Chapter 7: The Jeffersonian Era

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Chapter 7: The Jeffersonian Era
I. The Rise of Culture Nationalism
- Opportunities for education increased; the nation’s literacy and artistic life began to free itself from
European influence
- American religion confronted the spread of Enlightenment rationalism
A. Patterns of Education
- Republican vision of America was a virtuous and enlightened citizenry
- Jefferson called for “crusade against ignorance”
- Believed in creation of nationwide public schools to create an educated electorate
- All male citizens should receive free public education
- Unable to realize that dream, but later years produced more substantial results
- Some states endorsed the principle of public education for early years of the republic, but none actually
created a working system of free schools
- By 1815, there were 30 private secondary schools in MA, 37 in NY, and several dozen more scattered
throughout the country
- Aristocratic in outlook; trained members to become part of the nation’s elite
- Private secondary schools only accepted males
- In 18th century, women received little education and female illiteracy was at least 50%
- “Republican Motherhood” - ignorant mothers couldn’t raise children to be enlightened
- Led to creation of female academies throughout the nation
- In 1789, MA required that its public schools serve females as well as males
- Men assumed female education should serve to make women better wives & mothers
- Reformers believed education would redeem ignorant and backward people
- Spurred growing interest in Indian education
- Hoped schooling the Indians in white culture would tame and uplift the tribes
- Whites believed there was no need to educate African Americans
- Slaveowners feared knowledge would make them unhappy with their condition
- Number of colleges/universities grew from nine at the start of the revolution to 22 by 1800
- William & Mary, Penn and Columbia all created law schools before 1800
B. Medicine and Science
- University of PA created first American medical school in 18th century
- Benjamin Rush advocated bleeding and purging, and many of his patients died
- Washington’s death was probably a result of bleeding and purging
- In early 19th century, physicians began to handle deliveries and restricted midwife roles
- Ideal of equal education opportunity would become vital force behind universal public education
C. Cultural Aspiration in the New Nation
- Americans believed they were destined to become the “seat of the empire” and the “final stage” of
civilization with “glorious works of high invention and of wond’rous art”
- Noah Webster > students should be educated as patriots filled w/ nationalistic thoughts
- Created American Spelling Book in 1783 which sold over 100 million copies & became best selling
book (except the Bible) in history
- “An American Dictionary of the English Language” est. standard of words and usages
- Washington Irving was leader of American literary life
- Mercy Otis Warren was influential playwright and agitator during the 1770’s
- Wrote a three-volume History of the Revolution published in 1805
D. Religious Skepticism
- American Revolution weakened traditional forms of religious practice
- Detached churches from govt. by elevating ideas of individual liberty and reason
- By 1790’s, only 10% were members of formal churches
- Ministers complained about the decay of vital piety
- Some Americans including Jefferson and Franklin embraced deism
- Originated among enlightenment philosophers in France
- Deists accepted God, but believed he’d withdrawn from direct involvement w/ human race
- Thomas Paine wrote, The Age of Reason
- Unitarians rejected belief in predestination, arguing salvation was available to all
- Some Americans believed rationalism marked the end of traditional evangelistic religion
- In 1801, traditional religion staged a comeback in form of revivalism
E. The Second Great Awakening
- Conservative theologians of 1790s fought the spread of religious rationalism to revitalize their organizations
- Conservatives in the church became militant in response to so called New Light dissenters
- Methodism became the fastest growing denomination in America
- Baptists found fervent following in the South
- Cane Ridge, KY held nation’s first camp meeting > revival lasted several days for 25,000
- Message was clear >Individuals must readmit to God & Christ into their daily lives, embrace a fervent, active
piety and reject the skeptical rationalism that threatened traditional beliefs
- Second Awakening accelerated growth of different denominations
- Created a popular acceptance that men and women could belong to different Protestant churches and still be
committed to same Christian faith
- Women flocked to revivals in response to their changing economic roles
- Played important roles in charitable societies, ministering to orphans and the poor, and missionary orgs
- In some areas, revivals were open to all races & many blacks embraced new religious fervor
- Black preachers became important figures w/in the slave community
- Gabriel Prosser planned slave rebellion and an attack on Richmond, VA
- Plan discovered and rebellion forestalled by whites, but revivalism stirred racial unrest
- Neolin sparked revival in Old NW combining Christian and Indian imagery w/ vision of a personal God
- Called for Indians to rise up in defense of their lands and denounced trade w/ whites
- Most important revivalism came from great prophet, Handsome Lake
- Seneca whose miraculous “rebirth” after years of alcoholism gave him special stature
- Called for a revival of traditional Indian ways
- Inspired many to give up whiskey, gambling & destructive customs derived from whites
- “Freethinkers” skeptical philosophies were victims of new religious fervor
II. Stirrings of Industrialism
A. Technology in America
- Immigrants arrived in US w/ advanced knowledge of English technologies
- Samuel Slater used knowledge from England to build a spinning mill for Moses Brown
- Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790 was the first modern factory in America
-Eli Whitney revolutionized both cotton production and weapons manufacturing
- Growth of textile industry in England created enormous demand for cotton
- Whitney invented cotton gin and it transformed life in the South
- Slavery regained importance, expanded and became firmly fixed in the South
- Not only changed economy of the South, it also helped transform the North
- Provided large supply of domestically produced fiber which was a strong incentive to entrepreneurs in
NE and elsewhere to develop an American textile industry
- Drove a wedge between the industrial North and agricultural South
- Ultimately contributed to the coming of the Civil War and helped ensure Union victory
- Whitney contributed to development of modern warfare by inventing interchangeable parts
- Crucial in making eventual transformation to a true manufacturing economy possible
B. Transportation Innovations
- Prereq for industrialization was eff. system of transporting raw materials to factories & goods to market
- Several ways to solve the problem of the small American market
- Look for customers overseas
- Congress passed tariff bills giving preference to American ships in American ports
- War in Europe allowed Yankee merchant vessels to control trade between Europe and WH
- US had merchant marine and foreign trade larger than any country except England
- Looked to develop new markets at home
- River transportation began w/ development of steamboat
-Oliver Evans developed higher pressure engine, which was lighter and more efficient
- Robert Fulton perfected the steamboat, Clermont, and sailed up the Hudson River in 1807
- “Turnpike Era” began in 1792 w/ construction of toll road running 60 miles from Philadelphia to Lancaster,
with a hard packed surface of crushed rocks.
C. The Rising Cities
- Philadelphia (70,000) and NY (60,000) became major centers of commerce & learning
- Urban life produced affluent people who sought increasing elegance in their homes and dress
- People looked for diversions > music, theater, dancing and the most popular, horse racing
III. Jefferson the President
- Assumed office attempting to reduce the differences between the two parties
- “We are all republicans, we are all federalists,” he said in his inaugural address
A. The Federal City and the “People’s President”
- Pierre L’Enfant designed the capital in Washington to become the Paris of the US
- Jefferson was a brilliant conversationalist, gifted writer & one of nation’s most intelligent and creative men
- Active architect, educator, inventor, scientific farmer and philosopher-scientist
- Jefferson was above all a shrewd and practical politician
- Used power of appointments to ensure Republicans were in control of govt. jobs
- He was re-elected in 1804, overwhelmingly defeated Charles Pinckney
- Republican majorities in both houses of congress increased
B. Dollars and Ships
- In 1802 Jefferson persuaded Congress to abolish all internal taxes
- Customs duties & sale of western lands only source of revenue for the govt.
- Sec. of Treasury Gallatin drastically reduced govt. spending
- Jefferson cut the national debt in half during his presidency
- Jefferson scaled down armed forces > army from 4,000 to 2,500 & navy from 25 ships to 7
- Wanted to protect civil liberties and civilian control of govt.
- Helped establish US Military Academy at West Point, founded in 1802
- Jefferson said, “Tribute or war is the usual alternative of these Barbary pirates…why not build a navy and
decide on war?”
- Ransom of $60,000 paid for release of American prisoners seized by Barbary pirates
C. Conflicts with the Courts
- Republican Congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 > eliminated Adams “midnight appts.”
- Debate over the courts led to one of the most important judicial decisions in nation’s history
- Judicial Review > Supreme Court had authority to nullify acts of Congress (checks & balances)
- Court exercised this power in 1796 when it upheld validity of law passed by legislature
- Court’s authority wouldn’t be secure until it declared a congressional act unconstitutional
- In 1803, in the case of Marbury V. Madison the Court exercised judicial review
- William Marbury, a “midnight appointment,” named a justice of the peace in DC
- New Sec. of State James Madison refused to hand over the commission
- Greatest importance was the Court’s reasoning in the decision
- Court ruled that Congress had exceeded its authority in creating statute
- Constitution defined powers of judiciary and the legislature had no right to expand them
- Seeming to deny its own authority, the Court was in fact radically enlarging it
- Justices repudiated a minor power by asserting a vastly greater one (power to nullify an act of Congress)
- Chief justice was John Marshall, towering figure in the history of the American law
- He established judiciary as branch of govt. coequal with executive and legislature
- Jefferson urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges, the last Federalist stronghold
- Republicans targeted Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase for being injudicious
- The House impeached Justice Chase and sent him to trial before the Senate
- Unable to get necessary 2/3 vote for conviction in the Senate
- Established that impeachment would not become routine political weapon
- Marshall remained secure in his position as chief justice
- Judiciary survived as a powerful force w/in the govt.
- Ruled on behalf of centralizing, expansionary policies that Republicans tried to reserve
IV. Doubling the National Domain
A. Jefferson and Napoleon
- After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted to restore power in New World
- Napoleon wanted to regain land west of Mississippi, which now belonged to Spain
- Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800 > France gained title to Louisiana
- French empire held sugar-rich WI islands Guadeloupe, Martinique and Santo Domingo (SD)
- Africans in SD revolted & created their own republic led by Toussaint L’Ouverture
- Napoleon’s army crushed insurrection & restored French authority
- Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy
- Apptd. pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800
- Jefferson assured French that Americans disapproved of black revolutionary > set bad example
- Reconsidered position toward France when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana
- Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean vessels
- Guaranteed in Pinckney Treaty of 1795 > this closed lower Miss. to US shippers
- Westerners demanded govt. reopen river
- Jefferson instructed Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans
- Expanded army and constructed river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack
- Napoleon accepted proposal and offered the US the entire Louisiana Territory
- Plans for American empire went awry
- Army decimated by yellow fever and reinforcements frozen in Dutch harbor in 1802-03
B. The Louisiana Purchase
- Livingston and Monroe sent to Paris & decided to proceed w/ purchase of entire territory
- Not authorized by govt. to do so > treaty signed April 30, 1803
- US paid $15 million to France and had to incorporate New Orleans residents into Union
- Jefferson uncertain US had authority to accept offer
- Power not specifically granted in Constitution
- Ultimately agreed his treaty-making power under the Constitution would justify purchase
- In late 1803, territory handed over from Spain to France, then to US
- Govt. organized Louisiana Territory like NW Territory
- Territories would eventually become states w/ Louisiana first, admitted in 1812
C. Lewis and Clark Explore the West
- Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to gather geographical facts and
investigate trade w/ Indians
- Lewis and Clark set out in 1804 from Missouri River in St Louis w/ Sacajawea as guide
- Reached Pacific Ocean in autumn of 1805, returned in 1806 w/ elaborate records & diary
- Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory
- Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions > Mississippi Valley & Rocky Mts. in CO
D. The Burr Conspiracy
- Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions
- Some NE Federalists realized expansion weakened power of Federalists and their region
- Essex Junto concluded only recourse for NE was to secede and form “Northern Confederacy”
- Plan required support of NY and NJ as well
- Leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused to support seccession
- Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804
- Hamilton accused Burr of treason and made negative remarks about his “despicable” character
- When Burr lost election, he blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence
- Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel; Hamilton mortally wounded and died the next day
- Burr was now a political outcast and fled NY for new outlets in the West
- Burr planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and desired to make a western empire
- In 1806 he was tried for treason and acquitted
- “Conspiracy” was symbol of perils w/ a central govt. that remained deliberately weak, w/ vast tracts of land
nominally controlled by US; legitimacy of federal govt. not fully established
V. Expansion and War
A. Conflict on the Seas
- US shipping expanded and controlled large portion of trade between Europe and W. Indies
- Napoleon’s Continental System designed to close European continent to British trade
- Barred British ships from landing at any European port controlled by France or their allies
- British govt. replied w/ “orders in council,” a blockade of the European coast
- Required shipped goods be carried in British vessels or neutral ships stop at British ports
- American ships caught between two countries
- Americans considered British, w/ greater sea power, the worse offender
- British vessels stopped US ships and seized sailors, making them victims of impressment
B. Impressment
- British Navy had terrible conditions, most had to be impressed (forced) into the service
- Many deserted when possible and joined Americans
- To stop loss British claimed right to stop and search American ships & reimpress deserters
- 1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: British fired on US ship that refused search
- US Minister James Monroe protested, but British refused to renounce impressments
C. “Peaceable Coercion”
- To prevent war Jefferson enacted drastic measure known as the Embargo (1807)
- Prohibited US ships from leaving for any foreign port anywhere in the world
- Congress passed a “force act” to give govt. power to enforce the Embargo
- Created depression throughout nation, ship-owners & NE merchants (Federalists) hardest hit
- James Madison won election of 1808 but fierce opposition
- Led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act
- Reopened trade w/ all nations except Great Britain and France
- In 1810, Macon’s Bill No. 2 re-opened trade w/ Great Britain & France
- President could prohibit commerce w/ belligerent nation if one violated neutral shipping
- Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere w/ American shipping
- Madison announced embargo against GB unless it renounced restrictions of US shipping
- Embargo hurt economy of England enough that govt. repealed blockade of Europe
- Naval policies were only part of the tensions between Britain and the US
D. The Indian Problem and the British
- After dislodgement by Americans, Native Americans looked to England for protection
- William Henry Harrison had been an advocate of Western expansion
- Harrison Land Law of 1800 – enabled farmers to acquire farms from public domain
- In 1801, Jefferson appt. Harrison governor of Indiana Territory to solve “Indian problem”
- Offered natives a choice: become farmers & assimilate or migrate west of the Mississippi
- By 1807 the US had extracted treaty rights to E. Michigan, S. Indiana & most of Illinois
- After Chesapeake incident, Brits renewed friendships w/ Indians & provided supplies
E. Tecumseh and the Prophet
- Prophet inspired religious revival and mobilized Indians behind political & military objectives
- Attracted thousands of Indians from throughout the Midwest
- Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization
- Starting in 1809, set out to unite tribes of Mississippi Valley
- In 1811, traveled down the Mississippi to add tribes of the South to alliance
- Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy
- Warriors attacked white settlers, British agents in Canada encouraged & supplied uprising
- To make the West safe for Americans, they must drive British out of Canada & annex to US
F. Florida and War Fever
- “Frontiersman” in North wanted Canada & those in South wanted to acquire Spanish Florida
- Stop Indian attacks and gain access to rivers w/ port access
- In 1810, setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge
- President Madison agreed to annex territory > desire for Florida motivated war w/ Britain
- “War Hawks” elected during congressional elections of 1810 were eager for war
- Ardent nationalists sought territorial expansion, others defended Republican values
- Speaker Henry Clay (KY) & John Calhoun (SC) agitated for conquest of Canada
- Madison approved declaration of war against Britain on June 18, 1812
VI. The War of 1812
A. Battles with the Tribes
- Americans surrendered fort at Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months
- On seas American frigates and privateers were successful
- By 1813, British navy counterattacked effectively and imposed a blockade on the US
- US achieved early military success on the Great Lakes
- Americans took command of Lake Ontario, then raided & burned capital at York
- William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames
- Notable for the death of Tecumseh
- Weakened & disheartened Natives of NW & diminished ability to defend their claims
- Andrew Jackson defeated Creeks at Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814
- Slaughtered women, children and warriors & broke resistance of Creeks
- Creeks ceded most of its land to the US and retreated westward
- Continued farther south to Florida and captured Pensacola in Nov. 1814
B. Battles with the British
- After Napoleon surrendered in 1814, England prepared to invade US
- Landed armada in Chesapeake region
- In August 1814, British captured and burned Washington, including the White House
- Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled British attack in Sept. 1814
- Francis Scott Key witnessed the battle and wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”
- US forces repelled British at Battle of Plattsburgh > secured northern border of the US
- In January 1815, Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans
- After treaty was signed
C. The Revolt of New England
- US failures from 1812-1815 led to increased govt. opposition.
- In NE, opposition to war and Republican govt. was extreme
- Daniel Webster, congressman from NH, led the Federalists opposition
- Federalists in NE wanted separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders & backwoodsmen
- Hartford Convention and Federalists seemed futile after Jackson’s victory at NO
- Failure of secession effort was a death blow to Federalist Party
- Two days later news of peace treaty arrived
D. The Peace Settlement
- John Q. Adams, Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin met in Ghent, Belgium w/ British diplomats
- Final treaty did little but end the fighting
- US dropped call to end impressments, Britain dropped call for Indian buffer in NW
- Britain accepted because exhausted & indebted after Napoleonic conflict
- US believed w/ end of European conflict less commercial interference would occur
- Treaty of Ghent signed Dec. 1814
- Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes
- War disastrous to Natives resisting white expansion
- Lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW
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