Chapter
21
The Influence of Monetary
and Fiscal Policy on
Aggregate Demand
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Aggregate-demand curve slopes downward:
• The wealth effect
• The interest-rate effect
• The exchange-rate effect
– Occur simultaneously:
• When price level falls
– Quantity of goods and services demanded increases
• When price level rises
– Quantity of goods and services demanded decreases
2
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• For U.S. economy
• The wealth effect
– Least important
– Money holdings – a small part of household wealth
• The exchange-rate effect
– Not large
– Exports and imports – small fraction of GDP
• The interest-rate effect
– The most important
3
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The theory of liquidity preference
– Keynes’s theory
– Interest rate adjusts:
• To bring money supply and money demand into
balance
– Nominal interest rate
– Real interest rate
4
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The theory of liquidity preference
– Money supply
• Controlled by the Fed
• Quantity of money supplied
– Fixed by Fed policy
– Doesn’t vary with interest rate
5
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The theory of liquidity preference
– Money demand
• Money – most liquid asset
• Interest rate – opportunity cost of holding money
• Money demand curve – downward sloping
– Equilibrium in the money market
• Equilibrium interest rate
• Quantity of money demanded = quantity of
money supplied
6
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The theory of liquidity preference
• If interest rate > equilibrium
– Quantity of money people want to hold
• Less than quantity supplied
– People holding the surplus
• Buy interest-bearing assets
– Lowers the interest rate
– People - more willing to hold money
– Until: equilibrium
7
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The theory of liquidity preference
• If interest rate < equilibrium
– Quantity of money people want to hold
• More than quantity supplied
– People - increase their holdings of money
• Sell - interest-bearing assets
– Increase interest rates
– Until: equilibrium
8
Figure 1
Equilibrium in the money market
Interest
rate
Money supply
r1
Equilibrium
Interest rate
r2
Money
demand
Quantity of Money
Quantity
Md2
Fixed by the Fed
According to the theory of liquidity preference, the interest rate adjusts to bring the quantity of money supplied
and the quantity of money demanded into balance. If the interest rate is above the equilibrium level (such as at
r1), the quantity of money people want to hold (Md1) is less than the quantity the Fed has created, and this
surplus of money puts downward pressure on the interest rate. Conversely, if the interest rate is below the
equilibrium level (such as at r2), the quantity of money people want to hold (Md2) is greater than the quantity the
Fed has created, and this shortage of money puts upward pressure on the interest rate. Thus, the forces of
supply and demand in the market for money push the interest rate toward the equilibrium interest rate, at which
9
people are content holding the quantity of money the Fed has created.
Md1
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The downward slope of the aggregatedemand curve
1. A higher price level
– Raises money demand
2. Higher money demand
– Leads to a higher interest rate
3. A higher interest rate
– Reduces the quantity of goods and services
demanded
10
Figure 2
The money market and the slope of the aggregatedemand curve
(a) The Money Market
Interest
rate
Money
supply
(b) The Aggregate-Demand Curve
2. . . . increases the
demand for money . . .
3. . . . which increases
equilibrium interest rate . . .
r2
Money demand at
price level P2, MD2
r1
Price
level
1. An increase
in the price level . . .
4. . . . which in turn
reduces the quantity of
goods and services
demanded.
P2
P1
Aggregate
demand
Money demand at
price level P1, MD1
0
Quantity fixed
by the Fed
Quantity
of money
0
Y2
Y1
Quantity
of output
An increase in the price level from P1 to P2 shifts the money-demand curve to the right, as in panel (a). This
increase in money demand causes the interest rate to rise from r1 to r2. Because the interest rate is the cost of
borrowing, the increase in the interest rate reduces the quantity of goods and services demanded from Y1 to Y2.
This negative relationship between the price level and quantity demanded is represented with a downward11
sloping aggregate-demand curve, as in panel (b).
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Changes in the money supply
• Aggregate-demand curve shifts
– Quantity of goods and services demanded
changes
– For a given price level
• Monetary policy
– Shifts aggregate-demand curve
12
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Changes in the money supply
• Monetary policy: the Fed increases the
money supply
– Money-supply curve shifts right
– Interest rate falls
– At any given price level
• Increase in quantity demanded of goods and
services
– Aggregate-demand curve shifts right
13
Figure 3
A monetary injection
(a) The Money Market
Interest
rate
Money supply,
MS1
(b) The Aggregate-Demand Curve
Price
level
MS2
1. When the Fed
increases the
money supply . . .
r1
P
r2
AD2
Money demand
at price level P
0
2. . . . the equilibrium
interest rate falls . . .
Quantity
of money
Aggregate
demand, AD1
0
Y1
Y2
Quantity of output
3. . . . which increases the quantity of goods and
services demanded at a given price level.
In panel (a), an increase in the money supply from MS1 to MS2 reduces the equilibrium interest
rate from r1 to r2. Because the interest rate is the cost of borrowing, the fall in the interest rate
raises the quantity of goods and services demanded at a given price level from Y1 to Y2. Thus,
14
in panel (b), the aggregate-demand curve shifts to the right from AD1 to AD2.
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Changes in the money supply
• Monetary policy: the Fed decreases the
money supply
– Money-supply curve shifts left
– Interest rate increases
– At any given price level
• Decrease in quantity demanded of goods and
services
– Aggregate-demand curve shifts left
15
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The role of interest-rate targets in Fed policy
• Federal funds rate
– Interest rate
– Banks charge one another
– For short-term loans
• The Fed
– Targets the federal funds rate
• The FOMC – open-market operations
– Adjust money supply
16
Monetary Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Changes in monetary policy
– Aimed at expanding aggregate demand
• Increasing the money supply
• Lowering the interest rate
• Changes in monetary policy
– Aimed at contracting aggregate demand
• Decreasing the money supply
• Raising the interest rate
17
Why the Fed watches the stock
market (and vice versa)
• The Fed
– Not interested in stock prices themselves
– Monitor and respond to
• Developments the overall economy
• Stock market boom
– Households – wealthier
• Stimulates consumer spending
– Firms – want to sell new shares of stock
• Stimulates investment spending
• Cash from stock used for I financing instead of loans
– Aggregate demand – increases
18
Why the Fed watches the stock
market (and vice versa)
• The Fed’s goal
– Stabilize aggregate demand
• The Fed’s response to a stock-market boom
– Keep money supply lower
– Keep interest rates higher
• The Fed’s response to a stock-market fall
– Increase money supply
– Lower interest rates
19
Why the Fed watches the stock
market (and vice versa)
• Stock-market participants
– Keep an eye on the Fed
– The Fed can
• Influence interest rates and economic activity
• Alter the value of stocks
• The Fed - raises interest rates
– Less attractive owning stocks
• Bonds - earning a higher return
• Smaller stock prices
– Reduced demand for goods and services
20
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Fiscal policy
– Government policymakers
– Set the level of government spending and
taxation
• Changes in government purchases
– Shift the aggregate demand directly
• Multiplier effect
• Crowding-out effect
21
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The multiplier effect
– Additional shifts in aggregate demand
• Result when expansionary fiscal policy increases
income
– And thereby increases consumer spending
• Increase in government purchases
– $20 billion
• Aggregate-demand curve – shifts right
– By exactly $20 billion
• Consumers respond: increase spending
• Aggregate-demand curve – shifts right again
22
Figure 4
The multiplier effect
Price
level
$20 billion
2. . . . but the multiplier
effect can amplify the
shift in aggregate
demand.
AD3
AD2
Aggregate demand, AD1
1. An increase in government purchases
of $20 billion initially increases aggregate
demand by $20 billion . . .
Quantity of
Output
An increase in government purchases of $20 billion can shift the aggregate-demand curve to
the right by more than $20 billion. This multiplier effect arises because increases in aggregate
income stimulate additional spending by consumers.
23
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The multiplier effect
• Multiplier effect
– Response of consumer spending
– Response of investment
• Investment accelerator
– Higher government demand
• Higher demand for investment goods
– Positive feedback from demand to investment
24
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• A formula for the spending multiplier
• Marginal propensity to consume, MPC
– Fraction of extra income
• That consumers spend
• Size of the multiplier
– Depends on the MPC
• A larger MPC
– Larger multiplier
25
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• A formula for the spending multiplier
• Change in government purchases = $20 billion
• First change in consumption = MPC × $20 billion
• Second change in consumption = MPC2 × $20
billion
• Third change in consumption = MPC3 × $20 billion
•…
• Total change in demand = (1 + MPC + MPC2 +
MPC3 + . . .) × $20 billion
– Multiplier = 1 + MPC + MPC2 + MPC3 + . . .
– Multiplier = 1 / (1 – MPC)
26
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Other applications of the multiplier effect
• Because of multiplier effect
– $1 of government purchases
• Can generate > $1 of aggregate demand
– $1 of consumption, investment, or net
exports
• Can generate > $1 of aggregate demand
27
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The crowding-out effect
– Offset in aggregate demand
– Results when expansionary fiscal policy raises
the interest rate
– Thereby reduces investment spending
28
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• The crowding-out effect
• Increase in government spending
– Aggregate demand curve – shifts right
• Increase in income
• Money demand – increases
• Interest rate – increases
• Aggregate-demand curve – shifts left
29
Figure 5
The crowding-out effect
(a) The Money Market
Interest
rate
Money
supply
(b) The Aggregate-Demand Curve
2. . . . the increase in
spending increases
money demand . . .
Price
level
1. When an increase in government purchases
increases aggregate demand . . .
3. . . . which increases
the equilibrium interest
rate . . .
r2
r1
$20 billion
4. . . which in turn
partly offsets the
initial increase in
aggregate demand.
MD2
AD2
Aggregate demand, AD1
Money demand, MD1
0
Quantity fixed
by the Fed
Quantity
of money
0
AD3
Quantity
of output
Panel (a) shows the money market. When the government increases its purchases of goods and services, the
resulting increase in income raises the demand for money from MD1 to MD2, and this causes the equilibrium
interest rate to rise from r1 to r2. Panel (b) shows the effects on aggregate demand. The initial impact of the
increase in government purchases shifts the aggregate-demand curve from AD1 to AD2. Yet because the interest
rate is the cost of borrowing, the increase in the interest rate tends to reduce the quantity of goods and services
demanded, particularly for investment goods. This crowding out of investment partially offsets the impact of the
fiscal expansion on aggregate demand. In the end, the aggregate-demand curve shifts only to AD3.
30
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Changes in taxes
• Smaller income taxes
– Households income – increases
– Multiplier effect
• Aggregate demand - increases
– Crowding-out effect
• Aggregate demand – decreases
31
Fiscal Policy Influences Aggregate Demand
• Changes in taxes
• Permanent tax cut
– Large impact on aggregate demand
• Temporary tax cut
– Small impact on aggregate demand
32
Using Policy to Stabilize the Economy
• The case for active stabilization policy
• A change in aggregate-demand
– The government
• Use fiscal policy
– The Fed
• Use monetary policy
– To stabilize the economy
33
Keynesians in the White House
• 1964, President John F. Kennedy
– Advocated a tax cut - to stimulate the economy
– Investment tax credit
– John Maynard Keynes’s General Theory
– Stimulate aggregate demand
– Change incentives that people face
– Can alter the aggregate supply of goods and services
34
Keynesians in the White House
• Fiscal policy
– Short-run: increase production through higher
aggregate demand
– Long-run: increase production through higher
aggregate supply
• 2001, President George W. Bush
– Economy – heading into recession
– Policy: substantial and permanent tax cut
35
Using Policy to Stabilize the Economy
• The case against active stabilization policy
• Government
– Should avoid active use of monetary and
fiscal policy
• To try to stabilize the economy
– Affect the economy with a big lag
• Policy instruments
– Should be set to achieve long-run goals
– The economy – left alone to deal with shortrun fluctuations
36
Using Policy to Stabilize the Economy
• Automatic stabilizers
– Changes in fiscal policy
• That stimulate aggregate demand
• When the economy goes into a recession
– Without policymakers having to take any
deliberate action
– The tax system
– Government spending
37