CHAPTER 30
CONSOLIDATION OF
LATIN AMERICA
1810 – 1930
THEMES
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Latin America in the 19th century
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Shaped by internal divisions
Threats from foreign imperialism
Cross border disputes
Its political leaders
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Tended to begin as liberals, democrats
Ended up often as dictators
Shaped in the era of Enlightenment beliefs
Accepted concepts common in the West
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Progress
Property Rights
New nations
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Faced problems inherited from their colonial past
Largely dependent on the international economic system
COMING OF REVOLUTIONS
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By the late 18th century
– Creole elites prepared to separate
– Fear of racial, class conflicts prevented action
Revolution
– The First Revolution
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Haitian Revolution occurred during French Revolution
•
Central issue was slavery and its abolition
Leaders espoused ideas of French Enlightenment
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Only after the Napoleonic wars did real action occur
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Disrupted the government of Spain
Replaced legitimate Spanish king with Napoleon’s brother
Spanish colonies forced to go it alone
In 1810s
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Spain tried to restore its traditional rule prior to Napoleonic Wars
Latin American leaders not willing to go back to the old ways
IMAGINING LATIN AMERICAN
INDEPENDENCE
Mexican Leaders
Bolivar meets
San Martin
CAUSES OF CHANGE
Revolutions in Latin America
•
Part of the wider late 18th, early 19th c.
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Often called Atlantic Revolutions
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American Revolution 1776 – 1783
French Revolution 1789 – 1799
Haitian Revolution 1791 – 1802
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Heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas
Creoles or middle class were the main leaders
French Revolution did not move fast enough to end slavery
Maroons were free blacks, attuned to Enlightenment back immediate freedom
Slaves rose under Toussaint L'Ouverture, turned on white slave holders
Successfully overthrew the colonial government of St. Domingue
Established the independent republic of Haiti
Invaded Santo Domingo, defeated Spanish, French, English armies
Adopted radical aspects of the French revolution; called Black Jacobins
Specter of black rebellion in Haiti frightened Creoles of Latin America.
Latin America 1810s – 1822
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Breakdown of the Spanish monarchy during the Napoleonic wars
Creoles set up independent governments
Claimed to rule in the name of the exiled Spanish monarch
HAITIAN INDEPENDENCE
SPANISH-AMERICAN STRUGGLES
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Rebellion in Mexico
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Began in 1810
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Second revolutionary movement
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Central America separated from Mexico in 1838
Central America broke up into separate republics in the 1840s and 1850s
In northern South America
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Broke out in 1820 with more Creole support
Royalist Creole military officer Augustín de Iturbide switches sides
Seized Mexico City ; proclaimed Iturbide emperor in 1821
Mexico initially maintained control over Central America
•
•
Under the leadership of Father Miguel de Hidalgo
Called on the support of mestizos and Indians
Hidalgo's movement failed for lack of Creole support
Morelos Rebellion Gives Way to Iturbide
Simon Bolívar emerged as the leader of the revolutionary forces
Between 1817 and 1822 he defeated Spanish forces in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador
Formed the new nation of Gran Colombia
After 1830, these nations split into independent states
In southern South America
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The revolutionary leader was José de San Martín.
San Martín mobilized resistance in his native Argentina then crossed the Andes to Chile
By 1824, San Martín had carried the revolution into the most conservative colony of Peru
He defeated the Spanish forces there.
All of Spanish South America had won independence by 1825.
VISUALIZING MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE
Hidalgo
Morelos
BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE
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Independence in Brazil
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Achieved peacefully – different from Spanish
Early movements for independence failed
White population feared slave uprisings
1807 – 1820
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Portuguese royal family fled Portugal in face of French invasion
Emigrated to Brazil, set up a government in exile
King João VI ruled empire from Rio de Janeiro
Brazilian ports opened to international trade
King returned to Portugal in 1820
His son proclaimed independence in Brazil in 1822
Brazil became a monarchy under Pedro I
PEDRO I CROWNED EMPEROR
OF BRAZIL
PROBLEMS OF THE NEW NATIONS
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Most of the independent nations
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Voting rights
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Established representative governments
Rights protecting private property and free trade
Less agreement on position of Roman Catholic Church
Slavery abolished in all except Brazil, Spanish colonies
Tended to be restricted by race to favor Creoles
Based on property and wealth
Women remained without voting rights
Indian populations and people of mixed origins
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Remained outside the egalitarian principles
Marginalized within societies
POLITICAL FRAGMENTATION:
CENTRAL AMERICA
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Mexico
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Central America
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Quickly abandoned its experiment with monarchy
Established a republic in 1823
Government remained unstable until the 1860s
Initial attempts to form a unified government failed
Gave way to individual states in 1838
Caribbean Islands remained within the orbit of Spanish colonialism.
Haiti independent : had conquered Santo Domingo
POLITICAL FRAGMENTATION
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•
Brazil
• Independent but federal, centralist tensions
Consolidation failed in South America
–
New Granada failed in 1830
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Broke into Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador
Rio de la Plata
Attempts to create a political union failed
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Paraguay, Uruguay, Chile remained independent
•
Argentina too dominant and feared by others
Peru and Bolivia
•
Temporarily united
•
Formed separate governments in 1839
Poor transportation, communication
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Magnified problems
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Fragmented nations, made governing difficult
CAUDILLOS, POLITICS, CHURCH
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Caudillos
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Governmental Philosophies
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Decades of war gave rise to regional military figures
Caudillos dominated local areas
Sometimes seized national governments
Caudillos often operated out of self-interest
Sometimes sought support from regional elites
Marginalized Indians, peasants, or the poor
Degree of centralization new governments should have was issue
Federalists wished regional governments to establish policies
Centrists wanted powerful, central administrations
Liberals tended to support federalist policies
Conservatives wanted centralized governments, corporate institutions, such as Catholic Church.
Liberals attempted to limit the role of the Church in civil affairs
Political parties representing these points of view sprang up in many of the new republics.
Leaders
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Regardless of political view, leaders in Latin America tended to come from wealthy landowners
Rapid political change was the rule in Latin America in the first half century after independence
Constitutions and leadership came and went swiftly
Many military coups – military and strong army officers at the center of most changes
Brazil, with its monarchy, was perhaps the most stable government in the region
GREAT BRITAIN, USA IN REGION
•
Great Britain's Role
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The United States
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Recognized Latin American independence
Forestalled plans to restore Spanish empire
Also supported the independence movement
Gave arms, money and refuge to leaders
Promulgated the Monroe Doctrine of 1823
Britain used the Doctrine to support its own ideas
Britain's support for the new nations
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Tied to the opening of trade with Latin America
Britain replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner
British dominance
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Hindered the development of Latin American industries
Reinforced economic dependence of Latin America in world trade
MID-CENTURY STAGNATION
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From 1820 to 1850
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After 1850
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Permitted state development of infrastructure
Roads and railroads built to export from interior
Strongest in Peru, Mexico, Argentina, Chile
Peru’s Guano Era
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In response to European demand for products
Economy quickened through exports of raw materials
Enhanced trade
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•
Economy of Latin America remained stagnant
Abolition of slavery, departure of many Europeans stalled economy
Europe needed fertilizer
Peru exported bird dung (guano)
Used money to diversify economy, build infrastructure, pay off debt, education
Pattern was established
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Economy strictly dependent on world trade network
Export of primary products into world system
Uneasy alliances between peasants and conservatives
Prevented rapid economic change proposed by urban middle class
LIBERALS, ECONOMIC RESURGENCE
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•
European economy 1875 – 1900
– European industrialization, urbanization
– Produced demand for Latin American products
– Economies expanded rapidly
– Economic growth created support for liberal policies
– Led to liberal governments after 1860
European economic models
– Did not fit Latin American economies, often failed
– Immigrants from Europe entered Latin America
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Filled labor vacuum created by abolition of slavery
Ignored Native American populations
Wealthy landowners
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Continued to monopolize the countryside
At the expense of small farmers, Indians, poor Blacks
MEXICO:
CONSTITUTION OF 1824

Constitution of 1824
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Estados Unidos Mexicanos
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United Mexican States
Federalist structure with strong provincial government
States had enormous influence, independence
Equality under the law was a phrase without reality
No rights for the poor, Indians, mestizo
Political Ideologies
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Whether state would be federalist or centralized was always the issue
Liberal v. Central
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Liberals
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Centralists
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Wanted to expand electorate to include wealthy mestizos
Supported separation of Church, state, public education separated from Church control
Supported strong states, weaker central government
Supported taxation of wealth
Supported a strong centralized state based at Mexico City
Opposed expanded electorate, separation of church and state
Preferred weakened state deputations
Federalist v. Conservative


Federalists supported strong states, weak central government
Conservatives preferred traditional structures including state church
MEXICO 1835 – 1872
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The federalist constitution of 1824
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1835 – 1855
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Forced the cession of Texas, California, and much of Mexico north of the Rio Grande River.
Called the Treat y of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Mexico's failures in foreign policy
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•
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Antonio López de Santa Anna
Served as the most important military and political figure in Mexico.
Santa Anna enjoyed mixed results in fighting off foreign attempts to intervene in Mexico.
Anglo-American settlers in province of Texas rebelled and declared independence
Failure to suppress the Texas independence movement led to the US’ annexation of region
US won the Mexican-American War
•
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Failed to address the inequitable distribution of land, status of the Indians
Abandoned in favor of military leadership
Led to the removal of Santa Anna as the chief political figure of the republic
Liberal rebellion against the caudillo resulted in Santa Anna's ouster
La Reforma, Jaurez, and The French Intervention
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Creation of a liberal constitution
Conservatives rejected liberal constitution and turned to France as an ally
French forces overthrew republic, placed Maximilian of Habsburg on throne as emperor, 1862
French forces were withdrawn, liberals returned to power under Benito Juárez in 1867
Juárez continued to govern until his death in 1872.
ARGENTINA
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Buenos Aires dominated the region of Rio de la Plata
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The leader's preference for a strong, central government
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Provoked the opposition of cattlemen in the plains outside the port
By 1831
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Liberal government established in port
Sought to stimulate the economy
Conservative government under Juan Manuel de Rosas
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Replaced the liberals
•
Rosas's federalism favored the ranchers at the expense of Indians.
After Rosas's fall in 1852
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Period of political confusion ensued until creation of Argentina in 1862
Liberal reformers sought to manipulate economic boom after the 1860s.
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Using profits from increased trade
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Liberal government established education systems, built roads, railroads
The liberal government carried out final conquest of Indians in Argentina.
BRAZIL: FROM EMPIRE TO REPUBLIC
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In Brazil, a functioning republic existed behind the facade of monarchy
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Independence was achieved in 1822 under Dom Pedro I
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Pedro I was deposed in 1831, a series of regencies ruled in the name of the young Dom Pedro II
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Between 1831 and 1840 regional governments opposed centralized rule from Rio de Janeiro
After 1840
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Dom Pedro II ruled in his own name as a liberal
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Sought to increase economic growth, foreign investments, improved the country's infrastructure
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Brazilian economy was revolutionized by emergence of coffee as an export crop
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As coffee production expanded slavery was intensified as a source of coercive labor
Extensive European immigration into Brazil
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Broadened the labor force and reduced the need for slavery.
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Brazil’s white population surpassed its Black and Mixed Population for the first time
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Italians formed a major group of the immigrants
Slavery
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Abolition movement gained force in 1840s, finally abolished in 1888
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Gradual emancipation and freeing of new born children, youth occurred earlier
Empire abolished
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Weakened by long participation in unpopular war, by opposition from the Church
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Landowners furious at monarchy for support of abolition movement
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1889, a military coup deposed the emperor and established a republic.
SOCIETY IN SEARCH OF DEFINITION
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Tension of Heritages
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Tension in Latin American culture between
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Indian, Black cultures still marginalized
End of Spanish colonial dominance
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Opened Latin America to other European influences
French neoclassical tradition was particularly influential
Romanticism
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Shifted Latin American attentions to Americanisms
Symbols such as Indians, gauchos, and slaves.
Historical studies reflected European concepts of positivism, progress
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Heritage of Europe
Heritage of the Americas (Creole culture)
By 1870s, liberalism produced more realistic literary efforts
It often criticized social and political systems.
Popular culture remained unaffected by trends among the elite
GENDER, RACE, CLASS
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Women
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Color and Ethnicity
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Active in the independence movements
Gained little power during the 19th century
Excluded from active participation in politics
Remained subject to patriarchal authority in their households
But did have broader access to public education, positions as teachers
Educated women were in the forefront of the new feminist movement
Slavery abolished during independence but equality not gained
Legal distinctions were often removed but social, economic remained
Old social hierarchy based on color and ethnicity was tacitly retained
Indians remained outside the social system of Creoles, mestizos
Liberal decades led to increasing control of resources, land by creoles
After the 1870s
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Economic change, immigration fostered creation of greater urban centers
But Latin America remained predominantly agrarian
Largely dependent on world trade with few of the modern social classes
GREAT BOOM
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A Change Occurs
– Latin American export economy
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Produced a social, political alliance
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All of Latin America depended on exports to Europe
Complete dependence
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Between large landowners, miners, and export merchants
All depended on commerce for prosperity.
Made Latin American economy vulnerable to shifts in markets
Changes in demand and prices help, hurt region
Exports dramatically increased between 1870 and 1900
– Expanding economy attracted capital from abroad
– Money flowed in from Europe (UK), the United States
– Foreign capital provided the impetus for expansion
– Placed regional industries, transportation in foreign hands
ARGENTINA
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Two forces made Argentina
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1859 to 1865 – 1870 War of the Triple Alliance
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Introduction of modern agricultural techniques and world economy
Foreign investment and immigration aided these developments
Argentina after independence warred over issues of federalism, centralism
While Rosas in some ways represented federalism, Buenos Aires was centrist
Paraguay tried to expand territory, fought Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay
During War, Buenos Aires rose to prominence as center of trade, war
After war, Centrists won issue with Federalists and Argentina became a centralized state
After 1870
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Economy boomed through export of primary resources including grain, beef
Growth of domestic industry hindered because of cheap importation of manufactured goods
Argentina's labor force expanded through immigration from Europe
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The middle-class Radical Party
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European-born workers brought socialism, Socialist Party emerged in Argentina in the 1890s
Series of strikes followed by government repression typified the first decades of the 20th century.
Promised political reform and enlightened labor policies to gain power in 1916.
When faced with strikes, it, too, reacted repressively.
The model of Argentina
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Oligarchic rule composed of the traditional landed aristocracy and the middle classes
Could be found in other Latin American states where liberal modernization met resistance
MEXICO: THE
PORFIRATO

Porfirio Diaz the Politician
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Cunning politician; knew very well how to manipulate people to his advantage
"Pan o palo" ("bread or the stick")
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Paz porfiriana or Porfirian peace
End 45 years of revolution and anarchy
His second goal was “no politics and plenty of administration”
Kept his people in a constant state of uncertainty
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Rising opposition to Díaz’ administration was immediately quelled
A systematic and methodical regime with a staunch military mindset
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One could either accept what was given willingly (often a position of political power)
Or face harsh consequences (often death).
Managed to dissolve all local authorities and aspects of federalism
Leaders of Mexico were answering directly to him
Legislature was composed almost entirely of his closest and most loyal friends
Díaz suppressed the media and controlled the court system
Catered to private desires of different groups: played off interest against each other
Mexican Groups
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Gave mestizos political positions of power
Did the same with elite Creole society; did not interfere with their wealth, haciendas
He neither assaulted nor protected the Church
The dominant Indian population was almost entirely ignored.
Díaz created illusion of democracy and quelled almost all competing forces
“LOS CIENTIFICOS”
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The Scientists
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The technocratic advisors to Diaz
Consisted of industrialists, landowners
Followed 19th century political theory
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Based on positivist philosophy of Comte
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Advocated a society and political system
Organized in accordance with the laws of nature.
A sort of liberalism
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Supported
 Republicanism
 Secularism
 Progress
 Order: social and political
Rejected
 Liberal jacobinism
 Evolution not revolution
 Individual rights
 Natural law
 Constitutionalism
 political liberties
 Universal suffrage
Positivism, Scientific Advisors were developments common to Latin American states
DIAZ’S ECONOMY
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Díaz had created such an effective centralized government
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Díaz welcomed foreign investors with open arms.
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1850s ban on corporate land holding also enacted for Indian villages
Freed land for private exploitation, purchase by his loyal political followers and friends.
New wealth
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Encouraged foreign investment because country in serious debt and had minimal savings
Conditions for investors so favorable that local businesses, individual workers greatly suffered.
Growing influence of U.S. businessmen over the Mexican economy was constant dilemma
Díaz largely stuck to familiar liberal principles.
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He was able to concentrate decision-making
Maintained control over the economic instability.
Money was not used to improve the lives of the people of Mexico.
Profits ended up the hands of a wealthy few or went overseas.
Wage rates remained very low; majority of the Mexican population faced devastating poverty.
Economic progress varied drastically from region to region.
His modernization program was also at odds with the owners of the large plantations
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Rich plantation owners wanted to maintain their existing feudal system (peonage)
Were reluctant to transform into the capitalist economy with competition, foreign markets
He allowed the plantation owners to proceed with a slow campaign of encroachment
Used law to seize collectively owned village land and enforced seizure through his rural police
MEXICO DEVELOPS: AT WHAT COST?

Economic Statistics
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Railroads
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Silver Production
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1891-2: 6,483 tons
1910: 52,116 tons
Heneguen (sisal)
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1877: 607,037 kilograms
1900: 1,816,605 kilograms
Copper
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1877: a few miles
1910: 14,000 miles
1877: 11,283 tons
1910: 128,849 tons
Social Statistics
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Infant Mortality
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1893: 323 per 1,000 in Mexico City
London: 115 and Boston 120 per 1,000
Life Expectancy: 1895 30 years
1910 Census classified 50% of Mexican houses as unfit for human habitation
1900 survey in Mexico City: 15,000 families (16% of the population) were homeless
Wealth was being created but it certainly wasn't trickling down.
LIFE IN MEXICO 1910
THE USA IN LATIN AMERICA
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After the Civil War
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American capitalists invested in Latin America
Invested heavily in Mexico, Central America, Caribbean
Spanish-American War between 1895 and 1898
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First US war in region since Mexican-American War
Intended to open door to valuable sugar plantations
As a result of the war
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Columbia and Panama
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Former Spanish colony of Puerto Rico becomes US possession
Cuba reduced to dependency of the United States
Colombia proved reluctant to support US plans
US backed Panama's independence movement in 1904
In return, US got extensive rights to build canal in new nation
Canal finished and opened in 1914
Latin American nations
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Became increasingly critical of U.S. intervention in the region
Critical of military, cultural, and economic penetration of the region
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS

During the 19th century
 Former colonies of Latin America constructed new nations
 Latin America
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Was forced to forge economies from ground up
In a world trade network already dominated by European nations
Latin America cast off European imperialism in the 19th century
New nations carried with them colonial social systems
Were strictly hierarchical
 Small Creole elite dominated the economy and politics
 Native Americans, former slaves, peasants
 Marginalized
 Shared little of economic expansion of the second half of the century
 Latin America was 1st region of world to decolonize
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Latin America maintained ties to the West
Imitated Western models
Experienced growing influence of the United States
Its dependent economy also kept it connected to the world.
THE US IN LATIN AMERICA
IMAGINING THE USA IN PANAMA
LATIN AMERICA AND THE WORLD
WHO ARE THEY?
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 DOMINGO SARMIENTO
CREOLES (CRIOLLOS)
TOUSSAINT L’OVERTURE
FR. HIDALGO
ITURBIDE
SIMON BOLIVER
JOSE DE SAN MARTIN
JOAO IV
PEDRO I
JOSE LOPEZ DE SANTA ANNA
BENITO JUAREZ
MAXIMILIAN
WHAT ARE THEY?
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ST. DOMINIQUE
HAITI
GRAN COLOMBIA
CAUDILLOS
CENTRALISTS
FEDERALISTS
MONROE DOCTRINE
GUANO
POSITIVISM
MANIFEST DESTINY
TREATY OF GUADALUPE
HIDALGO
1846 – 1848
LA REFORMA
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FAZENDAS
GREAT BOOM
CIENTIFICOS
1898
PANAMA CANAL