The Cold War
US Involvement in Vietnam
1946 - 1975
US Involvement in Vietnam
US involvement began during the closing days of World
War II when the first US casualty, Lt. Col. A. Peter
Dewey was killed on 26 September 1945.
US involvement in Vietnam spanned six presidential
administrations over a thirty year period.
By 30 April 1975 when the US completed its withdrawal
the US had suffered 58,209 KIA and more than 2,000
MIA.
Roots of US Involvement
Truman Administration: 1945 to 1953
Refused to recognize Ho’s government
Ignored communications from Ho
Reluctantly agreed to French
reconquest
Financially supported French efforts
Accused of “losing” China, did not want to “lose”
Vietnam
Roots of US Involvement
With the fall of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 the
French were forced out of Vietnam in July.
Realizing they could not sustain their colonies in
Indochina the French petitioned for peace.
The resulting peace conference reflected the
mounting tensions of the Cold War and the
recent armistice ending the conflict in Korea.
Roots of US Involvement
The victorious Viet Minh, acceding to pressure
from the USSR and communist China, agreed
to a interim division along the 17th parallel.
The Soviets and the Chinese feared a strained
and confrontational peace agreement would
further anger France and, more importantly,
France’s ally the United States.
The Communists also believed they were in a
better position politically and felt they could
resolve the situation in Vietnam by political
action.
Roots of US Involvement
The Geneva Accords
Vietnam would hold national elections in July
1956 to reunify the country
The division at the seventeenth parallel would
vanish with the elections
Opposing forces (the Viet Minh and former
Vietnamese troops who supported the French)
were to withdraw to their respective sections
Roots of US Involvement
Eisenhower Administration: 1953 to 1961
Refused to sign Geneva Accords
Violated the spirit of the accords
Installed Diem as president of RVN
Replaced France as Diem’s primary
supporter
Articulated the “Domino Theory”
Sent about 750 military advisors to train army of
RVN
Roots of US Involvement
With Vietnam split into the
Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (the north) and the
State of Vietnam (the south)
which ultimately became the
Republic of Vietnam (aka the
Republic of South Vietnam) northern leadership
moved to oust the US backed government in the
south headed by Ngo Dinh Diem.
Roots of US Involvement
President Ngo Dinh Diem had no intention
of holding elections for a united Vietnam and
as his regime became more unpopular his
political opponents began to consider alternatives.
They eventually came to believe violence was the only
way to persuade Diem to agree to the terms of the
1954 Geneva Conference.
From 1956 to 1957 the south experienced a huge increase in the
number of peasants leaving their homes to join armed
insurgent groups in the back areas of Vietnam.
The insurgents could not take on the South Vietnamese Army at
first so they concentrated on 'soft targets'.
In 1959, an estimated 1,200 of Diem's government officials were
murdered.
Roots of US Involvement
1959
At first the leader of North Vietnam opposed the terrorism but changed
his mind when he was informed the attacks had been so successful
that if the north did not support the insurgents unified Vietnam was
out of the question.
North Vietnam’s Central Executive Committee issues Resolution 15,
changing its strategy toward South Vietnam from "political
struggle" to "armed struggle."
The North Vietnamese Army creates Group 559: the specialized group
is given the mission of establishing a supply route from the north to
rebel forces in the south. Prince Sihanouk of Cambodia allows
Group 559 to develop the route along the Vietnamese/Cambodian
border, with branches spreading into Vietnam along its entire length.
This route becomes known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
The Ho Chi Minh Trail
Roots of US Involvement
1960
In 1960 Ho Chi Minh persuaded the various insurgent groups to
form a more powerful and effective resistance organization.
In December, 1960, insurgents formed the National
Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF).
The NLF, or the 'Vietcong', as the Americans were
to call them, was a conglomeration of more then a
dozen different political and religious groups.
The leader of the NLF, Hua Tho, was a non-Marxist, Saigon
lawyer, but large numbers of the movement supported
communism.
The NLF fell more and more under the control of Ho Chi Minh
and North Vietnam.
Roots of US Involvement
Kennedy Administration: 1961 to 1963
Rejected negotiated settlement with Ho
Refused recommendations to
dramatically increase U.S. military
presence but did increase the
number of advisors to about
16,000 by 1963
Encouraged coup that deposed & assassinated
Diem
Army of the Republic of Vietnam
(ARVN)
In 1957 the US Military Assistance Advisor Group
(MAAG) assumed responsibility for training South
Vietnamese forces.
Republic of Vietnam Navy
Vietnamese Marines
Ap Bac – The First Invasion
January 2, 1963
350 Vietcong inflict 191 casualties on
a combined ARVN/US (advisors &
transport) assault force of 1400 while
suffering but 57.
More serious was the timidity and utter unwillingness of
the South Vietnamese to engage the enemy or to advance
under fire even to aid fellow ARVN’s.
"These people (the Vietnamese) won't listen—they make the same mistakes over and over again in the same way."
The Buddhist Crisis
In the days just previous to the Buddhist celebration of
Vesak – the birthday of Gautama Buddha – Vatican
flags had been flown in association with a Catholic
celebration.
Following the Catholic celebrations, Diem came to the
conclusion that the government ought to enforce a
longstanding though seldom enforced law prohibiting
the flying of ALL religious flags outdoors.
The flying of flags represented an assertion of power to
the Vietnamese and Diem – in all likelihood – enforced
the law in order to preserve the government’s prestige.
(Moyar, Mark. Triumph Forsaken. p. 212)
The Buddhist Crisis
The ordinance applied to ALL religious groups
but the timing of the decision to enforce the
decree was ill advised at best.
On 07 May 1963 at the urging of several Buddhist
monks, thousands of Buddhist flags were flown
publically and the next day 500 Buddhists
protesters gathered at a pagoda in Hue with
banners protesting the ban of the public display of
their flags.
The Buddhist Crisis
The protesters were led by Tri Quang who told the crowd the
government favored the Catholics and persecuted Buddhists.
When Tri Quang attempted to broadcast a tape critical of the
government the local radio station’s director refused to permit
the broadcast.
When the provincial chief arrived he attempted to convince the
protesters to go home but they refused and scuffling followed by
rock throwing and eventually the use of fire hoses to break up
the protesters was employed.
When the army arrived and the protesters continued to refuse to
leave, artillery blanks and rifles were fired into the air.
According to Buddhists the Army then opened fire on the
protesters and threw grenades into the crowd.
While some protesters were in all likelihood injured by
government troops it is also probable that some of the protesters
were injured when the protesters themselves set of explosives
among the crowd.
What is for certain is that 8 people died and 14 were injured,
most of them Buddhist protesters.
The Buddhist Crisis
The government expressed sorrow for those that had
been killed and promised the government would
provide compensation to the families leading
many, including the American consul in Hue to
“Believe crisis nearing end.”
Tri Quang and other leaders refused to be
conciliated. They issued a new list of demands:
 responsible government officials had to be punished
 removal of all restrictions concerning the flying of
flags
 a prohibition against the arrest of Buddhists
The Buddhist Crisis
Diem opened a dialogue with the Buddhists but
refused – for obvious reasons – to give in to the
Buddhist demands, especially the last.
Diem did not round up and silence the Buddhists
though the example coming from Ho Chi Minh in
the north was for him to do exactly that.
The US press corps in Saigon seized on this incident
and began to use it as evidence that the Diem
government lacked public support, was hopelessly
repressive and therefore deserved to be overthrown.
The Buddhist Crisis
The two main sources of information
used by the US press were Pham Ngoc
Thao and Pham Xuan An
Pham Ngoc Thao was a colonel in the
South Vietnamese Army.
Pham Xuan An was a member of the
press corps serving Reuters as a
stringer.
Both were communist spies.
The Buddhist Crisis
Thieh Quang Duc – June 11, 1963
Concerning the supposed Diem persecution and repression of the Buddhists:
 1,275 Buddhist pagodas were built under the Diem administration
 The Diem administration provided large amounts of money for Buddhists schools,
ceremonies and other activities.
 Of Diem’s 18 cabinet members 5 were Catholic, 5 were Confucians, and 8 were Buddhists.
 12 Provincial chiefs were Catholic while 26 were either Buddhists or Confucians.
 Only three of the top military officers were Catholic.
The Great Myth Population
The US press consistently claimed that 70% to 80% of the
South Vietnamese population was Buddhist.
A large portion of the population did have some type of
Buddhist affiliation – HOWEVER:
 only 3 to 4 million of 15 million South Vietnamese were
Buddhists and only 50% of those were actual practicing
Buddhists
 most Buddhists lived in the countryside and knew nothing of
political disturbances
 Confucians numbered about 3 to 4 million also
 1 ½ million were Catholics
 Another 2 ½ to 3 million were either Cao Dai or Hoa Hao
 The remainder were animists, Taoists, Protestant Christians,
Hindus or Muslims.
Initial Involvement and Escalation
Johnson Administration (1963 – 1968)
Wanted to avoid provoking wider war
Followed a policy of gradual escalation
Hoped DRV would eventually quit
Dramatically increased U.S. involvement
Troop strength peaked at ~500,000
in 1968
Initiated peace talks with DRV in 1968
Initial US Involvement
August 2 & 4, 1964
DD 731 – USS Maddox
DD 951 – USS Turner C. Joy
Initial Involvement
On 11 October 1964 the Central Military
Commission and the High
Command of theVietnamese
People’s Army ordered the
communist forces operating in the
south to initiate three offensives
during the winter and spring 1965.
 Eastern Nam Bo
 Central Trung Bo
 Tay Nguyen (Central Highlands)
Initial Involvement
1965
February 07 – Viet Cong attack the military barracks
at Pleiku: the early morning attack leaves 8
Americans dead and 108 wounded – several US
aircraft are damaged or destroyed
President Johnson takes the attack personally and
orders air strikes that will become Operation
Rolling Thunder. The operation will bomb
targets in North Vietnam over the next three
years.
March 08 – Two battalions of US Marines land at Da
Nang – their primary mission is to provide
security for the US airbase
Aug – Marines conduct first offensive operations
against VC south of Chu Lai
Nov – US Army engages NVA regulars in the Ia
Drang Valley
Dec – US troops strength reaches 200,000
Initial Involvement
Escalation
Initial Involvement
Escalation
8 March 64 – two battalions of Marines land at
Danang to provide security or the US air base
30 June 65 – The Marines have some seven
battalions in Military Region 1 – I Corps.
The Marines establish bases at Phu Bai, and Chu
Lai north and south of Danang.
The Second Invasion - 1965
In early August the Marine commander at Chu Lai
learned of a planned VC attack. Instead of
waiting for the VC to strike General Lew Walt
directed a pre-emptive attack.
Operation Starlight lasted 6 days and involved both
US Marines and ARVN troops defeating the 1st
VC Regiment. The US/ARVN troops claimed
29 KIA and another 70 WIA while inflicting
281 KIA on the VC Regiment reflecting the
popular idea of “body count” during this phase
of the war.
In November, following another attack in the
Pleiku area the US 7th Cavalry conducted
operations in the Ia Drang valley against North
Vietnamese Regulars – this proved to be the
initial “invasion by NVA regulars.
Escalation
US Goals in Vietnam
Limited war, didn’t want to provoke:
Soviet Union (USSR)
People’s Republic of China (PRC)
A stable, non-communist government in South
Vietnam (RVN)
Hoped to “Get in, get out, get on”
Early Opposition
Gaylord Nelson (D-Wis) - Questioned the unlimited nature of the
wording of the resolution as it applied to presidential power
concerning both troop strength/deployment and military response
including a “direct military assault.”
J. William Fulbright (D-Ark) – Read the resolution to the Senate but
during the debate that followed said he would deplore the
deployment of large number of US troops
William Gruening (D-Alk) – Disagreed with the presidents policy.
Questioned the limits (or lack of limits) on presidential powers
under the resolution. “I am opposed to sacrificing a single
American boy in this venture.”
Wayne Morse (D-Ore.) –” I believe that history will record that we
have made a great mistake. . . I believe this resolution to be a
historic mistake. I believe that within the next century, future
generations will look with dismay and great disappointment upon a
Congress which is now about to make such a historic mistake.
M
ay
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-7
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1
Declining Public Support
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Progress Reports
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In November of 1967, the Administration launched an extensive "public relations"
campaign. It was designed to convince Congress, the press, and the public that there was
"progress" in Vietnam and that the war was being "won.“
Johnson was advised to "[E]mphasize light at the end of the tunnel instead of battles,
deaths, and danger." "There are ways," Johnson was told, "of guiding the press to show
light at the end of the tunnel“
To head this effort, Johnson brought General William Westmoreland, commander of
American forces in Vietnam, to Washington. Westmoreland addressed the National Press
Club saying that the U.S. had reached the point "where the end comes into view"
Turning Point: 1968
Just after midnight on 31 January 1968
the North Vietnamese launched the
Tet Mau Than (Tet) offensive in Nha
Trang
The primary objectives of this offensive,
as with all offensives launched by
Hanoi, were political.
The North Vietnamese were well
acquainted with the US political
process and for two years had been
preparing this offensive with the
eventual goal of affecting the 1968
Presidential Election.
The offensive would also serve to show
the world that the South Vietnamese
people, when given the chance,
would rally to the cause of the
National Liberation Front (NLF) and
the Viet Cong (VC).
Turning Point: 1968
By the end of the offensive the world “knew” that the RVNAF
were defeated at every juncture. It was a broken force and the
government in the South was ready for conquest because it
was about to disintegrate
The American media had a field day.
 Every night pictures of dead US service men streamed across
television sets.
 It was implied that the VC had captured the US Embassy in Saigon
(they had not).
 27 February 1968 Walter Cronkite delivered his famous broadcast for
CBS in which he said “We are mired in stalemate.”
 To make matters worse, President Johnson and his staff were watching
Cronkite’s broadcast and began to second guess themselves.
Turning Point: 1968
The chief of the Saigon police executing a suspected
Viet Cong
Turning Point: 1968
Unfortunately, the “world” if not flat out wrong was at
least incorrect in its perceptions.
 The South Vietnamese people did not rally to the north.
 The guerrilla movement was exposed and its infrastructure
decimated.
 The VC were devastated.
 While actual looses may never be known, between 50,000
and 80,000 communists were killed.
 Two-thirds of those were VC casualties.
 The VC lost its prime source of leadership.
Turning Point: 1968
On St. Patrick’s Day, March 17, 1968, Wallace Carroll,
an anti-war newspaper columnist, wrote and
published a signed column titled “Vietnam – Quo
Vidas?” In it he contended that America was
“misguided” and that the war was “irrelevant to the
goal of thwarting Soviet expansion.” Dean Acheson,
a former Secretary of State, and an advisor to
President Kennedy showed the article to President
Johnson. The Washington Post would later report
that this column had a huge impact on Johnson’s
decision not to seek re-election
Turning Point: 1968
Webb summed up the outcome of the offensive when he
wrote that the offensive was the,
“… watershed event of the war from the American
perspective, since public support fell steadily from that point
forward. Nonetheless, Tet 1968 was a clear military victory.
American and South Vietnamese forces at a cost of 4,000 and
5,000 lives respectively, killed 58,000 enemy soldiers, turned
back the communists at every point, and effectively destroyed
the South Vietnamese communist military (NLF). In
Vietnamese terms Tet 1968 was a political victory as well.
Contrary to the predictions of General Giap and others, the
South Vietnamese people declined to support the communists
who temporarily gained control of their towns and villages.”
The 1968 Election
<= Richard M. Nixon
Republican
Hubert H. Humphrey =>
Democrat
George W. Wallace =>
American Independent party
Democratic
National
Convention
Chicago
1968
The 1968 Election
The Candidates’ proposals for Vietnam
Nixon: “Secret plan” to end the war
Humphrey: Suspend bombing as an act of good
faith, continue negotiations
Wallace: Expand war, use nuclear weapons to
defeat North Vietnam
Trying to Disengage
Nixon Administration (1968 – 1973)
Claimed to have a “secret plan” to end
the war
Promised “peace with honor”
Expanded air war to Laos & Cambodia
Invaded Cambodia & Laos
Negotiated Paris Peace Accords
Withdrew last U.S. troops in 1973
My Lai Massacre
March 16, 1968
Changing Commanders
Creighton Adams took command of US
forces in June 1968 and with the
change in command came a change
in the way the US armed forces
approached the war.
There was an immediate shift in:
the concept of the nature and conduct of the war
the appropriate measures of merit
the tactics to be applied
The Cambodian Incursion
(May – June 1970)
Attempt to cut Ho Chi
Minh Trail
Destroy PAVN, NLF
forces in SE
Cambodia
Destroy communist base
areas & sanctuaries
Provoked massive
unrest in U.S.
universities
Kent State University
May 4, 1970
1972
For four years neither the NVA, the NLA or
the VC could mount a major offensive. Tet 68
had more than decimated each.
Hanoi decided to put all its hopes and dreams
into one massive offensive. Always aware of
the political environment and election cycles
in the US, they determined to launch their
Nguyen-Hue Offensive in the spring of 1972.
Both the timing and the naming of the
offensive were geared toward recalling
Vietnamese nationalism once again.
The Nguyen-Hue Offensive was planned on
three separate “fronts.”
1. An assault would attack into Military
Region (MR) 1 or I Corps.
2. Another point of attack would be the
central highlands of MR II into Kontum
Province with the provincial capital of
Kontum city as an objective.
3. Finally, in MR III and IV drives would be
made to surround and isolate Saigon the
capital of South Vietnam.
Truong, Ngo Quang. The Easter Offensive of 1972. Washington:
U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1980. p. 9.
1972 Offensive
Assault on Military Region I
The Christmas Bombings
(1972)
Paris Peace Accords
January 27, 1973
General cease-fire
All U.S. troops out in 60 days
DRV to release all U.S. POWs
Neither side to send further troops to RVN
 (150,000 PAVN troops allowed to remain)
Created national Council of Reconciliation
Reconciliation to be
 Gradual
 Peaceful
 Free of coercion
In January, 1973 the “Agreement
on Ending the War and Restoring
Peace in Vietnam” more
informally know as the Paris
accord was signed. Shortly
thereafter the United States
Congress voted to withdraw
funding from the South
Vietnamese. With no money to
buy bullets, beans or gas, the
defensive capabilities of the
RVNAF eroded and eventually
collapsed. On April 29, 1975 the
last Americans who wished
departed Saigon, South Vietnam.
The next day, the South
Vietnamese government
surrendered. The North had
finally won a campaign in the
South.
Operation Frequent Wind
The End
Thousands upon thousands of our Allies were tortured and died in
communist "Re-education Camps" after the fall of the South on April
30, 1975. Multitudes of others have been scarred for life. During
five trips back to Vietnam in the 1990's one Vietnam veteran found
that most of the former soldiers that he encountered still welcome
the American veteran back with open arms. As strange as it may
seem, the camaraderie of a shared experience is what continues to
bind veterans together.
Many former Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army soldiers who are
still trying to come to terms with the war. One retired Viet Cong
colonel said that, if he had to do it all over again, he would join the
fight against the North. For his years of servitude to the communist
regime all he has to show for it is a $5 a month retirement check.
There are no other benefits to living under communist rule.
Assessing of the War
 Sapped national will
 Fragmented national consensus that had dominated
foreign policy since 1947
 Failed to transfer democracy to Vietnam
 Eroded respect for the military
 Drastically divided the U.S. population
 Eroded trust and confidence between the American
people and their government
The End
~ We Joined their Dream ~ We Fought Side by Side ~ We Deserted Them ~