stored as video
• Generated from animation
– Blender
– Similar to 2D vector graphics… but in 3D and
with a means of creating motion
2110-01&02 for Friday
Network communication
&
Servers and Clients
Servers & Clients...
• Clients consume and display internet content
• Your browser is a client
• Clients request content from servers
– by sending a server an HTTP://URL message which is a request for a
web page
• Servers respond to requests for internet content
– send requested web pages to Clients
• The content is sent in HTML code
– HTML sent by the server is interpreted by the client (browser) and
displayed on your display
• Look at http://www.pondliner.com/ and view source
URL (uniform resource locator)…
a human-readable name
• URL takes the form:
http://www.amazon.com/newStuff/index.html
• URL has 3 parts
– the protocol that you are using (http://)
– The domain name: (www.amazon.com)
– The directory and file you want to see:
(newStuff.index.html)
– the URL maps to a number called an IP
address
Servers & Clients...
• servers have fixed IPs so they are easy to find
• your computer probably uses DHCP which is a
dynamic (changing from connection to connection) IP
• An example: my IP right now (assigned through
dhcp) is: (look it up in system preferences)
• IPv4 vs IPv6
requested
webpages
your browser
(Safari)(client)
DHCP:
yahoo.com
(server)
235.01.30.164
your computer
The Internet
Domain Name System (DNS)
walmart.com
(server)
100.43.153.07
your browser
(Safari)(client)
DHCP: 135.10.34.143
requested
webpages
yahoo.com
(server)
235.01.30.164
your computer
ISP
The Internet
Domain Name System (DNS)
walmart.com
(server)
100.43.153.07
your browser
(Safari)(client) http://www.yahoo.com
DHCP: 135.10.34.143
requested
webpages
yahoo.com
(server)
235.01.30.164
your computer
The Internet
Domain Name System (DNS)
http://www.yahoo.com =
235.01.30.164
walmart.com
(server)
100.43.153.07
your browser /index.html
(Safari)(client) http://www.yahoo.com
DHCP: 135.10.34.143
your computer
requested
webpages
yahoo.com
(server)
235.01.30.164
The Internet
Domain Name System (DNS)
http://www.yahoo.com =
235.01.30.164
walmart.com
(server)
100.43.153.07
Questions?