WESTERN SOCIETY AND
EASTERN EUROPE IN
THE DECADES OF THE
COLD WAR:
1945 - 1991
THE COLD WAR
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The origins of the cold war (1947-1990)
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Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam
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Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples
Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism
The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe
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Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany
Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent
Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west
Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south
Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation"
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Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces
Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan
Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies
President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences
Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR
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Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war
Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion
Soviet Union and United States vied for nonaligned nations
Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism
Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites
NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war
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1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression
1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response
Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances
United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security
CAN
YOU
IDENTIFY
THESE
ITEMS?
COLD WAR
IN EUROPE
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Postwar Europe
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Divided into competing blocs
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Western Europe
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Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police
Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries
Germany divided east and west in 1949
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Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II
Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well
Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949
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Soviet closed roads, trains, tried to strangle West Berlin into submission
Britain and United States kept city supplied with round-the-clock airlift
Soviets backed down and ended blockade
The Berlin Wall, 1961
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U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army
Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies
Eastern Europe
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NATO, European Economic Communities
Warsaw Pact, COMECON
Neutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia
1949-1961, refugees from East to West Germany, East to West Berlin
Soviet solution: a wall of barbed wire through the city fortified the border
Former Allied nations objected but did not risk a full conflict over the wall
Nuclear arms race
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Terrifying proliferation of nuclear weapons by both sides
NATO and Warsaw Treaty Organization amassed huge weapons stockpiles
By 1960s USSR reached military parity with United States
By 1970 both superpowers acquired MAD, "mutually assured destruction"
ECONOMIC
EUROPE
DURING
THE COLD
WAR
RESURGENCE OF WESTERN EUROPE
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New State Structures
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Liberal Democracy
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The Welfare State
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Minorities clamored for inclusion, to be heard, anti-establishment
Students, youth, women heavily involved in these movements
Environmental movements in Europe (Green Movement)
Civil Rights, Gay Rights, Women’s Rights in the US
Cooperation
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European cooperation critical for future
Economic cooperation led to European Economic Communities
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European politics shifted left
Governments run by technocrats – experts in their fields
Embraced idea of state support of all elements in society
Included education, health care, state planning, social insurance
Government active in housing
New Challenges to Political Stability
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West had rejected authoritarianism, embraced inclusive democracy
Embraced both Social Democracy, Christian Socialism
Began as a Coal and Steel customs union
Led to broad economic common market of France, Italy, Benelux, Germany
Expanded to include most of Western, Central, Southern Europe
Led to the European Union including a Parliament, currency union
Economic Expansion
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Marshall Plan helped create an economic boom
Agriculture flourished, growth in industrial base, productivity
Heavy expansion of technical sectors, service industries, external trade
Supported heavy immigration within Union and from outside Mediterranean nations
Rise of consumer economy
WESTERN EUROPE AFTER 1945
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France
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From 4th to 5th Republic
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5th
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Charles de Gaulle wanted Europe free from superpower domination
French government refused to ban nuclear tests in 1963, tested bomb in 1964
Increasingly a welfare, graying state with heavy problems due to immigration
Slow recovery from the war and decolonization
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Labor Party comes to power and gradually built welfare state and mild socialism
Never fully able to recover from loss of colonies, heavy migration to UK by colonials
Margaret Thatcher 1979 – 1992 tried to relax welfare state
West Germany
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Republic strengthened role of president, lessened power of legislature
United Kingdom
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Immediately after war, France tried to hold on to its colonies
This led to several colonial struggles in Vietnam, Algeria, collapse of 4th Republic
Under US, French, UK pressure, integrated into Europe to avoid future wars
Strong economic recovery after 1949 called Economic Miracle
Rose to become one of the strongest economic nations in the world
Under Brandt (SDU), initiated Ost-Politik to bridge relations with USSR
Builds a social market economy of mixed capitalism, welfare socialism
European Union
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Began as European Steel/Coal Community: Germany, Italy, France, Benelux
Grew into European Economic Community and European Communities
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Goal was to synchronize economic, trade policies
This grew into a desire for a political union
By 1989 included UK, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Greece
In 2005 had common parliament, passport, trade policies, currency, central bank
A
NEW
EUROPE?
USA, AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, & CANADA
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Changes in Europe paralleled abroad
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All avoided destruction of World War II
Innovation consequently was less severe
Former Dominions
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All became liberal democracies, welfare states
All aligned to the USA
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Canada
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Joined US, Mexico in NAFTA
Internal issues with Catholic Quebec, Inuit devolution
Australia
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UK declined as great power, increasingly Euro-centric
Australia and New Zealand because of WW II
Canada because of decline of UK, rise of US markets
A strong US ally
Internally adopted a whites-only immigration policy
The US Century
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From 1914 onward, US dominated world stage
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US military second to none; US expenditures on defense high
Economic, military, political, cultural influence predominant
US’ Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, military alliances critical
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US saw expansion of defense industries, governmental apparatus
Sought to contain the USSR, communism
Led to the US involvement in many wars of national liberation
CULTURE AND SOCIETY IN THE WEST
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Social Structures
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Expansion of consumer culture, society
Increasing prosperity to all classes
Social conflicts eased
Social lines blurred, increased social mobility
Increased participation in political process
Society not without troubles but…
Dramatic changes in gender relations
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After WW II, women had vote AND entered politics
WWII saw women enter all aspects of society
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Family life transformed by work, technology
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Women delayed marriage, children to work
Birth control, abortion increase, divorce increased
New Feminism
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Working women increased: reaches 44% in 1970s; women’s access to education increased
But women paid less, much discrimination
Gender equality lacking but women acquired legal rights
2nd Sex by Simone de Beauvoir
Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan
Women agitated for more rights, literal and legal equality
Western Culture
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Great political stability expected
Expanded access to education including universities
Massive application of technology, science to all aspects of life
Expression in arts and cultures to challenge traditional approaches
Extremely active popular, counter culture among youth, young
Sexual experimentation increasing leads to sex for pleasure
Secularization of most aspects of life
Decline in mainline churches, church attendance
EASTERN EUROPE AFTER 1945
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USSR as Superpower
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Emerged from WWII with largest army in world
One of the two great victors of WW II along with US
Enormous industrial foundation based on armaments
Had expanded its borders
Actively involved in diplomacy, UN
Had active communist states, alliances around world
New Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe
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After WWII, failed to hold open elections, withdraw
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Soviet Satellite Regimes
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Communists placed in power by rigged elections
Any rivals for power eliminated, controlled by Red Army, Secret Police
Agriculture collectivized, industry nationalized
Tensions as elements resisted Soviet control
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Decided to create a buffer zone between USSR, West
All states in region forcibly brought under USSR influence
Hungary: 1956
East Germany: 1960s Berlin Wall
Czechoslovakia, 1968
Poland, 1970s, 1980s and Solidarity
Only Yugoslavia, Albania followed independent paths
Domestic Realities
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Strong authoritarian control of society, regulation of all aspects of life
Control of media, information by extensive bureaucracy
Mechanization of agriculture
Increased urbanization as peasants move to cities
Industry heavily focused on military and not consumer goods
SOVIET CULTURE, ECONOMY, SOCIETY
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Rapid Industrialization
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Significant Social Change
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State fostered, controlled from top down
Gosplan, 5 Year Plans common
Secularization of society, purging of religion
Persecution of ethnic, religious minorities
Tension increased with Western Culture
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Arts monitored to reflect Soviet culture
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Schools goal was to foster loyalty to state, science
Attacked western styles of art, literature; heavy censorship
Sovietized, Russified many aspects of culture
Counter-Culture Arose
Solzhenitysn’s Gulag Archipelago criticized Stalin, Stalinism
Science, social studies, mathematics heavily favored
Economy and Society
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Fully industrialized society by 1950s
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Horrible Damage to the Environment
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State control of virtually all aspects of economic sectors
No individualized economic aspects allowed although a Black Market flourished
Lagged in production of consumer goods, poorly funded
But living standards improved
Ecocide: Murder of the environment
Soviets were not concerned with the environment only with production figures, development
Agricultural sector was horribly inefficient
Similarities with West
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Industrial life demeaning for both regions; state guaranteed vacations, sports, medical care
Mitigation of class differences
Similar responses with regard to women, family life, housing, childrearing
DESTALINIZATION
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Stalin died in 1953
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Rivals opposed his one man rule, cult of personality
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Khrushchev’s Rise
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Opened up society to innovation, some decentralization
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Regime less likely to execute opposition
Released many prisoners from state camps, closed gulags
Khrushchev pushes own industrial base to outdo west
Soviet Space Program and Sputnik catches west by surprise
Avoids Adventurism in Foreign Policy
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Enforces Soviet control in 1956 Hungary – De-Stalinization went to far
But allows more independent roads to socialism by USSR’ Allies
Cuba: nuclear flashpoint
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Fidel Castro establishes guerrilla force in mountains, 1953
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Overthrew dictator Batista in 1959
Castro declared that his government would be socialist, angers USA
Castro seized U.S. properties, killed, exiled political opponents
United States cut off Cuban sugar imports, imposed export embargo
Castro accepted Soviet economic aid and arms shipments
Bay of Pigs fiasco, April 1961
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CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed
Diminished U.S. prestige in Latin America
Cuban missile crisis, October 1962
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Rivals removed Stalin’s supporters, executed Beria (KGB)
New Chairman attacked Stalinism for its excesses
Khrushchev as Chairman of the USSR
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His reign had taught politicians to cooperate, avoid infighting
His reign had also discouraged innovation, resistance
Soviet deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at USA; claimed Cuban defense
Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded removal; two tense weeks
Khrushchev backed down; Kennedy pledged not to overthrow Castro
Brezhnev’s Years 1964 – 1982
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Khrushchev became too difficult to control, removed in coup
Brezhnev assumes control, maintains more stabile Soviet models
Brezhnev Doctrine: USSR intervene in Czechoslovakia, 1968 to maintain Soviet control
EASTERN EUROPE SINCE 1945
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Warsaw Pact and COMECON
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Yugoslavia, Albania: independent communist states
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De-Stalinization led to pro-democracy movement in Hungary
New government announced neutrality, withdrew from Warsaw Pact
Soviet tanks crushed Hungarian uprising, 1956
Goulash Communism: a liberalization of communism in Hungary
Prague Spring, Czechoslovakia, 1968
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Marshall Tito (Josip Broz) resisted Soviet control of Yugoslavia
 Stalin expelled Yugoslavia from Soviet bloc, 1948;
 Remained nonaligned throughout cold war
Albania drawn into Chinese influence, denounces USSR
Hungarian challenge, 1956
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1955: USSR creates a military alliance to counter NATO – Warsaw Pact
COMECON was attempt to rival EEC, EC
States were originally satellites of USSR
After 1964, increasing allowance for independent roads to socialism
Liberal movement led by Dubcek sought "socialism with a human face"
Soviet and east European forces crushed Prague liberal communism
Brezhnev justified invasion by Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty
Poland, 1970s – 1980s
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Remained strongly Catholic, strongly nationalist
Polish communist party loyal to USSR but not always trusted
Workers movements emerge which are for reform, pro-Catholic
1980s Strikes under Solidarity almost led to Soviet intervention
Election of John Paul II as Pope only emboldened Poles
DÉTENTE & DECLINE OF BIPOLAR WORLD
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Era of cooperation
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Demise of détente
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1950s, USA committed to support noncommunist South Vietnam
U.S. involvement escalated through 1960s
U.S., allies unable to defeat North, South Vietnamese communists
President Nixon pledged in 1968 to end war with Vietnam
U.S. troops gradually withdrew; U.S. phase of war ended in 1973
North Vietnam continued war effort, unified the nation in 1976
Soviet setbacks in Afghanistan
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Full U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 created U.S.-USSR strain
U.S. weapons sale to China in 1981 undermined U.S.-Soviet cooperation
1980 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan prompted U.S. economic sanctions
U.S. defeat in Vietnam
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Leaders of both superpowers agreed on policy of détente, late 1960s
Exchanged visits and signed agreements calling for cooperation, 1972, 1974
Concluded Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 1972, again 1979
Afghanistan had been a nonaligned nation until 1978, pro-Soviet coup
Radical reforms in 1978 prompted backlash
Islamic leaders objected to radical social change, led armed resistance
1979, rebels controlled much of Afghan countryside; USSR intervened
United States, others supported Mujahedeen rebels; struggle lasted nine years
1989 cease-fire negotiation by UN led to full Soviet withdrawal
Taliban forces captured Kabul and declared Afghanistan a strict Islamic state, 1996
Cold war countercultural protests in 1960s and 1970s
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Cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Dr. Strangelove, 1964
European and U.S. students agitated for peace, end to arms race, Vietnam war
Rock and roll music expressed student discontent
END OF COLD WAR
Revolution in east and central Europe
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Moscow's legacies
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Communism unable to satisfy nationalism in eastern and central Europe
Soviet-backed governments lacked support, economies stagnant
Soviet interventions in 1956 and 1968 dashed hopes of a humane socialism
Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader 1985-1991
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1989, Gorbachev announced restructuring of USSR, withdrawal from cold war
Satellites states informed that each was on its own, without Soviet support
Rapid collapse of communist regimes across eastern and central Europe, 1989
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In Poland, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa won election of 1990
Communism overthrown peacefully in Bulgaria and Hungary
Czechoslovakia's "velvet revolution" in 1990, divided into Czech Republic, Slovakia
Only violent revolution in Romania; ended with death of communist dictator
East Germany opened Berlin Wall in 1989; two Germanys united in 1990
The collapse of the Soviet Union
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Gorbachev's reforms
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Hoped for economic liberalization within political communist system
Centralized economy inefficient, military spending excessive
Declining standard of living, food shortages, shoddy goods
Perestroika: "restructuring" the economy
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Tried decentralizing economy, market system, profit motive
Alienated those in positions of power, military leaders
Glasnost: "openness" to public criticism, admitting past mistakes
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Opened door to widespread criticism of party and government
Ethnic minorities, especially Baltic peoples, declared independence from USSR
Russian Republic, led by Boris Yeltsin, also demanded independence
Collapse of the Soviet Union, December 1991
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In 1991, conservatives attempted coup; wished to restore communism
With help of loyal Red Amy units, Boris Yeltsin crushed the coup
Yeltsin dismantled Communist party, led market-oriented economic reforms
Regions of ethnic groups became independent; Soviet Union ceased to exist