Versailles and the Consequences
of World War I
World War I
 10 million dead.
 A whole generation of Europeans are dead.
 Confidence in the inevitable, uplifting future is shaken/destroyed.
 Old Empires are shattered
 Ottoman Empire is gone.
 Austrian-Hungarian Empire is gone.
 Russian Empire is gone.
 German Empire is gone.
 Fatal, long-term decline of the French and British Empires (most unaware at the time)
1914 to 1918
Second International
 Promised before the war that they would not support fighting.
 The German Socialist Party, the largest of the parties in the
Second International, ultimately votes to support the war effort
to defeat the Czar.
 Each national Socialist Party breaks and joins the war efforts
of their respective nations, except the American Socialist
Party.
Debs is arrested in 1917.
Revolutions in Europe!
 General upsurge in radical beliefs caused by the suffering of the war.
 The Russian Revolution sweeps the Bolsheviks to power.
 Socialist, anti-war government comes to power under Lenin.
 Many regard this Revolution as the beginning of the end for the Imperialist Capitalism
governments of Europe/America.
Revolutions in Europe! Germany
 Seeking to emulate the success of the Russian
Revolution, leftist revolutions break out across Europe.

German Socialist Party
The Spartacus League, a leftist faction within the party had long been
agitating.
-In 1917, the Kaiser abdicated.
-The German Social Democratic Party, the largest party in the Reichstag is
nominally in control.
-The Spartacus League attempts to establish a worker’s state in an
uprising.
-Conservative/moderate factions in the German Social Democratic Party
turn to the military/reactionary organizations to put down their fellow
socialists. Murder thousands of Socialists/Communists.
Civilian government has to negotiate the end of the war.
Revolutions in Europe! Italy
 Italian unions take over all the factories in Italy.
 Government is powerless to stop them.
 Workers are agitating for a socialist/worker’s government.
 Italian Communist Party is asked to intervene by many of the union
leaders.
 Communists are disorganized and confused.
 Gramsci tries to convince the leadership to take power. Refuse.
 Fascists are invited to take power to crush the union-uprising.
Mussolini comes to power.
Revolutions in Europe! France
 French Revolutions are somewhat less organized than are seen in Italy and
Germany.
 French Revolutionaries look to the Russian Revolution as an example: "great
light coming from the East"
Failure to Spread the Revolution
 Western powers blockade the USSR.
 Soviet Union is alone and must decide how to proceed.
 Excluded from Versailles as well.
John Maynard Keynes
 British economist at the Versailles
Peace Negotiations.
 Argues that Germany should not
be saddled with reparations.
 The Economic Consequences of
the Peace by John Maynard
Keynes.
 Keynes fired for being “a fool” by
Lloyd George.
PARIS PEACE TREATIES
 14 Points
 Woodrow Wilson's plan for a non-punitive peace
 Germany agreed to an armistice based on 14 Points
 Thwarted by the Entente allies
Britain and France demanded reparations
Demanded a treaty that blamed Germany for the war
 Paris Peace Conference, 1919
 Allied leaders assembled in Paris
 Germany was deliberately humiliated
 Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empires were dismembered
 Russia not invited as Allies were at war with Bolshevism
 Colonies of European Nations, China
Largely ignored
Envoys were often not even consulted
NEW BORDERS: COLLAPSE OF FOUR EMPIRES
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 Wilson’s 14th Point
 Only part of the 14th Points enacted
 US Senate did not ratify the treaty
 USSR, former Central Power nations were
not admitted
 The League of Nations
 Goal: International organization for nations to
consult, avoid war
 Reality: had no real power to enforce peace,
punish aggressors
 Reality: France, UK dominate
 Colonies not represented
Rise of Nationalism in Colonies
 Nationalist/Independent movements emerge in most colonies throughout
the European colonial system.
 Many colonial soldiers fight in Europe against their respective empire’s
enemies. Why?
 Europeans had long-claimed to be superior due to their culture and
technological sophistication.
War demonstrates that this is a lie!
RISE OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA, ASIA
 World War I impacted colonies
 Colonial Contribution
African, Asian troops conscripted for European armies
Battles of Marne (1914) won with assistance of Senegalese
troops
British conquer Middle East largely using Indian Army
Colonies served as important sources of food, raw materials
Rise of Nationalism in Africa, Asia

During the course of the war

European vulnerability became evident

European troops withdrawn from colonies for European fronts

Administrative personnel were recalled

Africans, Asians filled posts previously reserved for Europeans
 European/American racism meant that local
colonized people’s concerns could not be
addressed!
 Ho Chi Minh attempts to enter Versailles, is
turned away.
RISE OF NATIONALISM
 To maintain support Europeans made many promises
Promised independence
But they often failed to fulfill them after the war
 War cast doubts on claims of European superiority
 Its disruptions bolstered nationalist movements.
 Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia ignored at Paris Peace
 German colonies divided amongst victors as mandates
 Ho Chi Minh attends the peace conference, seeking
independence for Vietnam; Ignored.
 Arabs in Turkish Empire become mandates of UK, France
INDIA
 Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj
 India colonized long before Africa, Asia
Was first to establish independence movements
Western-educated minorities organized politically
Sought to bring about the end or modification of colonial regimes
 Indian National Congress
Regional associations of Western-educated Indians
Most often urbanized elite
Formed Indian National Congress party in 1885
Primary function of early party was to present grievances to British
Most of the issues concerned the Indian elite, not the poor
Despite limited aims, Congress party allowed the formation of
Indian identity
INDIA
 Social Foundations of a Mass Movement
 British economic and social policies
Helped the Congress party attract a mass following
Marginalized all Indians including elite
 Indians
Supported the massive costs for the colonial army, highsalaried bureaucrats
Tolerated the importation of British-manufactured goods.
 Problems among the peasantry including shortfalls of food
supplies
Induced nationalists to blame the British policies
Encouraged peasants to shift from the production of food
to commercial crops.
 Indian troops of the British Empire, in
France during WWI
 Indian troops of the British Empire, near the
front. 3rd Lahore Division.
 Indian Sikh troops in WWI.
INDIAN OPTIONS
 The Rise of Militant Nationalism
 Some nationalists such as B. G. Tilak emphasized Hindusim
Tilak, supporters used Hindu religious festivals as means of recruitment.
Tilak urged the boycott of British manufactured goods
Tilak's conservative Hinduism frightened moderates, Muslims, Sikhs
Tilak's support for violence led to his arrest, deportation
 Some Hindus
Embraced terrorism as a means of ending British rule
Terrorist groups favored secret organizations
Targeted British officials and public buildings
British suppression, lack of mass support reduced threats
Peaceful schemes for protest drew support from Tilak, terrorists
Congress Party lawyers emerged as leaders of nationalist movement
 All India Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah
League founded in 1906 to represent Muslim interests
Jinnah joined in 1916 and helped bring Congress Party and League together
INDIAN OPTIONS

The Emergence of Gandhi and the Nationalist Struggle
 India played a significant role in World War I
Even the nationalist leaders of India supported the war effort
Wartime inflation reduced standards of living among the Indian peasants
Produced famine in some regions.
 Following the war
Nationalists were frustrated by the British refusal to move directly toward
independence.
Initial promise of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919
Offset by the Rowlatt Act, which limited Indian civil rights.
 Frustrations led to the Rise of Gandhi
Permitted Gandhi to build a nationwide protest against colonialism
Gandhi combined the qualities of a Hindu mystic with the acumen of a Westerneducated lawyer
Both peasants and the middle classes supported his leadership
His boycotts, campaigns of civil resistance made him acceptable to both radical,
moderate nationalists
As a Hindu mystic, Gandhi could mobilize widespread support for his movement
WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST
 In the years after World War I
 Ottoman rule collapsed
Old Ottoman state to be partitions between Allies, Greeks, Armenians
Only a small Turkish state built around Ankara remained
Constantinople placed under international control
Greeks seek more lands in Asia Minor, invade rump Turkish state
 Rise of Turkish Nationalism
Turks rally to Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal): organizes, arms Turkish armies
Drive Greek armies out of Asia Minor
Negotiates with Allies for return of Turkish lands
Abolishes Caliphate, Sultanate in 1922 and creates a republic
Begins process of westernization, modernization of Turkish state, culture
Massive liberties granted to women – first such move in Middle East
WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST
 Arabia
 Wahhabist State in Central Arabia Prior to World War I
Wahhabis were puritanical religious fanatics
Sought to cleanse Islam of all foreign influences
Religious sect allied to Saud family ruling central Arabia
 Arab Uprising against Turks
Began in Hejaz (region containing Mecca and Medina) under
Hashemite Emirs
After World War I Wahhabists conquer Hejaz and expel proBritish Hashemite emirs
Create unified Arabian state called Saudi Arabia
 British make Hashemite emirs rulers of Transjordan and Iraqi
mandates
NATIONALISM IN EGYPT
 The British and Egypt
 British occupation in 1882 following Ahmad Orabi Rebellion
Left the Egyptians with both Turkish khedives, British overlords
British left Khedival government in place but ran Egyptian foreign policy,
defense
 Lord Cromer directed British policy in Egypt.
Attempted economic reforms to reduce debts, improve irrigation, public works.
The masses of the Egyptian population realized little benefit from the changes.
Ayan (greater landlords) able to extend control farther into the countryside
The great estates came to monopolize most Egyptian land
Small landholders reduced to tenancy.
 Resistance to the British administration of Egypt
Resistance by the elite
Emerged from within the lower officer ranks of Egyptian army,
Emerged from within the ranks of the Egyptian business classes
Journalists were particularly prominent in the nationalist movement
Journalists attacked the British administration and British racial attitudes
Three nationalist parties were created
NATIONALISM IN EGYPT
 To forestall more violent nationalist movements
The British granted a new constitution to Egypt
Allowed parliamentary representation
When World War I broke out, the British suspended the constitution and
imposed martial law
 Revolt in Egypt 1919
 Martial law in Egypt during World War I imposed great hardships on the
peasantry
 British refusal to allow Egyptian delegation to attend the peace
conferences
 This touched off a rebellion but British able to regain control
 British forced to recognize nationalist Wafd party under Sa'd Zaghlul
 Between 1922 and 1936
 British forces were progressively withdrawn to the Suez Canal zone
 They reserved their right to defend their interests in Egypt
 The Wafd party failed to enact significant social or economic reforms.
ARAB MANDATES
 Entente powers broke promises made to Arabs
 Allies promised Arabs independent states in Middle East
following War
 Sikes-Pikot Treaty
Divided Middle East between Allied Nations
Gave Arab lands to European powers
 Arabs expected independent Arab states
 British and French forces occupied Ottoman empire
 Created artificial states within the League of Nations
Called Mandates, placed under control of British, French
Allies were supposed to prepare Arabs for independence
French did not, British did
 Ottoman troops in WWI, preparing for a
possible gas attack.
ARAB MANDATES

In Syria, Iraq, Lebanon
Arab resistance to the mandate system was common
British eventually placed Hashemite King on Iraqi throne

Palestine, Balfour Declaration and Zionism

Zionist movement largely Eastern Europe until 1894

Zionists were Jews seeking to create Jewish homeland in Palestine

Theodor Herzl
Mobilized West European Zionism
Formed the World Zionist Organization

British Foreign Minister Balfour promised Zionists in 1917 support for Jewish homeland

Pogroms against Jewish communities accelerated migration to Palestine

Both Zionism, British takeover of Palestine seemed to violate assurances

Rising Arab opposition caused the British to limit Zionist settlement in Palestine

Zionists thus began to arm themselves in order to resist both British, Arab opposition

Arabs in Palestine remained without a voice concerning the fate of their region.
PROMISES MADE,
PROMISES BROKEN
AFRICA
 During World War I
 Most Western-educated African elites remained loyal to the colonial regimes.
 The war effort disrupted African economies
Drew heavily on African manpower: Senegalese, West African, South African troops helped allies
German resistance led to a guerrilla war in East Africa for four years
Women assumed many traditionally male roles during war
 After the war
 Europeans kept few promises of economic improvement
 This led to strikes and civil disobedience
 Tariffs and restrictions to trade hurt weak African economies
 Dissatisfaction with colonialism spread
 First nationalist movements appeared in Africa in the 1920s
Emerged in the guise of unworkable pan-African organizations
Charismatic African-American leaders had significant roles in the formation of pan-African movements
 The Tirailleurs Senegalais were West African Colonial
Army troops who fought for the French during World
War I
 West African French Imperial Troops in
World War I
AFRICA
 In French Africa
A literary genre, négritude arose
Celebrated black culture as an attack on European racist attitudes
Influenced by the Harlem Renaissance in the US; Surrealism, World Socialism
Movement was very influential in Caribbean, Brazil, too linking areas of African
diaspora
French Africans often took path of assimilation into French culture AS BLACKS to gain
rights
Little involvement of Africans in any aspect of colonial government – reserved for French
Europeans
 In British colonies
British utilized African policemen, lower bureaucrats, civil servants, magistrates
Their influence in colonial government grew to form a nationalist and Pan-African
movement
Actual political parties were slow to emerge
Political associations began the process of developing a mass base and agitating for
political reform
Educated African elite and businessmen often became spokesmen for nationalist
movements
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS
 Changing Realities
 World War I undermined Europe's global dominance
 At end of war the United States was clearly the greatest world
power
 Rise of United States and Japan in world influence
 First non-European powers to do so broke European monopoly
 Communism as Anti-Imperialism
 Revolution broke out in Russia and the East
 Soviet state challenged traditional western dominance
 Offered an alternative to western capitalist, democratic models
 Socialism as Change
 Socialists gained ground in the western democracies
 Replaced more traditional conservatives and liberals
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS

Changes in Gender Roles
 Gender roles changed dramatically in Western Europe, in Russia
 Began to change in Eastern Europe, Turkey
 During war, many women allowed to assume economic roles which they had never had
 After World War I many Western states gave women the vote

The War Encouraged Economic Changes
 Increased industrialization in the US and changing industries in war powers significant
 Export by Latin American nations added non-European nations to the Global Economic scene

Beginning of Decolonialization
 The empires of the Entente nations actually grew but change had begun
 Liberation movements gained ground as a result of the war
 Successful nationalist revolutions in Saudi Arabia and Turkey offered hope
 Indian independence movement had gained in influence
 Africans granted roles during war which they had not had before