1 The Study of Second Language Axquisition
L1 ----------> Interlanguage grammar <------------ L2
Figure 1 Influences on an interlanguage grammar
1.1 The Role of the First Language
Table 1 Phonological transfer
English target
French speaker German speaker
have [hv]
[v]
[hf]
1.2 The Role of the Second Language
Table 2 One possible pronunciation of the English word eyes by a
German-speaking learner
Target form
Result of Final
Result of Canadian
Obstruent Devoicing
Vowel Raising
/ajz/
[ajs]
[js]
1.3 The Nature of An Interlanguage
Ontogeny Model
Transfer errors
Developmental errors
fossilized
Table 3 Error patterns in L2 acquisition
Level of proficiency
Transfer errors
Beginner
high
Intermediate
medium
Advanced
low
Developmental errors
low
high
low
1.4 The Final Stage

Communicative competence

Grammatical competence

Textual competence

Sociolinguistic competence

Illocutionary competence

Illocutionary force
Communicative competence
Language
competence
Strategic
competence
Organizational
competence
Grammatical
competence
Vocabulary
Psychophysiological
mechanisms
Pragmatic
competence
Textual
Illocutionary
competence competence
Cohesion
Rhetorical
organization
Sociolinguistic
competence
Dialect Cultural
references
Syntax
Morphology
Register
Phonology
Functional
Abilities
Figure 2 A model of communicative competence
1.5 Variation In Performance
2
Interlanguage Grammars
2.1 L2 Phonology

Segmental phonology

Markedness

Prosodic phonology
L2 syllabification
Stress assignment
2.2 L2 Syntax

Null subjects
The Null Subject Parameter:
The subject of a finite clause {may/may not} be
null.

Verb movement
The Verb Movement Parameter:
V {raises/does not raise} to Infl.
S
NP
Infl
VP
Adv
Figure 3
V
Verb movement
Markedness and the Subset Principle
The Subset Principle:
The initial of default setting of a parameter will correspond
to the most restrictive option (i.e., the option that permits
the fewest patterns).
2.3 L2 Morphology
Table 4 Developmental order for first language acquisition
1. –ing
the present participle affix
(e.g., she is working)
2. Plural –s
(e.g., bottles)
3. Irregular past
(e.g., she taught French)
4. Possessive –s
(e.g., a child’s toy)
5. Copula be
(e.g., I am happy)
6. Articles
(e.g., a, the)
7. Regular past
(e.g., she walked quickly)
8. Third person –s (e.g., she walks quickly)
9. Auxiliary be
(e.g., she is working)
Table 5 Developmental order for second language acquisition
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
–ing
Copula be
Articles
Auxiliary be
Plural –s
Irregular past
Regular past
Third person –s
Possessive -s
3
Factors Affecting SLA
3.1 Age

The Critical Period Hypothesis
3.2 Individual Differences

Affective factors:
Instrumental and integrative motivation

Cognitive factors:
Learning strategies and communication strategies
3.3 The Good Language Learner
Characteristics of the good language learner:
1. Has an [effective] personal learning style or
positive learning strategies.
2. Has an active approach to the learning task.
3. Has a tolerant and outgoing approach to the
target language and empathy with its
speakers.
4. Has technical know-how about how to
tackle a language.
5. Has strategies of experimentation and
planning with the object of developing the
new language into an ordered system and
revising this system progressively.
6. Is consistently searching meaning.
7. Is willing to practise.
8. Is willing to use the language in real
communication.
9. Has self-monitoring ability and critical
sensitivity to language use.
10. Is able to develop the target language
more and more as a separate reference
system and is able to learn to think in it.
The L2 Classroom
4.1 Modified Input

Foreigner talk

Teacher talk

Comprehensible input
4.2 Modified Interaction

More comprehension checks, e.g., Do you
understand? OK?
 More prompting, e.g., Who knows where Moose Jaw
is?

More expansions, e.g., Student: Me red sweater.
Teacher: Yes, you’re wearing a red sweater,
aren’t you?
4.3 Focus On Form
4.4 Bilingual Education

Minority language maintenance programs

French immersion programs