NEW STATE
STRUCTURES,
NEW
IDEOLOGIES
POLITICS 1914 - PRESENT
BUREAUCRATIC STATES
 Bureaucracies
 Technology allowed bureaucratization of government
 Very easy for leaders to manage large group of specialists
 Easy to organize state into agencies overseeing specific areas
 Mass State in Practice
 Common practice beginning in 19th Century
 Trained, educated specialists run government not aristocrats
 Policy part of the reform movements of 19th century
 Common to China from the Han Dynasty onwards
 Practice began in Europe after Enlightenment, French Revolution
 All totalitarian states are bureaucratic states
 Bureaucracies arose as a result of crises
 World Wars required absolute control of state to win war
 Revolutionaries need bureaucracies to manage state
 Great Depression required government to intervene in society
THE TOTALITARIAN STATE
 Technology impacts the state




Mass communication made mass state possible
Near instant transportation unifies large state
Both allow government unlimited power
Control news, information = control the state
 Mass political movements
 People across large areas mobilized quickly
 One or a few leaders can influence many people
 The total state
 The total control by the state of all aspects of society
 Particular to the 20th century
 Leftist: USSR, Peoples Republic of China, Eastern Europe
 Leftist: Vietnam, Cambodia, North Korea, Cuba
 Rightist: Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Falangist Spain
 Rightist: Peronist Argentina, Republican Iran, Baathist Iraq
WELFARE STATE
 The end result of reform was welfare
 19th reform sought to improve, help society
 Carried to its end one needs a welfare state
 Socialist, Populist movements
 Use the state to achieve a more equitable social end
 State regulated worst aspects of modern society
 State provides for welfare what people could not
 Great Depression made welfare state necessary
 Depression
 Classic government could not solve problems
 Classic economics could not overcome economic collapse
 Only a welfare government could provide aid
 Closely linked to Keynesian Economics
 Fiscal economics
 Tax business, people’s income to acquire money
 Regulate businesses to reduce inequalities, externalities
 Government spends, redistributes wealth to achieve equitable end
 State
 Begins to provide public services, public utilities
 Ends up providing unemployment, retirement, health care
 All Western states, Japan are by 1980 welfare states
INTERNATIONAL MARXISM
 Outgrowth of World Wars
 Classical Marxists
 Revolutions would break out when economic conditions right
 Society had to be at peak of industrial development
 Marxist-Leninists and World War I
 Changes




Elite revolutionaries could bring about a revolution
Conditions did not have to be ideal but needed industry
Revolutionize, mobilize peasants is key to success
Use anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism as issue to spread communist influence



Russia was first revolution
Soon spread to Germany, Hungary, Finland, Estonia, Ukraine, Slovakia
Strong sympathy across world including China, France, Spain, Vietnam
 Communist Revolutions followed World War I
 Soviet Union
 Supported revolutions abroad to insure its survival
 Stalin brought all communists under his strict control
 Post-World War II and Decolonization
 Soviet Red Army
 Established communist states in areas it liberated
 Especially true of Eastern Europe, China, Korea
 One of key reasons for outbreak of the Cold War
 Wars of National Liberation
 USSR, Communists, ideology strongly linked to decolonization, anti-colonialism
 Active support of guerrilla movements, nationalist struggles against western colonizers
 Vietnam, Malaya, Indonesia, Indochina
 Algeria, Cuba, Nicaragua, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique
NATIONALISM
 Hypernationalism
 Extreme nationalism and glorification of the state
 World War I
 The honor of the nation, nationalist aspirations led to war
 Governments fanned nationalism, hatred of others to win
 Racism fanned, genocide was outgrowth of this trend
 Nazism, Fascism glorify the ethnic state
 Many fundamentalisms today are religious nationalisms
 Nacient Nationalism: Ideology of Nationalism, Nation-State Spread
 Self-determination was a key point of Wilson’s 14 Points
 Led to breakup of Austrian, Russian, Ottoman empires
 Encouraged hope, anger, response in colonial peoples
 World War II, United Nations
 Early loses by Allies, US made end of colonialism an issue
 Nationalism and Decolonization closely linked
 Balkanization and Multinational States





Many states were multinational states (USSR, Yugoslavia, India, Africa)
Competing nationalisms destroy multinational states
Balkanization is when ethnic nationalities create states to small to exist
A key threat to many states in the late 20th century
A key cause of ethnic strife, civil wars in the late 20th century
SPREAD OF DEMOCRACY
MAP OF POLITICAL FREEDOM
MILITARY DICTATORSHIPS
ONE PARTY STATES
MONARCHIES, 2000
THE COMMUNIST WORLD
COMMUNISM IN RUSSIA
 Civil war, 1918-1920
 Between Bolsheviks, anticommunists (Whites), Greens (nationalists)





Red Terror: secret police arrested and killed 200,000 suspected Whites
Bolsheviks executed Tsar Nicholas II and his entire family, June 1918
Despite foreign support, Red Army defeats Whites in 1920
Many nationalist uprisings ended up support Communists against whites
Perhaps ten million died during civil war
 Lenin's "war communism" transformed economy
 Policy included nationalizing banks, industry, and church holdings
 Private trade abolished; peasants reduced production
 By 1920, industrial output at one-tenth, agricultural at half prewar levels
 Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP), 1921




Reversed war communism, restored market economy
Returned small-scale industries to private ownership
Allowed peasants to sell their surplus at free market
Programs of electrification and technical schools were carried out




Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Finland, Mongolia
All crushed by Allies or allied support local forces
Russia repulses Polish invasion
USSR founded as it seemed unlikely world revolution was likely
 Other Communist Revolutions
 Lenin died, 1924; bitter power struggle followed
STALINISM IN RUSSIA






Joseph Stalin (1879-1953)


"Man of steel": Georgian by birth, Russian nationalist by conviction
Eliminated all rivals; by 1928, unchallenged dictator of Soviet Union
Stalin favored "socialism in one country," not international socialism



Lenin felt that Russia should support, be center for world wide communist revolution
Stalin felt Russia was too vulnerable, had to build communism in Russia first
Rest of world communists had to support Russia as first communist state
First Five-Year Plan, 1928-1932, replaced Lenin's NEP


Set production quotas, central state planning of entire economy
Emphasized heavy industry at expense of consumer goods
Collectivization of agriculture




States seized private farms, created large collective farms
Believed to be more productive, to feed industrial workers
Collectivization strongly resisted by peasants, especially the wealthier kulaks
Half of farms collectivized by 1931; three million peasants killed or starved
As an alternative to capitalism during the depression


Soviet Union offered full employment and cheap housing and food
Few luxuries or consumer goods
The Great Purge, 1935-1938




Ruthless policy of collectivization led to doubts about Stalin's administration
Stalin purged two-thirds of Central Committee members
More than half of the army's high-ranking officers
8 million people were in labor camps; three million died during "cleansing"
FASCISM

Fascism: new political ideology of 1920s





Italian fascism




Started in Italy; also found in other countries around the world
Fascism hostile to liberal democracies, socialism, communism, unions
 Dictator: devotion to charismatic leaders
 One party state dictatorship and elite party replace competing parties, interests
 Secret police enforce conformity, censorship of media
 Sought subordination of individuals to the service of state
Emphasized an extreme form of nationalism
 Veneration of the state, devotion to charismatic leaders
 Militarism exalted, uniforms, parades
Church and family also emphasized
Benito Mussolini, founder of Italian fascism, 1919
 Armed fascist squads called Blackshirts terrorized socialists
 After march on Rome, Mussolini invited by king to be prime minister
The fascist state in Italy
 All other political parties banned, Italy became a one-party dictatorship
 Supported by business, the party crushed labor unions, prohibited strikes
 Not aggressively anti-Semitic even after alliance with Hitler in 1938
Latin Fascism all variations on Italian model


Spain: Franco’s Nationalists and Portugal: Salazar’s Corporatism
Argentina: Peronism and Vargas’ Brazil
Other Variations to a Lesser of Greater Extent



Ataturk in Turkey
Japan 1928 – 1945
Strong throughout Eastern Europe (anti-communist aspect)
NATIONAL SOCIALISM





Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)



Born in Austria, schooled in Vienna; hated Jews and Marxists
Moved to Munich and fought in German army in WWI
1921, joined obscure group, National Socialist German Workers Party
The Struggle for Power






Emergence of the Nazi party: attempt to take over Weimar Republic failed; Hitler jailed
Nazis organized for a legal takeover through elections
National socialism enjoyed broad appeal, especially from lower-middle class
Public lost faith in democracy: associated with defeat, depression, inflation
1930-1932, Nazi party became the largest in parliament
1932, President Hindenburg offered Hitler the chancellorship
Rapid consolidation of power, 1933-1935



Nazis created one-party dictatorship; outlawed all other political parties
Mass party, secret police, use of terror as a weapon of rule
Took over judiciary, civil service, military
Nazi ideology






Cult of the leader to replace all religion
Women praised as wives and mothers; were discouraged from working
Cult of motherhood: propaganda campaign to increase births was unsuccessful
Nazi eugenics: deliberate policies to improve the quality of the German "race"
Compulsory sterilization of undesirables: mentally ill, disabled
State-sponsored euthanasia of physically and mentally handicapped
Anti-Semitism central to Nazi ideology




1935, Nuremberg Laws deprived Jews of citizenship, outlawed intermarriage
Jews economically isolated, lost jobs, assets, businesses
1938, Kristallnacht: official attacks on synagogues and Jewish businesses
250,000 Jews fled to other countries; many others trapped
POST-WORLD WAR I
 Versailles – A Great Disappointment
 Italy, China, Japan slighted at conference: radicalization
 Allies ignored requests of colonies for rights
 Indian contributions ignored; only radicalized situation in India
 Indian National Congress and Gandhi intensify efforts against British
 Satyagraha , Swaraj movements in India sought autonomy, independence
 Africa
 Returning soldiers become active in local politics
 Rise of educated middle class who seek greater independence
 Allies failed to keep promises to Arabs
 Ex-Ottoman lands made mandates of the French, British
 Arabs in Hejaz promise of kingdoms partially kept: Jordan, Iraq
 Ottomans become Turks
 Allies partitioned Turkey and gave lands to Allies, Greeks, nationalities
 Turks responded with national revival under Mustafa Kemal
 Turks reunite, drive Greeks from Turkish lands
 Ataturk (Kemal) creates a secular, westernized state
SOUTHWEST ASIA TO 1945



Egypt was an English protectorate


Arabia


Wahabis conquer Hejaz (Mecca); Create a united Arabia (Saudi Arabia)
British control Aden, Oman, UAE; protectorates over Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar
Turkey




British diplomats, officers dominate foreign policy, military to protect canal
Egypt was scene of fighting in both World War I and II
Turkey was partition between Greek, British, French, Italians, Armenians
Rise of Turkish nationalist movement under Mustafa Kemal
 Sought peace treaty, alliance, arms from Soviet Union
 Stopped Greek invasion of Anatolia; pushed Greeks out of treaty lands
 Expelled all Greeks from 3,000 year old homelands
Created a modern, westernized state
 Dropped use of Arabic script, created a modern Turkish script based on Latin alphabet
 Relied on secularized law, institutions to run state; women no longer veiled, acquired many rights
 Negotiated the return of the straits and other areas with Western Allies
 Partition Armenia with USSR
Iraq, Transjordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon




Arab aspirations unrealized; Western nations refused to allow creation of Arab states
Arabs very disappointed that they were not given independence
League of Nation Mandates; British military occupation
British set up former rulers of Hejaz as kings in both Jordan, Iraq; allowed self-government

Zionist dream of a Jewish state in Palestine

Conflicts between Arab Palestinians and Jewish settlers, 1920s and 1930s
 Zionism affirmed by Balfour Declaration, 1917, and Paris peace talks
 Britain supported Zionist effort, but limited Jewish migrants to Palestine
 Arab Palestinians resisted both British rule and Jewish settlement violently
 Increased Jewish migration to escape Nazis; armed for self-protection
 Independent Arab states opposed a Jewish state
SOUTHWEST ASIA SINCE 1945





Arab states, except Palestine, gained independence during, after World War II


British suppress Iraqi nationalist uprising in 1941; expel Vichy French from Syria
British, US force French to grant Lebanon, Syria independence in 1943
Creation of Israel





Unable to resolve conflict, Britain turned Palestine question over to UN, 1947
UN proposed dividing into two states, Palestine and Israel; Arabs opposed
1947, British withdrew, civil war broke out, Jews proclaimed the state of Israel
Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq declared war on Israel
Israel achieved victory in 1949; claimed territories larger than what was granted by UN
Egypt




Military leaders under Gamal A. Nasser seized power in 1952
Nasser became prime minister, a leader of pan-Arab nationalism
Egypt neutral in cold war, accepted aid from both powers
Nasser dedicated to ending imperialism and destroying state of Israel
Suez crisis, 1956, greatly enhanced Nasser's prestige




Canal controlled by Britain; Nasser nationalized it to build Egypt's economy
Attacked by British, French, and Israeli forces, which retook canal
Both superpowers condemned military action, forced them to withdraw
Suez crisis divided United States and its allies in western Europe
Pan-Arab Nationalism




Sought to unify Arabs in one secularized state; downplayed Islam
Egypt, Syria, Yemen united in 1968; union late broke down
Strongly influenced by Arab-Israeli conflict
Ba’ath Parties in Syria, Iraq strongest Pan-Arab Parties
ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT

Arab-Israeli Conflict







1947:Began over partition of Israel, Arab invasions
1956: Israeli invasion of the Sinai
1967: Seven Day War
 Egypt planned to annihilate Israel
 Israel struck first annihilating armies and airforces of Syria, Egypt, and Jordan
 Capture West Bank, Sinai, Jerusalem, Golan Heights
 Israelis open West Bank to settlement by Jewish settlers
Founding of Palestinian Liberation Organization
 Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians displaced 1947-67
 Camps set up in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, elsewhere
 Goal was to destroy Israel, create Arab state in Palestine
 Used terrorism as means to an end
1973 Yom Kippur War nearly destroyed Israel
 Israelis recover with US help, key Israeli ally; nearly destroy Egyptian army
 Arabs retaliate with Oil Embargo through OPEC
 US brokers Camp David Accords ending Egyptian, Israeli hostilities
1982 Israel invasion of Lebanon to evict PLO attacking Israel
Beginning of the End




Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco agree in principal to Camp David Accords
1990s
 Arab Intifada in West Bank against Israeli occupation
 Oslo Accords leads to Israeli withdrawal of most settlers, troops
 Israelis hand over much of area to Palestinian Authority
Palestinian self-rule over much of Gaza, West Bank
Issues left unresolved: Israeli security, status of Golan Heights, Jerusalem
ISLAMIC RESURRGENCE

Muslim revival and Arab disunity







Signed peace treaties 1993-1995
Islamism: revival of Muslim traditions






Cold war split Arab-Muslim world; pan-Arab unity did not materialize
Israel became a staunch ally of United States; many Arab-Islamic states allied with USSR
Israel defeated Egypt and Syria in 1967 and in 1973
Egypt's president, Anwar Sadat, ended alliance with USSR in 1976
Sadat signed peace treaty with Israel in 1980; was assassinated, 1981
PLO leader Yasser Arafat, Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin




Reasserting Islamic values in Muslim politics
Resentment at European and American societies
Extremists embraced jihad, or duty to defend Islam from attack; justified terrorism
Groups
Islamic Brotherhood (Islamic world),
Hezbollah (Lebanon)
Taliban (Afghanistan)
Activities, funding reach around the world
The Iranian revolution, 1979



CIA helped anticommunist Shah Mohammed Pahlavi gain power, 1953

Shah supported anti-communism of US, armed Iran to status of a regional power

Became major oil supplier of the US, increasing westernization of Iranian society

Repressive rule overthrown by Islamist followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, 1979
Khomeini attacked United States for support of the shah

Militants held sixty-nine Americans hostage for 444 days; shut down U.S. military bases

Movement encouraged other Muslims to undertake terrorist actions
Islamic Republic of Iran 1979 – Present is a radical opponent of western influence
WARS OF ISLAM

Afghanistan











USSR invades in 1980
Prop of pro-Soviet regime which was threateneP
Nine year guerrilla warfare follows between Soviets, Muslim guerrillas
USSR withdrew in 1989 leaving Mujahedeen, Taliban in control of radical Muslim state
US and Afghanistan
US arms anti-Soviet guerrillas who win, create a Muslim fundamentalist state
Destroys Taliban state, invades in 2002
After Taliban supports September 11 terrorist attacks on USA
Pro-Western regime installed
Iran-Iraq war, 1980-1988



Iraqi president Saddam Hussein launched attack on Iran in 1980
War dragged on till 1988; killed one million soldiers
Next, Iraqis invaded Kuwait in 1990, inciting Gulf War, 1991
Gulf Wars 1990-91, 2002-3 and Iraq







Saddam Hussein annexes Kuwait
UN coalition drives him out in 1991
UN sanctions fail to disarm Iraq
Eventually US led effort topples Hussein in 2003
US Occupation
Democratic, representative regime trying to form now
Threatened by civil war, guerrilla war, terrorism
DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA

Forcing the French out of north Africa




France in Africa

1950s and 1960s, French granted independence to all its African colonies except Algeria

Two million French settlers in Algeria

Revolt of May 1954 was repressed by French; eight thousand Algerian Muslims died
War in Algeria, 1954-1962

Algerian nationalists pursued guerrilla warfare against French rule

By 1958, a half-million French soldiers were committed to the conflict

Atrocities on both sides; heavy civilian casualties; Algerian independence, 1962
Revolutionary writer Franz Fanon urged violence as weapon against colonial racism
Black African nationalism and independence



Growth of African nationalism

Began as grassroots protest against European imperialism

African nationalism celebrated Negritude (blackness), African roots
Obstacles to African independence

Imperial powers assumed Africans were not ready for self-government

White settlers opposed black independence

Anticommunist fears justified interference in African politics

Economic and political instability often hampered postindependent Africa
Freedom and conflict in sub-Sahara Africa


Ghana (Gold Coast) first to gain independence, 1957

Kwame Nkrumah, nationalist leader, jailed and censored for political actions

Eventually released, Nkrumah became Ghana's first president, 1957

Side-by-side posters presented Queen Elizabeth and Nkrumah as equals, 1961
Anticolonial rebellion in Kenya

Violent clashes between native Kikuyu (Mau Mau) and European settlers after 1947

1930s and 1940s, Kikuyu pushed off farm lands, reduced to wage slaves

Labeling Mau Mau as communist subversives, Britain gained U.S. support

Kikuyu uprising crushed by superior arms in 1955; twelve thousand Africans killed

Political parties legalized, 1959; Kenya gained independence, 1963
AFRICA AFTER 1945


Aftermath of decolonization



South Africa




Organization of African Unity created 1963 to maintain peace, promote pan-African unity
Artificial boundaries imposed by colonialism were ruled inviolable
Ghana and many other states became one-party military dictatorships


Transformation of South Africa

Gained independence in 1901, but denied civil rights to black population

South African economy strong, both mining and industry; prospered during WWII

Black workers demanded political change
Apartheid: harsh legal system imposed in 1948, designed to keep races separate

87 peercent of South African land was for white residents, others classified by race

African National Congress, led by Nelson Mandela, launched campaign to protest apartheid

Severe government repression provoked international opposition after 1960
Black agitation and international sanctions brought end to apartheid in 1989
1994, under new constitution, Mandela won free election as first black president
Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire)





First prime minister, a Marxist, killed in a CIA-backed coup, 1961
Dictator Mobutu ruled from 1965 to 1997; plundered Zaire's economy
Mobutu ruled Zaire in dictatorial fashion and amassed huge personal fortune
Lawrence Kabila ousted Mobutu in 1997, changed country's name back to the Congo
Kabila killed, 2001; replaced by his son Joseph; no elections yet
Developing economies of Africa




Africa has 10 percent of world's population but less than 1 percent of industrial output
Rich in minerals, raw materials, agricultural resources
Lacking in capital, technology, foreign markets, and managerial class
Rapid population growth compounds problems
SOUTH ASIA 1914 – 1945




Indian National Congress and Muslim League




After WWI, both organizations dedicated to achieving independence
Indian nationalists inspired by Wilson's fourteen Points and the Russian Revolution
Frustrated by Paris Peace settlement: no independence for colonies
British responded to nationalistic movement with repressive measures
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948), leader of Indian nationalism






Raised as a well-to-do Hindu, studied law in London
Spent twenty-five years in South Africa, embraced tolerance and nonviolence
Developed technique of passive resistance, followed a simple life
Became political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul")
Opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables
1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement; 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement
The India Act of 1937




1919 British massacre at Amritsar killed 379 demonstrators, aroused public
Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act
Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support
Muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state
During World War II





Many Indians sympathetic with Japan: Indian National Army under Bose
Gandhi pursued peaceful non-cooperation
British were very concerned about Indian disloyalty which really never surfaced
US and Roosevelt pushed British to grant India independence
In 1945: India received a seat in UN (although under UK control)
SOUTH ASIA AFTER 1945






Indian self-rule



British finally willing to consider independence after WWII
Muslim separatism grew; feared domination by Hindus
Muslim League called a Day of Direct Action in 1946; rioting left six thousand dead
Partition of India and ensuing violence




Gandhi condemned division of India as a "vivisection"
Independent India, 1947, divided into Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India
Ten million refugees moved either to India or Pakistan; one million died in migration
Gandhi assassinated by a Hindu extremist, 30 January 1948
Conflicts between India and Pakistan



1947, fought over province of Kashmir; Pakistan lost
Pakistan allied with United States; India accepted aid from both superpowers
India and Pakistan stayed in British Commonwealth; English was official language
Nonalignment emerged as attractive alternative to a cold war alliance



Indian prime minister Nehru favored policy of nonalignment, the "third path"
At Bandung Conference in Indonesia, 1955, twenty-nine nonaligned nations met
Movement lacked unity; many members sought aid from United States or USSR
Stable Indian democracy: exception to Asian pattern of authoritarian rule






Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, prime minister of India, 1966-1977, 1980-1984
"Green revolution" dramatically increased agricultural yields
Adopted harsh policy of birth control: involuntary sterilization; voted out in 1977
Reelected in 1980, but faced strong opposition from religious and ethnic groups
Crushed uprising of Sikhs; was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in 1984
Her son Rajiv Gandhi was elected in 1985, but was assassinated in 1991
Pakistan



Originally composed of West and East Pakistan; East became Bangladesh in 1972
Centralized state strongly influenced by military; often unable to control tribes in mountains
Increasingly under influence of Islamic fundamentalists
PACIFIC RIM

The Pacific Ocean is the center of world today




Key Players





China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong
United States, Canada, Australia, Mexico, Chile
 1st Economy of the World: US
 2nd Economy of the World: China
 3rd Economy of the World: Japan
High technology, consumer electronics, computers, and automobiles
Major financial investment of US, China, Japan in each other, region
Impact on Region




Mediterranean Sea was the ocean of the past
Atlantic Ocean was the ocean of the present: 1450 – 1945
Pacific Ocean is the ocean of the future
 1970 – 1982: US trade with Europe was up 400%
 Same time period US trade with Asia Pacific was up 800%
Technology has hurt small producers, traditional markets
Shift of industry, agricultural production around Pacific
Massive immigration of Asians to the United States, Canada, Australia, Latin America
Threats to Prosperity


Warfare and conflicts: Korean War, Vietnamese War
Potential for conflict between China and Taiwan
CHINA TO 1945




The republic, after 1911


Growth of Chinese nationalism





Chinese intellectuals expected Paris Peace Conference to end treaty system
Instead, Paris treaties approved Japanese expansion into China
May 4TH Movement: Chinese youths, intellectuals opposed to imperialism
Some were attracted to Marxism and Leninism; CCP established in 1921
CCP (Chinese Communist Party) and Guomindang (The Nationalist Party)



CCP leader Mao Zedong advocated women's equality, socialism
Guomindang leader Sun Yat-sen favored democracy and nationalism
Two parties formed alliance, assisted by the Soviet Union, against foreigners
Nationalist China 1912 - 1945


Revolution did not establish a stable republic; China fell into warlords' rule
Through unequal treaties, foreign states still controlled economy of China

Civil war after death of Sun Yat-sen, 1925

Nationalist leader Jiang Jieshi, Mao launched Northern Expedition to reunify China

Successful, Jiang then turned on his communist allies in 1928
After 1928 spent most of time fighting communists, warlords
Mao emerged as the leader of CCP, developed Maoist ideology



1934-1935, CCP retreated to Yunan on the Long March to avoid Nationalists
China was mostly peasants: Maoism taps peasants as revolutionary strength
Sets up a peasant commune, state in Northern China, land reform
Nationalists vs. Communists vs. Warlords vs. Japanese 1931 - 1945
CHINA 1945 TO PRESENT





Origins of Communist China



Civil war between nationalists and communists resumed, 1945
Communists armed, supported by USSR
Mao Zedong proclaimed People's Republic of China, 1949
Social and economic transformation of China






Political reorganization dominated by Communist Party, Chairman Mao
Suspected nationalists were executed or sent to forced labor camps
Five-Year Plan stressing heavy industry
Massive land redistribution at village level
Collective farms with basic health and primary education
Emancipation of women: divorce, abortion, footbinding finally ended
Fraternal cooperation between China and Soviet Union




Both communist; shared common enemy, the United States
Alarmed by U.S. support of Japan, south Korea, and Taiwan
Beijing accepted direction from Moscow in early 1950s
USSR gave military-economic aid, helped seat China on UN Security Council
Cracks in alliance began in late 1950s



USSR gave more economic support to noncommunist countries
Both nations openly competed for influence in Africa and Asia
Rift between the two nations was public by the end, 1964
Taiwan (Republic of China)



Outmaneuvered, the nationalists under Jiang Jieshi fled to Taiwan in 1948
Taiwan protected by the US, develops modern industry, major world trading nation
Increasing tensions for reunification with China
COMMUNISM IN CHINA

Mao reunified China under communism





People’s Republic declared in 1949

Allied with USSR

Annexed Tibet in 1949; border conflicts with India

Supported Communists in Korea, Vietnam, SE Asia

Intervened directly in Korean War to prevent American victory
Great Leap Forward (1958--1961)

Effort to catch up with industrial nations

Modeled after Soviet 5 Year Plans but included grandiose, weird ideas

All land collectivized; farming and industry became communal

Agricultural disaster; great famine followed, 1959--1962
Great proletarian cultural revolution, 1966--1976






To root out "revisionism," revitalize the revolutionary fervor
Students became the instruments of revolution against old, elite
Idea was that revolutionary fervor as communist better than science, expertise
Millions subjected to humiliation, persecution, and death
Educated elites targeted; setback for Chinese education and science
Died out after Mao's death in 1976
Deng's revolution




Deng Xiaoping regained power in 1981; opened China to foreign influence
Welcomed economic, market reforms; remained politically authoritarian
Crushed pro-democracy student demonstration in Tiananmen Square, 1989
Hong Kong returned to China in 1997: how to absorb democratic city?
The rise of China since the death of Mao Zedong




Late 1970s opened China to foreign investment and technology
Gradual shift from planned communist economy to market economy
Offered vast, cheap labor and huge domestic markets
China joined WTO in 2001
JAPAN TO 1945





Japan emerged from World War I as a world power




Plans to acquire Chinese, Russian territory frustrated by US, UK
Signed treaty with United States guaranteeing China's integrity
Participated in the League of Nations but often neutral or hostile
Japanese economy boosted by war: sold munitions to Allies
Prosperity short-lived



Economy slumped during Great Depression
Labor unrest, demands for social reforms
Massive earthquake in 1920s hit Tokyo
Political conflict emerged




Between internationalists, supporters of western-style capitalism, nationalists
Much hostility to foreign influences by nationalists
Attempt to build large navy stopped by Washington Naval Accords
Army increasingly involved in governmental affairs; many young officers seek change
The Mukden incident, 1931, in Manchuria




Chinese unification threatened Japanese interests in Manchuria
Japanese troops destroyed tracks on Japanese railroad, claimed Chinese attack
Incident became pretext for Japanese attack against China
Military, acting without civilian authority, took all Manchuria by 1932
Japanese dictatorship



Emerged in the 1930s with dominance of government by military
Many of the same trappings of fascism: nationalism, militarism, tradition
Plans drawn up to conquer, control Asia-Pacific
DEMOCRATIC ASIA SINCE 1945
 Japan's "economic miracle"
 Postwar Japan
 Had few resources, no overseas empire
 Benefited from U.S. aid, investments
 Did not have a large defense budget because of US protection; money to industry
 Government dominated by Liberal Democrats who cooperate with businesses
 Japan
 Pursued export-oriented growth supported by low wages
 Began with labor-intensive exports, textiles, iron, and steel
 Government supported incentives for trade, innovation, experimentation
 Government sponsored research, development for businesses
 Companies took care of workers, families with cradle to grave support
 Reinvested profits
 In capital-intensive industries such as cars, aircraft, shipping, electronics
 In technology-intensive production such as telecommunications
 Rapid growth, 1960s-1980s
 Suffered recession in 1990s
 The Little Tigers





In beginning: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan
Joined by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia
Followed Japanese model of export-driven industry
In 1980s rapid growth; by 1990s highly competitive
Industrial wealth, capitalism, trade led to democratization, pressure for reform
SOUTHEAST ASIA



1914 – 1940



French Indochina: Annam, Tonkin, Cochin China, Cambodia, Laos
Dutch (Indonesia), US (Philippines), UK (Malaya, parts of Borneo, Singapore)
Independent Siam (Thailand): border state between French, British
1940 – 1945




Japanese occupy whole area within first weeks of World War II
Controlled areas through puppet regimes while exploiting the resources
End of war saw English, French, Dutch determined to restore their colonies
US grants Philippines independence
Vietnam



Fighting the French in Vietnam

Japan's invasion ended French rule; Ho Chi Minh declared independence

France reasserted colonial rule, recaptured Saigon and south Vietnam, 1945

Retook north by bombing Hanoi and Haiphong; killed at least ten thousand civilians

Ho and followers (Viet Minh) conducted guerrilla warfare from the countryside

Aided by Communist China, Viet Minh defeated the French in 1954
Geneva Conference and partial independence, 1954

Vietnam temporarily divided, north and south, at 17th parallel

South Vietnam's leaders delayed elections, feared communist victory

US supported first the French, then the unpopular government of South Vietnam

North Vietnam received assistance from USSR and China
Cold war stalemate

Nationalist-communist (Viet Cong) attacks on government of South Vietnam

President Johnson launched bombing campaign, sent ground troops in 1965

U.S. troops were trapped in a quagmire; dragged on until 1973
WESTERN EUROPE AFTER 1945
 France under de Gaulle
 Charles de Gaulle wanted Europe free from superpower domination
 French government refused to ban nuclear tests in 1963, tested bomb in 1964
 United Kingdom
 Slow recovery from the war and decolonization
 Labor Party comes to power and gradually builds a welfare state and mild socialism
 West Germany
 Strong recovery after 1949 called Economic Miracle
 Rose to become one of the strongest economic nations in the world
 Builds a social market economy of mixed capitalism, welfare socialism
 European Union
 Grew out of European Steel and Coal Community: Germany, Italy, France, Benelux
 Grew into European Economic Community and European Communities
 Goal was to synchronize economic, trade policies

This grew into a desire for a political union
 By 1989 included UK, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Greece
 In 2005 have a common parliament, passport, trade policies, currency, central bank
EASTERN EUROPE SINCE 1945
 Tito's Yugoslavia, Hoxha’s Albania: independent communist
states
 Marshall Tito (Josip Broz) resisted Soviet control of Yugoslavia
 Stalin expelled Yugoslavia from Soviet bloc, 1948;
 Remained nonaligned throughout cold war
 Albania increasingly drawn into Chinese communist influence and denounces USSR
 De-Stalinization following death of Stalin, 1953
 1956, Khrushchev denounced Stalin's rule of terror
 Millions of political prisoners released from work camps
 Brief "thaw" in soviet culture from 1956 to 1964, easing censorship
 Hungarian challenge, 1956




De-Stalinization led to pro-democracy movement in Hungary
New government announced neutrality, withdrew from Warsaw Pact
Soviet tanks crushed Hungarian uprising, 1956
Goulash Communism: a liberalization of communism in Hungary
 Prague Spring, Czechoslovakia, 1968
 Liberal movement led by Dubcek sought "socialism with a human face"
 Soviet and east European forces crushed Prague liberal communism
 Soviet Premier Brezhnev justified invasion by Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty
1989: A YEAR OF CHANGE
 Influences




Gandhi, Martin Luther King were world symbols
End of Cold War and Victory of the West
Gorbachev’s Perestroika, Glasnost
Influence of Pope John Paul II




Popular revolutions usually peaceful
Brought down, ended dictatorship
Parties in power rarely fought back
Romania and China used violence but only China succeeded
 Revolutions
 Around the world
 Eastern Europe overthrows Communist regimes
 Poland, E. Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania
 Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia
 Russians withdraw troops from Afghanistan
 South Africa: Apartheid Ends
 People Power of Corazon Aquino overthrows Marcos in Philippines
 Tiananamen Square Demonstrations in China
LATIN AMERICA: 1914 - PRESENT

Latin America Changes












World War I
Led to upsurge in exports
Development of industries
1920s – 1940s
Depression, World War II hurt economic growth
US initiates Good Neighbor Policy to try to improve US-Latin relations
Formation of Organization of American States to support American neutrality in early war
Some sympathy for fascists especially in Argentina, Brazil
Some states declared war against Axis and joined United Nations
Mexico after the revolution




Liberal constitution of 1917 guaranteed land and liberty to Mexico
Subsoil assets claimed by Mexican government; redistribution of land to peasants
After 1930s, conservative governments dominated by Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
In 1990s, PRI dictatorship challenged in open, free elections
Argentina: return to military rule






Leader of Latin American struggle against U.S. and European intervention
Gradual shift to free elections, but often reverted to military rulers
Militarist Juan Peron was elected president, 1946; immensely popular
His wife, Eva Peron, was national heroine for her service to the poor
Peron ousted in 1955; three decades of military dictators followed
Late 1970s, death squads conducted "dirty war" against dissidents
Patterns of economic dependence in Latin America







Need to reorient economies from export to internal development
Much of Latin America exported raw minerals, food stuffs, oil to Western World
Need to develop domestic industry, consumer industries rather than import
Raul Prebisch, Argentine economist, crafted theory of "economic dependency"
Developed nations controlled world economy at expense of undeveloped ones
Developing nations needed to protect domestic industries
Spread of Democracy



Liberalization begins in 1980s as elections becomes freer, open to opposition
Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia are all part of trend
Many socialist like, reform oriented parties gain strength; not always pro-American
REVOLUTIONS IN LATIN AMERICA

Post-War US Policies in Latin America







Cold War, Protection of Panama Canal shaped U.S. policies Latin America
US opposed
 Nationalization of US property as it attacked American property
 Any perceived interference by USSR, revolutionaries
US support
 Land owners, militaries, elites in Latin America against any perceived radical elements
 Aide primarily military
US will intervene in Latin America
 Support military takeovers in Guatemala, El Salvador, Chile, Peru, Bolivia
 US direct interventions: Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Panama, Granada
US returned Panama Canal in 1999
Cuba: from American dependency to communist state







Batista regime in Cuba was corrupt, influenced by Mafia
Rebels led by Fidel Castro located in Sierra Madre drive out regime
Rebels openly declare themselves to be communists in 1960
Nationalized private holdings, industry instituted land reform, social revolution
US plots to overthrow Cuba led to Soviet missiles in Cuba
US/Cuba hostile to each other ever since
Cuba has strongly influenced Nicaragua, Venezuela
Nicaragua: American interference





Somoza regime (1934-1980), brutal dictators but anticommunist U.S. ally
Overthrown by Marxist Sandinistas in 1980
Created a communist state allied to Cuba
Reagan reversed policy; supported Contras, rebels opposed to the Sandinistas
Costa Rican president negotiated end to Contra war, new coalition government
GLOBAL TERRORISM






The weapon of the stateless, powerless



Those out of power
Of anticolonial and revolutionary movements
Cheapest way to oppose someone
Not New in History



Assassins of Post-Classical SW Asia struck fear in Muslim world
Thuggees devoted to Kali ritually murdered people in India
Boxer Rebellion and others attacked foreigners
Terrorism



Difficult to define terrorism, separate from guerrilla movements, independence movements
Deliberate violence, terror against civilians to advance political or ideological cause
Rarely successful; often discredits potentially worthy causes
Examples







Irish Republican Army violence in 20th Century Ireland, North Ireland against British
Chinese Communist Rebellion in Malaya defeated by British
Mai Mai Rebellion in Kenya targets Europeans in 1960s
Algerian campaign against French colonial targets
PLO attacks on Israeli settlements
Basque ETA group in Spain
Baader Meinhof, Red Army (Communist) Terror in Germany, Italy in 1980s
11 September 2001 focused international attention on terrorism



Coordinated attack on World Trade Tower and Pentagon
Source identified as Islamic militant Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda network
Angered by U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia; proclaimed jihad, holy war
Islamic State of Afghanistan was established 1996 by Taliban



Imposed strict Islamic law: regulated dress, entertainment, media
Women barred from education, work, health services
November 2001, U.S. forces invaded Afghanistan, drove out Taliban, al-Qaeda
THE EUROPEAN UNION
G.U.U.A.M. & C.I.S. NATIONS
Both are terms for nations which resulted from the breakup of
the USSR. GUUAM are those nations who have recently had
democratic revolutions while CIS or the Community of
Independent States are those states which are still strongly
autocratic.