THE WORLD OF THE 1920s:
CHALLENGES TO EUROPEAN
DOMINANCE
CHAPTER 34a
OVERVIEW
Interwar period of the 1920s
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Saw revolutionary and authoritarian regimes
False sense of security for democracies, west
Resistance to European imperialism
Golden Age for European, Western Elites
Western Europe
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Recovery from World War I was incomplete
War followed by economic disruptions, new borders
Age of artistic creativity, materialism, scientific progress
Age of Pessimism, worries for some sectors of society
The United States and Japan
– Increased their industrial strength
– Internal problems threatened governments
Other Parts of the World
– New revolutionary governments appeared in China, Mexico
– Russian Revolution in 1917 and Civil War spread around globe
Balance Sheet
– Parliamentary democracy spread even as new challenges arose against it
– USA’s economic vitality as well as Japan's challenged Western Europe
THE ROARING 20s
Period of apparent peace in early 1920s
– Reduced internal political tensions in Europe
– Extremist groups on the right and left
• Appeared in the aftermath of World War I
• Seemed to lose popularity by middle years of decade
Industrialization and Consumerism
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Boomed on back of growing consumer demand
Development of assembly line factories
Wages increased purchasing power
Power of middle class, middle class values rose
Facilitated rise of consumerism
Age of technological marvels: radio, airplane, auto
Cultural creativity during the 1920s
– Resulted in new artistic styles
• These often conveyed some of the tensions of modern life
• Art: Dadaism, Surrealism, Bauhaus, Cubism
• Literature dealt with realism, often pessimism
– Important new scientific discoveries appeared
Gender Issues
– Women across Europe, United States gained right to vote
– Suffrage brought other social liberties.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The League of Nations created to maintain world peace
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Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe
Dominated by UK, France
League used to isolate Germany
The league had no power to enforce its decisions
League could make suggestions, impose sanctions
Collective security depended on all major powers
Powers Left Out
• United States never joined
• USSR ignored; colonies not included
• Germany not invited for some time
The mandate system
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United States opposed direct colonization
Allies proposed system of trusteeships
France, United Kingdom benefited most
Created from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. Asia
Idealistic Attempts during the 1920s
– Attempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treaties
– Attempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treaty
– Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels
LEAGUE
OF NATIONS
FASCISM IN ITALY
Authoritarianism
– Use of the state’s power or authority to make changes, solve problems
– Rule centralized and often arbitrary, frequently dominated by military
Fascism as Ideology
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Stemmed from disenchantment with liberal democracy
Rich, middle class worried by social conflict
State threatened by labor unrest, government stagnation
Nationalist resentments stemming from World War I
Goal was to seize power forcefully
Italian Fascists arose in 1920s
– During social protests, right-wing gangs battled communists
– Some nationalists tried to seize control of Fiume
– Feared rise of socialism, communism in industrial north
March on Rome 1922
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Fascists under leadership of Benito Mussolini
Advocated nationalist corporate state
Wanted to end both socialism and capitalism
Marched on Rome demanding power
King gave in and named Mussolini prime minister
Mussolini began to reform Italian state, rearm
THE NEW NATIONS OF
EASTERN EUROPE
Eastern European nations
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Arose out of Versailles Treaty at end of World War I
Created out of Germany, Austria, Russia – often by force
Each state was a kaleidoscope of different ethnic groups
Different legal systems, rail gauges
State Building
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Tried to emulate Western Europe without wealth, stability
Also had to build new nations almost from scratch
All were hostile to Communist regime in the Soviet Union
Bitter rivalries broke out over territorial disputes
Little industry, mostly agrarian
Few cities, small middle classes or intellectuals
Authoritarian Temptation
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Parliamentary democracy damaged by competing parties
Often major parties could not form a majority, rule by coalition
Unable to solve social problems such as land reform, ethnic strife
Most reverted to authoritarian or monarchical regimes
Only Czechoslovakia remained a democracy throughout period
GOVERNMENTS IN 1937
THE ETHNIC MAP OF EUROPE
THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH
Dominions
– White-dominated colonies granted self-government
– Foreign policy, defense policy, trade policies shared
South Africa was first dominion in 1910
Ireland
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Had revolted in 1916 during World War I
British, Irish soldiers increasingly attack civilians
Eventually British agree to partition of Ireland into South, North
North: largely Protestant was to remain within UK
South was to be called Irish Free State and become a self-governing dominion
Irish Republican Army resented compromise, switched to largely terrorist role
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
– Granted dominion status after the war for roles in war
– Canada
• Rapid economic growth, large-scale immigration, increasingly friendly with USA
– Australia
• Emphasized labor legislation, economic planning; rapid immigration until 1930s
Treaty of Westminster, 1931
– Britain and its dominions formed a permanent, political alliance
– Britain granted self-governing dominions equality of legislation
– Other dominions included Irish Free State, Newfoundland
RISE OF THE UNITED STATES
World War I
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Put the United State into a position of leadership
Became largest industrialized nation, largest center of banking
Loaned Allies trillions
Left war with 2nd largest navy in world, largest army
Treaty of Versailles Rejected
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Wilson and Republican Senate quarreled: Senate rejected treaty
US refused to join League of Nation, retreats into Isolation
Only in Latin America did USA remained actively interventionist
The Red Scare
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1919 – 1920s: US Government saw communists under every rock
Ignored law and used CID (future FBI) to arrest communists (Palmer Raids)
The Roaring 1920s
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U.S. leadership in world economic and cultural affairs accelerated
New consumerism developed
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U.S. corporations were innovators in technology and production techniques
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Mass Production of appliances and automobiles
Credit, Credit Cards, Catalogs
Greatest mark came in popular culture
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American middle class became able to afford household luxuries
Mass production reduced prices of most items: people began buying on credit
Movies and Hollywood became world-wide symbols
Rise of competitive, team sports and radio
The Age of Jazz and American musicals by Gershwin were models for the world
Many areas of economy like agriculture, banking very shaky with hidden problems
JAPAN AND ITS EMPIRE
Disappointments at Paris
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Japan had wanted Germany’s Asian colonies
During war decided to pick on China
Allies had blocked Japan in its Chinese adventures
Japan turned increasingly hostile
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Favored authoritarian government
Began to plan for war, conquest in the interwar period
An Economic Revolution led to many changes
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In early 20th century, agricultural and industrial production improved
Great industrial combines (zaibatsus) launched expansion of heavy industry
Government and industry cooperated
Japanese standards of living began to improve
By 1925, the state initiated compulsory primary-school education
Japan relied heavily on import of raw materials, trade
Problems for Japan Lead to Dictatorship
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Japan remained vulnerable to external economic conditions
Population growth restricted advances in standards of living
Social problems increased in crowded cities
Military leaders took on a greater role in the 1920s
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They resented what they saw as the selfishness and pandering of the political parties
Disliked democracy, liberalism as much as socialism, communism
Hated reduction in military spending
1928: Tanaka Memorial – Japanese military draw up plans for Pacific War
REVOLUTIONS!
New revolutions
– Challenged Western dominance
– Offered alternatives to the Western model
Revolutions through 1939
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Iran 1905
Young Turks 1908
Mexico 1910
China 1912
Russia 1917 (two)
Wafd Revolution, Egypt 1919
Turkey 1920s
India 1920s
China 1928 – 1949
MEXICO’S UPHEAVELS
The Porfirato as a Cause
Response to authoritarian modernization of Porfirio Diaz
Economic prosperity for Mexico but at the cost of turning much of Mexico's economy over to foreigners
Díaz government ruthlessly suppressed opposition: peasants, Indians, workers did not share prosperity
Opposition began, in 1910 Francisco Madero decided to run against Daiz
Díaz arrested his opponents, rigged election
Mexico Rises in Revolt – the Revolution Begins
In the north, Pancho Villa organized resistance
In Morelos, Zapata rallied Indians, peasants behind the banner of land reform
The rebels drove Díaz from power and replaced him with Madero
The Course of the Revolution
Madero's moderate program of reform proved inadequate
Too much concern for elite interests, foreign concerns, Mexico City at expense of other parts of Mexico
In 1913 a military coup removed Madero, who was assassinated.
General Victoriano Huerta attempted to restore the dictatorship, but Villa and Zapata again rebelled
Huerta fell from power in 1914
Remaining revolutionaries continued to fight among themselves over the nature of the new government
Obregón was elected president in 1920 and attempted to resuscitate Mexico's economy
Under Cárdenas (1934-1940) promised land reform took place as did beginning of public education
The Mexican Constitution of 1917
Promised land and educational reform, limited foreign ownership of Mexican industry and resources
Guaranteed rights of workers
Limited the Church's ownership of land
THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
By Diego Rivera
Yucatan, Indian
Communist Leaders
Obregon,
Calles
1910: Zapata and Modern Revolutionary Leaders
1910: Zapata and Modern Revolutionary Leaders
Porfirato’s
Modernity
Rivera’s
Marxist
Ideology
1810
Fr. Hidalgo
Morelos
La Reforma
Juarez
Peasant
And Indian
Mexico
Aztec
Calendar
Peasant
Soldiers
of the
Revolution
POST-REVOLUTIONARY MEXICO
Rediscovering Their Indian Heritage
Primary emphasis in post-revolutionary culture was Indian heritage
Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco decorated public buildings with murals
Mexican Muralism heavily influenced by Cubism, European art movements
Glorified the Indian past of Mexico
Popular literature and music celebrated the heroes of the revolution
Some revolutionary changes met with opposition
The Church opposed increasing secularism within Mexican society
Cuauhtemoc
Cristero movement of 1920s combined conservative peasants, politicians, Church
Against the Myth
Goal was to halt secularization
Education became they most volatile issue and led to revolts, guerrilla movements
The US and Mexico
During Revolution, US supported stability and protection of American property
US bombarded Veracruz for failure of Mexico to salute US Flag
After Pancho Villa attacked banks in US, US sent army into Northern Mexico
More important to U.S. interests was President Cárdenas's nationalization of oil companies in 1934
Despite tensions, agreements were worked out between the two nations
The PRI
Politically, the revolution resulted in a monopoly of power
Eventually the Party of the Institutionalized Revolution (PRI) was formed
Although technically a democracy, PRI dominated Mexican politics from the 1920s to the presen
In the 1990s, many came to question the integrity and usefulness of the PRI.
1st RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION
Causes
World War I
Produced military disasters, social disruptions, economic hardships
Riots began in March 1917 in St. Petersburg protesting poor conditions
All groups demanded a new political regime
The Rise of Soviets February 1917
Councils of workers or soviets took over the city
Troops mutinied and also formed soldier and sailor soviets
Unable to suppress the disorder, the tsar abdicated.
The Liberal Revolution
The first stage of the Russian Revolution was led by “liberals”
Alexander Kerensky wanted to establish parliamentary government
Government was a socialist, moderate coaltion
Lack of a substantial middle class hindered democracy
Unwillingness to enact land reform
End World War I caused the liberal regime to lose support
Allies convinced Russians to remain in the war
War very unpopular with soldiers, sailors and peasants
Rise of “White” Opposition: Monarchists, conservatives worked against revolution
Socialists, communists organized paramilitary groups to counter white opposition
2nd RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Bolshevik or Communist Revolution: November 1917
A 2nd revolution unseated the liberal government
Brought Bolsheviks to power under Lenin’s leadership
Lenin centralized his power in the soviets
Marxism or Leninism?
Marxism
Society went through stages; could not skip a stage
Capitalism and industrialization had to proceed socialism
Rural economies and large peasant classes were not right for revolution
Felt Russia was not likely to have a socialist revolution
Lenin adapted Marxism to fit Russian situation
Small worker, large peasants were radical to a degree
Needed a small cadre of revolutionaries to formant revolution, lead masses
The Communists, The Civil War, and International Politics
The Bolsheviks withdrew Russia from World War I
Surrendered most of Western Russia, Baltic, Finland to the Germans
The Allies regarded the Bolshevik government as dangerous,
Excluded them from the Versailles peace conference
Carved new nations from formerly Russian lands
The Civil War Follows
Many Allies (UK, France, US, Japan, Poland) invaded Russia to overthrown Soviets
Internally Whites (Conservatives), Greens (nationalists) fought Soviets for control
Soviets won due to Red Army, Cheka (Secret Police), Red Terror, War Communism
THE SOVIET
STATE
Red Institutions
The Bolshevik Party
The formal name for the Communist Party
Led by V. I. Lenin, organized into cells, bureaus
Only members of party trusted
From Red Guard to Red Army
Organized under Leon Trotsky
Created to further spread of revolution
Later protected revolution from “white” opponents
Cheka
Soviet secret police
Used terror, executions to reduce internal opposition
War Communism
Soviets forcibly requisition food, supplies to support Red Army
Demanded all people support revolution under threat of death
The Soviet State
First elections held returned a parliament
The Social Revolutionary party not the Bolsheviks held a majority
Lenin shut down the parliament and replaced it with a Congress of Soviets
Established a Bolshevik monopoly on political action
The Communist party controlled Soviet politics until 1989
The Communist party dominated all political, intellectual, social organs
Membership in party was criterion for advancement
STABILIZATION OF THE REGIME
The Russian Civil War
Officially lasted from 1918 to 1923
Russia’s neighbors invaded at one time or another
Enemies largely defeated by weather, bad morale
Soviets were better organization of Reds, used terror
New Economic Policy (NEP)
War Communism unpopular, cost production and support for Soviets
1921 Lenin abandoned war communism and moved to NEP
NEP restored some capitalism for small farmer, small businesses
Reduced resistance to Communist rule and increased food supplies
the New Economic Policy reduced resistance to Communist rule.
The New Constitution
In 1923, a new constitution established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Ethnic republics had local self-rule but this was largely a sham
National state dominated by ethnic Russians; national state strongly centralized
Communist Party of USSR (CPSU) dominated by ethnic Russians
CPSU dominates republics and USSR
Universal suffrage elected the Supreme Soviet
But only Communist party members were allowed to stand for office
The parliament simply ratified decisions reached in the party's executive committees
SOVIET EXPERIMENTATION
New Institutions
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CPSU encouraged associations to create a “Soviet” society
Many Soviet citizens gained a voice in new organizations
The rapid spread of literacy fostered creativity
Artist, Literary Societies flourished
Gave government tools for reshaping culture
A Power Struggle
– Lenin died in 1924: power struggle ensued for control
• Lenin preferred Trotsky
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But as a “Jew” most Russians distrusted him
Many Russians distrusted influence of Red Army and a Red Napoleon
• Joseph Stalin emerged as Lenin's successor
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Stalin dominated Ministry of Nationalities, local communist parties
Became General Secretary of the Communist Party
Used divide and conquer tactics to discredit opposition
– Socialism in One Country
• Stalin devoted to national development as way for USSR to survive
• International Communism was secondary to Soviet or Russian needs
• In some ways Stalin was a Slavophile who rejected Westernization (Marxism)
– Industrialization
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Russia needed heavy industry to resist western encroachment
Problem: Russia was largely a peasant country
Stalin forcibly industrialized by destroying peasantry
Collectivized agriculture to free up labor, capital for industry
TOWARD
REVOLUTION
IN CHINA
1911 Revolution
Revolutionaries were Western educated elite
Revolutionaries were anti-Qing, modernizers, who idealized Japan
First revolts were by military units which spread
The abdication of the Qing emperor in 1912 began long struggle
Each group had a different idea of what was the ideal government
Warlords
Initially, regional warlords dominated Chinese politics.
Alliances of warlords called cliques
Yuan Shikai wished to establish a new imperial dynasty
Power of the warlords partially offset by merchants, bankers in Westernized cities
University Students and Secret Societies
Chinese universities provided the theoretical foundation for political reconstruction
Secret societies plotted to restore the empire under a Chinese ruler
The Foreign Situation
The situation was complicated by foreign intervention in China
Japan and European nations had divided China into imperial zones of influence
From the 1890s to 1945, the most dangerous of the foreign interlopers was Japan
Japan physically tried to annex parts of China during World War I
WARLORDS DIVIDE CHINA
MAY 4TH MOVEMENT
AS AFTERWARDS
Sun Yat-sen
Educated in Hawaii as a Doctor
Japanese example appealed to him
Headed Revolutionary Alliance that overthrew Qing
Claimed the right to establish a government, but lacked power to form one
Elected president in 1911 but the warlords continued to dominate China
In 1912 resigned presidency in favor of leading warlord, Yuan Shikai.
Yuan tried to establish new dynasty: Sun Yat-sen called for second revolution
Yuan Shikai's plans were interrupted by Japanese intervention in China
21 Demands
Japan presented China with Twenty-One Demands: Yuan Shikai overthrown
The Japanese seized much of northern China and warlords did little
May 4 1919 Movement
Massive demonstrations by students, nationalist politicians
Public outrage was channeled into the May Fourth movement
Purpose of which was to create a liberal democracy in China.
Called for abandonment of Confucianism in favor of Western ideals.
Links to Communism
Failure of May 4, 1919 Movement Led to rise of the Communists
Russian Revolution seemed to serve as a model for possible reform in China
Marxist discussion groups founded in the universities and the coastal cities.
CP China formed in 1921 in Shanghai
KMT OR NATIONALISTS
SEIZE POWER
Guomindang
Sun Yat-sen attempted to revitalize reform movement
Created the Nationalist Party of China (Guomindang)
Nationalists militarized in order to drive out warlords
Sun Yat-sen enunciated a broad program of reform
Nationalists strongest among commercial groups in coastal cities.
Also formed an alliance with the Communist party in 1924
Nationalists received advisors and material assistance from the USSR
Rise of Chiang Kai-shek
The Wampoa Military Academy turned out military, civilian elite
Commandant was Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek became a close associate of Sun Yat-sen
Took Sun’s place in 1925 when Sun died
China Deteriorates
Warlords divide China into spheres of influence
In South: Nationalists were engaged in political, military organization
Chaotic economic situation in the countryside worsened
Failure to address peasant issues was severe setback for Nationalists
MAO AND THE
PEASANT PROBLEM
China and Marxism
Marxism said
A communist revolution had to occur after industrialization
Marxism felt peasants were too anti-revolutionary to be useful
China had no industry, too few modern cities, and too many peasants
Russia had made revolution with weak industry led by elite party
Enter Mao Zedong
Came from a peasant background
But soon joined the revolutionary and nationalist movement in China
Heavily influenced by the Marxist thinkers in Beijing
Began to see the peasants as the key to a successful revolution
The Nationalist Campaign
Chiang Kai-shek began to expand the territory controlled by the Nationalists
He seized Shanghai in 1927; by 1928 captured Beijing
Chiang Kai-shek was simply the most influential warlord
Chiang ruthlessly eliminated his political rivals
Chiang initiated brutal crackdown on Communists in 1928 with ok of USSR
Long March
Mao to lead 90,000 of his followers in a retreat known as the Long March
Moved entire base of revolution to Yennan Province
Created a state within a state
THE LONG MARCH
C.C.P. MYTH BUILDING
VOCABULARY
Consumerism
Cubism
Dominions
Fascism
Authoritarianism
Syndicalism
Mexican Revolution
Mexican Constitution of 1917
Mexican Muralism
Cristeros
P.R.I
Russian Revolutions
Red Army
New Economic Policy (NEP)
U.S.S.R.
Supreme Soviet
Politburo
Socialism in One Country
COMINTERN
Collectivization
Warlords
May 4th Movement
Guomindang
Whampoa Military Academy
Long March
Yennan Way
IDENTIFICATIONS
Pablo Picasso
Benito Mussolini
Porfirio Diaz
Francisco Madero
Pancho Villa
Victoriano Huerta
Alvaro Obregon
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
Alexander Kerensky
V. I. Lenin
Joseph Stalin
Mao Tse Dung
Li Dazhao
Yuan Shi kai
Sun Yat sen
Chiang Kai-shek