1. Senses:
-Know what the receptor cells are called in the senses of hearing, equilibrium, sight, taste and smell; understand what stimulates them (ex, fluid movement, light, chemical binding)
2. Endocrine:
-Know the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland; know the hormones that come out of the posterior pituitary
-Related to the above, understand the GnRH/FSH, LH system. Know the target cells of GnRH and its effect on them and the target cells of FSH and LH and their effects.
-Know a) why the following hormones are released, b) what their target cells are, c)where they are released from, d) what their effects are, and e) what
class (peptide, a.a. or steroid) each belongs to: ANP, NE/E, ADH, AngiotensinII,
PTH, calcitriol, erythropoietin, aldosterone, insulin, glucagon, cortisol, gastrin, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
-Know the renin-Angiotensin activation system.
-Know which hormone classes enter cells and activate genes, and which use second messengers to activate proteins. Know the best understood 2nd messenger by name (cAMP). Know 2nd messenger systems rely on a cascade of activations that end in the activation (or inactivation) of the target protein, but don't focus on the actual events.
3. Blood:
-Understand blood types, in terms of which blood types are compatible/incompatible for transfusions
-Know where RBC and WBC are made
-Know the significance of fibrin. Know that damaged cells and stuck platelets release clotting factors that lead to the activation of factorX, and why factor X is significant.
4. Cardiovascular & respiration:
-Know blood flow through the heart, including valves, great vessels, where blood is coming from and where it's going, and when it's oxygenated/deoxygenated

-Know which valves are open and which valves are closed when the heart contracts (and vice-versa)
-Know that pacemaker cells set the basic rhythm of the heart, and that contraction is caused by ions travelling through gap junctions of adjacent cells.
Know that the atria are mostly electrically isolated from the ventricles, so that they contract before the ventricles. Don't worry about the specific ions, gates, etc.
-Know the effect that the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, and thyroid hormone and E/NE have on heart rate and contractility.
*I'm switching to a different format now*
-Can the heart reach tetany?
-What events do the P wave, QRS wave, and T wave indicate on an ECG?
THE FOLLOWING LIST OF QUESTIONS ARE ALL INTER-RELATED. THINK
ABOUT THE WHOLE PROCESS (how you want heart rate, breathing rate and vessel diameter to be affected by CO2 levels and, considered separately, blood pressure) BEFORE YOU START TO ANSWER THE QUESTIONS. IT WILL ALL
MAKE SENSE AND COME TOGETHER!
-Where are the cardiovascular centers located? What ANS division would be activated if CO2 levels start to rise? How would the heart and muscular arteries be affected? Where are the chemoreceptors that monitor blood CO2 and send messages to the cardiovascular centers located (see "baroreceptors," below)?
-Where are the respiratory rhythmicity centers located? In the above example, how would respiratory rate be affected (increase or decrease)?
-Do both ANS divisions control artery diameter? If not, which one does? What Nt is released onto most arteries, and how do they respond?
-If JG cells of the afferent arteriole of the kidney detect (rising/declining) blood pressure, how will they respond? What effect will this have on muscular artery diameter?
-What is the only major hormone that acts to reduce blood pressure, where does it come from, why is it released, and what effect does it have on vessel diameter and kidneys?
END OF THE SERIES
-Which blood vessels allow fluids and solutes to pass between blood and interstitium? What are the 3 types of these vessels, and provide an example of where I would find each of the 3 types.

-How is blood returned to the heart through the veins (the mechanism/s)?
Compare fluid movement through veins with fluid movement through lymph vessels.
-What are hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure? In a capillary bed, where does CHP outcompete BCOP, and which direction does fluid move? Where does
BCOP outcompete CHP, and which direction does fluid move? Does the fluid pushed out equal the fluid pulled in? Where does excess go?
-what is "vasomotor tone"?
-List blood, tissues and alveoli in terms of decreasing Po2 and increasing Pco2.
What does this mean in terms of the directions CO2 and O2 move in the tissues and lungs?
-Is restful inhalation active or passive? Restful exhalation? What muscles are involved with restful inhalation?
-How is CO2 transported through the blood? What's the most common way?
Show the reaction, name the enzyme, and state where the H+ goes. Name 2 other places in the body where bicarbonate gets sent into the blood. In those areas, what happens to the H+?
5. Lymph/Immune
-What are the lymphocytes (list them)?
-What are the non-specific defenses?
-Understand that inflammation is marked by an increase in capillary flow and permeability because of histamine. This allows key proteins and large numbers of
WBC to enter the affected tissue. Know where histamine comes from.
-How will a macrophage advertise that it has eaten a pathogen? -How will an infected cell advertise that it is infected?
-Which of the above will be killed? Which types of lymphocytes kill infected cells?
-Which type of lymphocyte produces antibodies? What do we call them when they start producing antibodies? how does it "recognize" its foe, and how do antibodies work to overcome infection?
7. Digestion/Metabolism
-List the digestive enzymes we covered and state what they hydrolyze and what is produced. (ex, amylase hydrolyzes starch into maltase). Know where each

enzyme is released, and where in the GI tract certain types of nutrients are being chemically digested.
-Know that the proteases all have to be activated; know ONLY pepsin in terms of the inactive form and how it's activated
-What's the nervous system of the GI tract called, the one that is composed of a series of short reflexes? What ANS division activates GI activity?
-Which gastric pit cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factor? Pepsinogen?
-How do parietal cells make HCl (this relates to the respiratory question regarding transport of CO2)?
-What are the 3 layers of folding of the small intestine? Which is visible to the naked eye? Which is the absorptive surface? Which is composed of a layer of cells with underlying lacteal and blood capillaries? Why all the folding?
-Where do water-soluble nutrients go (blood or lymph)? What organ do they go straight to, and how do they get there? Where do fat-soluble nutrients go (blood or lymph)?
-List several functions of hepatocytes.
-What's the function of bile in digestion? Where is it stored? Where is it made?
-What endocrine products does the pancreas make? Exocrine? Where does it send the exocrine products?
-What's the overall reaction of glycolysis? Where does it occur? Is it aerobic or anaerobic? How many ATPs per glucose? Can you get ATP faster by employing glycolysis or aerobic respiration?
-What's the name of the enzyme that phosphorylates ADP at the end of the ETC?
Where does the ETC occur? Aerobic or anaerobic?
-Lactate would build up when cells use lots of (glucose/fatty acids) for energy.
Lactate is made from (pyruvate/acetyl).
-Ketone bodies would build up when cells use lots of (glucose/fatty acids) for energy. Ketone bodies are made from (pyruvate/acetyl).
7. Urinary
-What do the terms filtration, reabsorption and secretion mean? Where does filtration occur in the kidneys?

-What's the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the kidneys (ie, on GFR)?
-What effect do ANP and Angiotensin II have on the kidneys?
8. Electrolytes
-How is blood pH regulated?
-How are Na+, water, and blood pressure related?
9. Reproductive
-TBA
Miscellaneous:
-know what the pericardium, pleurae, peritoneum and Bowman's capsule linings have in common.
You'll notice that I've left a lot of information out of the study guide
(ex, the events of the ETC). That was purposeful; if I left it out, it will not be on the final.