POSTCLASSICAL
EUROPES
COMPARED
DIFFERENT REGIONS,
SIMILAR ORIGINS
DIFFERENT PATHS
GEOGRAPHIC DETERMINISM
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Division of the Empire into Eastern, Western Roman Empire was not arbitrary
Western Mediterranean, c. 450 CE
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Small population
Roman ruling urban elite
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Non-Roman countryside
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Many vernaculars and few spoke Latin
Countryside retained many pre-Roman traditions
Intellectual tradition often copied older works rather than originated new ideas
Most of population was not Christian
Large commercial, latifundia tradition
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Latin was the language of government
Italy and parts of Spain were Latin, cities were Roman
Christianity was an urban phenomenon
Little industry, irregular commerce
Negative balance of trade: bought more than they sold – net loss of gold
Eastern Mediterranean, c. 450 CE
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Large population
Greeks formed the ruling urban elite
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Non-Greek countryside
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Many vernaculars and few spoke Greek
Countryside retained many pre-Greek traditions
Strong intellectual tradition among Greeks, non-Greeks
Both cities and countryside were Christian BUT
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Greek spoke around Aegean, Eastern cities
Cities were largely Hellenized
Cities practiced many heterodox versions of Christianity
Countryside practiced Christianity mixed with many pre-Christian traditions
Many of the early heresies originated in the East
Four of five patriarchates in East (Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch)
Commercial, small farms mixed tradition
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With vibrant industry, strong commerce
Positive balance of trade – net gain of gold
FOUR CLASSICAL TRADITIONS
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Caesar – Greco-Roman Traditions
– Hellenistic Cosmopolitan Traditions
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Greek language and literature
Greek philosophical traditions
Greek art and architecture
Strong mercantile tradition
– Roman Legal Traditions
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Rule of Law and Citizenship: All Equal Before Law
Judicial Review (to a degree)
Balanced Government (to a degree)
Elite landed classes
Christ – The Judeo-Christian Tradition
– Jewish Traditions
• Denied, ignored and downplayed by Christianity
• Early Church was Jewish as were Jesus, Apostles, early saints
– Christianity
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Christianity attracted lower classes, slaves for centuries
Later began to attract ruling elite
315 – 380 CE: Christianity legalized, later becomes only state religion
Romanization of the Church Structure
– Church increasingly adopted Roman imperial, legal terms
– Church hierarchy modeled after Roman governmental hierarchy
– Churches modeled after basilicas and Roman legal traditions
LATE CLASSICAL INTERACTIONS
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Western Roman Empire, c. 400 CE
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Others
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Rivals
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Traditional Enemy: Germanic Tribes
Short Term Enemy: The Huns
Western Roman Army
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No major states, civilizations on the borders
No major trading states, partners and little commercial interaction
Peoples were semi-civilized and often hostile to Rome
Largely mercenary as Romans would no longer serve in military
Feudal relationship between empire, Germans settled as mercenaries
Whole provinces, regions turned over to German settlers and not subject to Rome
Local elites provided for local defense
Eastern Roman Empire, c. 400 CE
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Others
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Rivals
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Strong states in Persia, Armenia, Ethiopia, Kush-Meroe
Strong trading contacts with Southwest Asia, East Africa, and India
Traditional Enemy: Sassanid Persia
Short Term Enemy: Germans and Huns
Eastern Roman Army
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Based on heavy, armored cavalry supported by infantry, siege troops
Strong naval components and very sturdy fortified cities, walls
Armies were largely paid professionals led by professionals
Defense was not left to locals but controlled by Emperor, imperial bureacracy
LATE CLASSICAL INTERACTIONS
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Germans and Huns
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Eastern Roman Empire
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Invaded both East, West Roman Empire
Did not have the same effect on both empires
Goths destroyed one Eastern Roman army but empire recovered
Eastern Empire not bothered by the Huns: too many walled cities
Eastern Emperor bribed Goths to go West
Eastern Roman Empire survived invasions of Germans, Huns
Western Roman Empire
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Germans already in empire c. 400 CE as settlers
Huns appeared and Germans sought refuge
Germans, Romans team up to defeat Huns
After Huns, German rulers decided to “keep” Roman Empire
• Vandals settled in Africa
• Visigoths, Suevi, Alani settle in Iberia
• Franks, Burgundians settle in France, Belgium
• Ostrogoths settle in Italy
• Angles, Saxons, Jutes settle in England
Rome sacked twice, last emperor deposed in 476 CE
Later Germanic Invasions
• Lombards move into Italy, Croatia: disrupt Byzantines in Italy
• Franks expand into Germany, Netherlands and later into Italy
EARLY POST-CLASSICAL
INTERACTIONS
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Western Europe
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6th Century saw the rise of the Frankish Kingdom (Empire)
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Visigoths unite Spain: survive Byzantine invasion but not Arab invasion
Byzantines invade Western Mediterranean
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Franks gradually brought France, Belgium, Germany under their control
Later invaded Italy after Pope asked Franks for help
Frankish army was very powerful and well-organized
Destroy Ostrogoth, Vandal kingdoms
Halted by more numerous Germans as wars bankrupted Byzantines
Eastern Europe
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The Mediterranean
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The Slavs and Asian Pastoral Nomads
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Justinian reconquered Italy, North Africa, Southern Spain
Came close to reunifying Roman Empire but bankrupted Byzantines
The Slavs beginning 600 – 750 CE
– After Germans evacuate Eastern Europe, Slavs push out of Russia into region
– Slavs push into Eastern Roman Empire, Balkans: nearly destroy Empire
– Later joined by Bulgars (Turks) who settle in Thrace, adopt Slavic traditions
Slavic and Byzantine Interaction
– Slavs overran much of European Byzantine Empire
– Greeks begin process of conversion of Slavs to Christianity
Many Asian Pastoral Nomads invade Eastern Roman Empire
• Could never capture cities which were heavily fortified
• Could rarely control seas
The Persians and Arabs
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Byzantines battled Persians to a standstill but could never win
Arabs came in and destroyed Persians, conquered Southern Mediterranean
– Arabs overran North Africa, Holy Land, Syria
– Seize Cyprus, Sicily, Crete, Balerics, Sardinia and threaten Constantinople
– Byzantine fortified cities defied Arabs and protected interior lands from conquest
LATER POST-CLASSICAL INTERACTIONS
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Western Europe
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Spain: After 711 Muslims invade, conquer Spain beginning Reconquista of the Christians
Frankish Kingdom from 5th c. CE through 9th Frankish Empire of 9th c. CE
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Crusades
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800: Franks create Frankish Empire
850: Frankish Empire breaks up
– Eastern Frankish Kingdom
» Controlled Germany, Austria, Czech Republic
» Eventually became Holy Roman Empire and pushed boundaries into Poland, north to Baltic
– Western Frankish Kingdom
» Controlled Gaul, Aquitaine
» Eventually became Kingdom of France
– Kingdom of Lothair later partitioned by two other states
» Lands between Eastern, Western Frankish states
» Ruled Netherlands, Belgium, Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, Italy
9th Century: Age of the Vikings (Denmark, Norway) in the West
After 10th Century: feudal conflicts give way to increased trade
First Crusade was not against Turks in Holy Land but Muslims in Spain
Crusades in Spain, Baltic Regions, Holy Lands and later against heretics
Crusades also expanded trade contacts in Western Mediterranean
Eastern Europe
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Byzantines
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There were always strong commercial contacts between Byzantines and neighbors
6th through 10th Century
– Slavs establish states in Balkan
– Byzantines eventually overran them all after converting them to Christianity
After 10th century: decline
– Initiated by invasion of the Seljuk Turks, later sack of Constantinople by 4 th Crusade
– Final destruction in 1453 by Ottoman Turks
Russia
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9th Century: Rise of Kievan Rus state in Russia
Founded by Swedish Vikings who had raided, traded in Russia, Black Sea
Strong commercial contacts with Khazars, Arabs, Byzantines, German Hansa of Northern Europe
Russia done in by Mongols in 13th century
MILITARIES COMPARED
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Frankish Empire, Holy Roman Empire AND Kievan Rus
– Feudal Military System
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Dominated by aristocratic warriors who had to furnish everything
No national forces – only local feudal forces: state furnished nothing
Local lord receives land from king, promises to defend area
Local lord provides small number of troops to police area
40 days of year king has use of knights, nobles for his wars
Small armies mostly knights, some foot soldiers
Small fortified castles, towns
– Holy Roman Empire followed same tradition
– Kievan Rus were outsiders (Vikings) who rarely used local Slavs
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Byzantine Military
– Professional Military Forces: Think Old Roman Military prior to 200 CE
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Soldiers were paid for service, trained by state and often served 25 years
Officers were aristocrats but could also be commoners, who could become nobles
Country divided into defensive zones run by military
Military answers directly to emperor but led in battle by professional generals
State paid for construction of forts, fleets, arms, siege equipment, supplies, etc.
– Local militias
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Each province also maintained a local guard of local people
Most males could serve
– Elite Mercenary Units maintained by Emperor: Varangian Guard
COMMERCIAL INTERACTIONS
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Byzantines
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Kievan Rus
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A strong mercantile tradition
Extensive contacts throughout region
Traded as far as India, China, East Africa; traded with Muslims heavily
Strong gold currency was a medium for many
Industry known for production of luxuries
Influential merchant class but no political influence
State began as a result of raiding and trading
Trade network of Swedes ran from Baltic to Black to Caspian
Many of their settlements were centers of trade for steppe
Many contacts with foreigners
Traded in slaves (from Slav), honey, horses, wood, amber, furs
France, Germany, Italy
– c. 500
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Trade was almost no existent due to wars
No strong merchant class in France, Germany; small one in Italy
Society was self-sufficient (feudal manorialism) and trade not important
– c. 1000
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Trade revived in parts of region but not all – true of Italy, Netherlands
Revival of trade due to rise of cities
Society still did not overly trust, need merchants except for luxuries
STATE STRUCTURES: EAST
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Byzantine Empire
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Centralized Empire
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Autocratic
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Emperor is absolute
No opposition is allowed if he is really strong – removes enemies
Caesro-Papism
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All power resides with the Emperor
Emperor rules through bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is trained and not aristocratic
Emperor appoints all men to positions
Aristocrats excluded often from influence
Divine Right Monarchy – emperor is God’s anointed rep on earth
Emperor is the head of the Church
Appoints Patriarch, bishops
Oversees church but does not run it
Often has final say so in church theological disputes
Only after 1250 did Byzantines become feudal and then because they could not afford money
Kievan Rus
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Decentralized Monarchy
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Prince not powerful enough to enforce uniformity
State was very large and distance made centralization difficult
Powerful nobles often ruled own estates and principalities without his input
Nobles were very combative and tended not to like someone ruling them
– Prince did not appoint Church leaders, they were elected by clergy
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Clergy not independent of state
Prince had more influence over church than did West Europeans but less than Byzantines
STATE STRUCTURES: WEST
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Early Germanic States
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Early Frankish State: Merovingian Dynasty
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Mayor of Palace Charles Martel defeats Muslims at Tours
Pippin overthrew Merovingian kings with papal blessing
Charlemagne was his son; crowned emperor by pope to oppose Byzantine emperor
Church and state cooperated – both resented the other but needed each other
Charlemagne tried to centralize but produced feudal state
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Kings wanted to centralize but often not strong enough
Nobles called counts challenged king: Mayor of Palace held power
Clovis converted to Catholicism in order to get papal support, influence
King traded land for troops – nobles got land, king got their military service
Carolingian Dynasty or Empire
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Very similar to Kievan Rus
King had power but only if he was strong, could enforce his rule
Nobles owed allegiance, service but resisted too much royal power
Most people were free and king had to convince them of his rights
Nobles ruled their lands often independently of emperor
They owed emperor service, support, aides but only to a certain level
Charlemagne tried to centralize but nobles resisted
Later kingdoms in Germany, France, Italy
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Charlemagne’s state was partitioned between his descendants
Germany, France created a system similar to Charlemagne
Italy broke up into city states, small princely states with republican aristocratic governments
Feudalism strong in Germany, France but never in Italy
CHRISTIANITY
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– Same religion
• You can only speak of Christian
• All state churches cooperated
• All recognized pope
– As their spiritual leader
– But he was not supreme nor recognized as such
– Different rites
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A rite is the way a people worship
Includes language of service and traditions
The Catholic Church recognizes today 22 different rites as Catholic
One is the Byzantine tradition
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– Western Europe, Byzantines, Kievan Rus SAME religion
– In all, the Church was not predominant
– State tended to be supreme more or less in all BUT…..
CHANGES
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Latin Christianity to 1000 CE
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Priests not encouraged to marry
Communion with unleavened bread
Spoke, used Latin in services
Tended to follow Bishop of Rome (Pope) but this was not always true
Pope elected by Roman clergy
Senior church positions appointed by secular rulers subject to pope ok
German kings did not recognize pope as supreme
NO separation of Church and State; cooperation by equals
Pope increasingly trying to enforce his rule, supremacy in West
• Eastern Christianity
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Priests could be married at time of ordination but not marry after
Bishops could not be married
Communion with leavened bread (azimes)
Liturgy in the local vernacular (Greek, Slavonic, Coptic, Syriac)
Four Patriarchs: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem
All decisions of church made jointly by bishops in council!
Churches subject to extensive control, oversight by secular authorities
No separation of church and state
THE SCHISM
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Purported Controversies!
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Azimes vs. Unleavened bread
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Filoque: From the Father AND THE SON
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East always used local language to preach, pray
West insisted on uniformity using Latin – as East pointed out, Holy Spirit multi-lingual
Icons
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Christ’s apostles were married – so was Paul – so were early popes
West ended married priesthood because Church losing property – East said not tradition
Latin vs. Vernacular
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Nicaean Creed agreed to in two different church councils
Without consulting council, Pope changes it
Franks pressured pope to add three words “and the son”
Eastern Churches said pope would not do that without council
Married Priests
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East use leavened bread in communion
East use unleavened bread in communion
Tradition says communion came about at Passover – unleavened
Eastern Emperors decided that icons were sacrilegious and barred them from service
Eastern, Western Church leaders opposed iconoclasm but emperor was more powerful
Icons eventually restored under influence of Byzantine empresses! Both churches use
Church Orders and Active Monasteries vs. Isolated Monasteries and No Orders
Real Controversy
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Pope did not like to take orders from kings or EMPEROR IN CONSTANTINOPLE
Pope had created Charlemagne an emperor to use him to balance Byzantine Emperor – east upset
Emperor, Patriarchs did not want to take orders from Pope
Pope was influential and a secular prince: Eastern Churches had no political voice
1054
• Great Schism
– Now use terms
• Roman Catholics (universal)
• Orthodox (correct) – put a nationality in front to indicate language used
– Most religious aspects of churches identical
– Not so much religious as political deepened by war
• West
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Once Schism occurred, Western lords attacked Byzantines
Used their influence to undermine East at all occasions
Declared east to be heretics
4th Crusade: sacked Constantinople, raped Byzantines
• East
– Did not trust West: tended to cooperate better with Muslims
– Removed all Papal office holders at order of Eastern rulers
– Changed law codes to make Catholicism illegal
CHANGES AFTER 1054
• Roman Catholicism
– Pope increasingly powerful
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Subjects all bishops to his rule
Insists on uniformity and tries to enforce it where he can
Becomes a secular prince in all ways
Used Church to enforce his political will
– Constantly battled princes for right to invest clergy
• Princes wanted to give them secular authority
• Popes felt they alone had right to do both
• Led to wars and princes eventually one this
– Led to Babylonian Captivity, 2nd Schism, Reformation
• Orthodox Christianity
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Secular rulers increasingly dominate church
Often interfered in church affairs including theology
Church increasingly identified as a form of nationalism
Any attempt at internationalism discouraged