Specific examples
1
I.
Purpose of using these specific examples in this module
1.
These examples are chosen to broaden students’ global perspective;
2.
They enable them to have a better understanding of the water problems in other parts of the
world and the various solutions adopted in different places to solve the problems.
3.
The case of Singapore shows how water scarcity problem can be solved by applying advanced
technologies and integrated water management strategies.
4.
From the cases of Bangladesh and the UK, students can understand the differences between the
less developed and more developed countries in tackling water problems.
II.
Curriculum tailoring for students of different abilities
1.
The focus of this module is on the water problems in China. All students should understand the
causes and measures adopted to alleviate the water problems in China.
2.
If students’ ability and interest allow, teachers can add a case study on how Singaporeans solve
their water scarcity problem by applying advanced technologies and integrated water
management strategies.
3.
For more able students, teachers can further extend the lesson to include case studies of water
problems in Bangladesh and the UK to compare the differences in water management between
the less developed and more developed countries.
2
III.
1.
2.
3.
How to make use of the information provided in this folder?
Under each specific example, there is a brief description on the types of water problems in
these countries, followed by the solutions of the problems.
Teachers need not cover all the information provided in this folder. Instead it is advisable for
them to focus on specific water problem and select appropriate example(s). The materials can
also be refined based on the ability and interest of their students.
Teachers can make use of the materials as:

Background information for students to understand the water problems in these countries
and how they can be tackled;

Information for comparing the cases of different countries;

Materials for self-study.
3
I.
What are the water problems in Singapore?
1. Problem of water shortage

Singapore has an equatorial climate which provides intensive rainfall, about 2400
mm per year. However, within a small land area of 710 km2, there are no large
lakes or rivers to store the rain water.



In 2011, there are about 5.2 million people living in Singapore, which poses a
heavy demand for fresh water.
The country is highly urbanized, industrialized and commercialized. So fresh water
is in much demand.
Therefore, there is a need for water management so that water can be carefully
utilized.
2. Problem of flooding

Singapore is a small island surrounded by the sea. The tidal range is about 3m.
Some areas are barely above high tides.




The relief is generally low-lying.
Rainfall is heavy throughout the year but in November, December and January,
Singapore receives more rainfall than other months. High intensity of rainfall
which comes in a short duration will lead to flooding in some areas.
The population is large in Singapore and the area is highly urbanized. Flooding
may lead to severe damages.
In 1970s, about 31.8 km2 of land is prone to flooding.
4
II. How are these problems solved?
The government of Singapore has adopted an integrated approach to deal with its water
problems. The solutions adopted are multi-purpose and can attain the principle of
sustainability. In Singaproe, the Public Utilities Board (PUB), the national water agency, has
developed the vision “Water for all: Conserve, Value, Enjoy”. The target is to ensure the
supply of clean water to the people, to conserve the valuable water resources and to provide
enjoyments for people with the water-bodies. The utilization of water resources can be
simplified in the “Water Loop” shown in Figure 1. A comprehensive sewage treatment is also
introduced so that part of the used water can be reused. Flood control measures are also taken
to ensure the safety of the citizens.
Figure 1: The Water Loop
5
1. Diversifying the sources of water supply
In Singapore, there are four sources of water, known as four “National Tap”.
a. Local catchment water

Singapore is one of the few countries that has developed an extensive urban
storm-water network to collect rain water. Rainwater is collected through a
comprehensive network of drains, canals, rivers and storm-water collection ponds
which will then be channeled to the 17 reservoirs for storage.
b. Imported water

There are two bilateral agreements with Johor, Malaysia to import water to
Singapore. However, one agreement has expired in August 2011 and the other one
will expire in 2061.
c. NEWater

The first NEWater plant was opened in 2003.

NEWater is a kind of high-grade reclaimed water produced from treated used water
that is further purified using advanced membrane technologies and ultra-violet
disinfection, making it clean and safe to drink.

Refer to the video of the following link to see how the water is being treated:
www.pub.gov.sg/water/newater/newatertech/PublishingImages/newater_process.sw



f
Most of the NEWater is used for non-potable uses, such as supply to wafer
fabrication, electronics and power generation industries for process use or for air
conditioning cooling purposes in commercial and institutional buildings.
The water quality of NEWater is high and can meet the requirements of many
international standards. In 2010, about 3 million gallons of NEWater per day (about
1% of the total daily water consumption) is blended with water in reservoir. They
are then treated and supplied to consumers. It is hoped that the amount will
increase to 2.5% by 2011.
By 2010, NEWater meets 30% of the nation’s water needs. By 2060, it is hoped
that it can meet 50% of the future water demand.
6
d.
Desalinated water

The first desalination plant was opened in 2005.

With the advancement in technology, sea water is treated at a cheaper price.

Desalinated water is blended with treated water before it is supplied to different
sectors.

It is hoped that by 2060, desalinated water can meet 30% of the water demand.
2. Water conservation
Although there are different sources of water which can secure the supply, the Singapore
Government has also promoted water conservation in every aspect of life. Its target is to
reduce per capita domestic water consumption from 153 litres in 2010 to 140 litres by 2030.
a. Reduction in the amount use

The government has set the target for different sectors to reduce the amount of
water used. The “10 litre challenge” encourages individuals to reduce daily water
consumption by 10 litres. For commercial and industrial sectors, they are
encouraged to reduce their monthly water consumption by 10%.
b. Raising water efficiency



Water efficient homes and buildings are encouraged by asking owners to review
their water usage, reduce their use by keeping efficient flow rate, controlling flush
volume, reuse / recycle water and to repair any water leakage from pipes.
Water Efficiency Fund (WEF) was set up in 2007 to co-fund projects that yield at
least 10% reduction in water consumption within an organization.
There is the code of practice for household and different sectors on how to
conserve water.
7
c. Water Efficient Labeling Scheme (WELS)

It is a grading system started in 2009 that reflects the water efficiency level of a
product.

Citizens are encouraged to buy products with a high grading.
d. Education

Awareness on water conservation is raised through the organization of
programmes and activities for school children.

The “Water Volunteer Group Programme” was set up in 2006. Water volunteer
groups assist to educate the household on water conservation and carry out simple
water audit at home.
3. Flood control
Flood prone areas have been reduced from more than 3000 ha in the 1970s to the current
56 ha in 2011. There are three key strategies in managing flood risk:
a. Flood alleviation and prevention

PUB has adopted a holistic and forward looking approach to deal with this
problem. They plan and implement drainage systems, and carry out drainage

improvement works, such as widening the drains in flood prone areas.
When planning the drainage system, land has been reserved for its expansion to
cater for future urbanization.
b. Flood protection

Measures have been taken to cater for more extreme weather conditions.
Low-lying roads that were below or marginally above high-tide level were raised.
New buildings and infrastructural facilities are required to have a minimum
platform level.
8

The Marina Barrage built across the mouth of the Marina Channel only serves as a
reservoir for storing water in the city area but is also a measure to alleviate
flooding in the low-lying areas in the city. The crest gates at the dam and the giant
pumps will release excess storm water into the sea.
c. Continuous improvement

Flooding hotspots are identified and put on tracking list. Improvement measures
are taken and they are monitored to avoid the occurrence of flooding.

In 2010, an Inter-Agency Drainage Review Committee (IADRC) has been set up to
review on the current safety design standards of the preventive measures.

The number of sensors installed has increased so as to enhance the forecast
capabilities.
4. Sewage treatment




The Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) is an efficient and cost-efficient
solution for used water collection, treatment, reclamation and disposal.
The link sewers connect the existing sewerage pipes from homes and industries to
the deep tunnel sewers. This pipe system is separated from the storm-water
collection system. There are also strict regulations to ensure that the waste water is
well-connected to the proper sewerage system to avoid contamination of storm
water (Figure 2).
For some sectors such as factories or the eating establishments, proper
pre-treatment of used water is needed by regulations. There are also regulations for
different sectors on the proper disposal of the waste water into the sewerage
system.
Waste water will be transferred to Changi Water Reclamation Plant for treatment.
Part of the water is treated as NEWater. They can then be used by industries or
treated further as potable water. Part of the water will be dispersed into the deep
sea through deep sea outfall pipes.
9
The following link shows an animation on how the system works:
http://www.pub.gov.sg/dtss/PublishingImages/DTSS_Animation.swf
Figure 2: The sewerage system
References:
1. PUB, Singapore’s national water agency
http://www.pub.gov.sg
2. Report on Key Conclusions and Recommendations of the Expert Panel on Drainage Design and
Flood Protection Measures
http://app.mewr.gov.sg/data/ImgCont/1524/Expert_Panel_Report_on_Drainage_Design_and_Fl
ood_Protection_Measures.pdf
3. The Singapore Green Plan 2012
http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/The%20Singapore%20Green%20Plan%202012.
pdf
10
I. What are the water problems in Bangladesh?
Bangladesh is a low-lying country located in Southern Asia. Most of the country’s area
lies on the deltaic plain at the confluence of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna
Rivers and their tributaries. There are 230 rivers which cut across Bangladesh. Of which, 57
rivers are transboundary in nature. The land elevation in the plain varies from 0 to 90 m above
sea level. Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate with annual rainfall of 2320 mm per
year. Rain mainly comes between June and September. Tropical cyclones are common during
March to May and in October and November.
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with a population
density of 1033 per km2 in 2010. Almost half of the economically active population engaged
in agriculture in 2008.
Figure 3: Location of Bangladesh
11
The country suffers three main types of water problem:
1. Flooding
 Flooding is the major water problem in Bangladesh. In average, about 18% of the
country is inundated during the monsoon season each year. In the extreme event
happened in 1998, about 67% of the country’s land is inundated. More than 2000 people
died.
 Flooding is a result of heavy rain which comes during the monsoon. About 85% of the
precipitation occurs in just 1/3 of the year. Tropical cyclones also bring a lot of rainfall
to the area. Snowmelt from the Himalayas worsens the situation. Flooding occurs when
the amount of water discharged by the rivers is smaller than the amount of water
inputting into the rivers.
 The country is low-lying. Floodplains occupy about 80% of the total land area. The
altitude of most land area does not exceed 11 m above the sea level. If the river
overflows, the floodplain will be affected. This situation is even worse along the coastal
region. High tide may also bring in sea water which will flood the coastal region.
 Only 10% of the rivers flowing within Bangladesh’s borders originate in the country.
Deforestation in the upstream countries such as India and Nepal causes serious soil
erosion which leads to heavy silting of the rivers and increases the risk of flooding in
Bangladesh.
 With increasing urbanization, more ground surface is covered by cement. More rain
water can be drained away within a shorter period of time. They will enter the river
quickly through overland flow or underground drainage. It is likely that the river may
not be able to drain away this sudden increase of excess water, thus resulting in a higher
chance for flooding.
 The flooding problem of Bangladesh will be worsened by climate change, which will
cause an increase in monsoon precipitation. Climate change-induced alterations in
temperature would also affect the timing and rate of snowmelt in the upper Himalayas.
All these will increase the chance of flooding.
12
2.
Water pollution
 Water quality is affected by pollution from agrochemicals, industrial waste and other
sources.
 Arsenic （砷）is the chemical contained in insecticide and pesticide. The problem of
arsenic contamination is serious in many rivers of Bangladesh because insecticides
are not used properly. In many places, the concentration of iron and arsenic in
irrigation water has gone beyond the safe water quality standards of Bangladesh and
WHO. They are drained into the rivers through irrigated water. Water in the southwest
and southeast part and groundwater in 61 out of 64 districts is contaminated with
arsenic. Aqua-organisms are also affected.
3.
Shortage of water supply
 Although the country receives much rainfall annually, there is still a dry season from
December to May. With the growth of agricultural activities and population, there is a
greater demand for fresh water.
 As the country is located at the lower course of the river, the over-extraction of water
upstream by India will decrease the amount of flow, especially during the dry season.
 There is the over-extraction of ground water. This leads to a lowering of the
water-table. Salinity intrusion in the coastal area becomes serious. Underground water
cannot be utilized. The problem of salinity will further be worsened by climate
change. The rise in sea level propagates upstream into the river system making the
water too saline to use.
 River water is polluted by the disposal of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, untreated
sewage and industrial effluents, further reducing the supply of clean water.
13
Figure 4: Area prone to flood and drought
References:
1. AQUASTAT – FAO’s information system on water and agriculture – Bangladesh
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/bangladesh/index.stm
2. Country Fact Sheet – Bangladesh
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/factsheets/aquastat_fact_sheet_bgd_en.pdf
3. Facts about the Bangladesh flood
http://www.ehow.com/facts_6778189_bangladesh-flood.html
4. Water management in Bangladesh: an analytical review
www.iwaponline.com/wp/01201/0032/012010032.pdf
14
II. How are these problems solved?
The solutions of water problems are incorporated into the National Plan for Disaster
Management. It aims at solving water problems through the effort from the government to the
local authority. The Ministry of Water Resources is responsible for water management works
including flood management, irrigation, drainage control, erosion protection and land
reclamation. It tries to co-ordinate with different government departments and NGOs to
ensure different water problems can be solved. Although there seems to be a hierarchy of
government departments responsible for water problems and plans are drafted, only few
concrete actions are taken.
1. Flood control
 Since 1960’s, a number of projects on the building of levees and embankments,
drainage channel and structures, dams and barrages, and pumping stations have been
implemented. Some of these projects are financed by the World Bank.
 Embankments are commonly used to prevent floods. Their heights are designed based
on recent major floods and/or statistical analysis of past river stage data. This measure
is mainly used to protect the farmland so as to ensure food supply. However, this
method is not very effective because:
 Earthen embankments are subjected to river erosion and need frequent
maintenance. The government has to spend a large sum of money to maintain these
embankments.
 Deforestation in the upper course results in silting of the rivers. Since the upper
courses of most of the rivers lie beyond the territory of Bangladesh, they have no
control on the situation. Silting raises the river bed and the height of the
embankments will have to be continuously increased.
 Embankments do not reduce total volume of water. They can protect the area
behind the embankment but neighboring areas may receive more flood water.
15
 Flood forecasting and warning are incorporated. Flood-monitoring stations cover all
the flood-prone areas of the country and they provide real-time flood information and
early warning with lead-times of 24, 48 and 72 hours. However, the people lack the
awareness and sensitivity to evacuate. They also don’t want to leave their homes and
assets.
 Other flood mitigation measures, such as: floodplain zoning, dredging of the river bed,
establishing buffer zones along river, efficient storm sewer systems and improvement
in flood warning / preparedness systems may be more effective. However, little effort
has been put in these aspects.
 Since a large part of the problem does not originate in Bangladesh, interregional
government efforts are needed to tackle it. However, such co-ordination has not been
successful.
2. Mitigation measures for water shortage
 In 2007, there was only one multipurpose dam with a total capacity of 20.3 km3. There
were three barrages constructed which were used as diversion structures for irrigation
purposes only.
 The government has developed irrigation schemes to enable farmers to grow a dry
season rice crop in drought-prone area.
 In 2008, the national irrigation coverage was 5.05 million ha. Irrigated water mainly
comes from groundwater which irrigates 79% of the farmland of the country, while
surface water accounts for 21. The overuse of groundwater has led to many problems
such as lowering of water table, intrusion of saline water in coastal areas and land
subsidence.
16
 There is the introduction of drought-resistant crops in drought-prone area. For example,
aman rice, a kind of rice crop, is grown as it can withstand drought.
 Recently, the government has recognized the importance of introducing appropriate
techniques and technologies in water management at farm-level. The Ministry of
Agriculture has undertaken development projects for improving the efficiency and
overall performance of irrigation systems through better on-farm water management
practices. This can ensure that irrigation water will not be wasted.
3. Improving water quality
 Little has been done in ensuring the water quality of the area.
References:
1. AQUASTAT – FAO’s Information System on Water and Agriculture - Bangladesh
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/bangladesh/index.stm
2. Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008
http://www.sdnbd.org/moef.org
3. Bangladesh: Flood management
http://www.apfm.info/pdf/case_studies/bangladesh.pdf
4. Bangladesh – from a country of flood to a country of water scarcity – sustainable perspectives
for solution
http://users.tkk.fi/~mizanur/Rahaman_Hamburg.pdf
5. Diversifying cropping patterns in drought prone areas in Bangladesh
http://teca.fao.org/read/6855
6. Flood control in Bangladesh through Best Management Practices
http://www.lhup.edu/mkhalequ/research/floods-bd-bmps-ben.pdf
17
7. Flood control in Bangladesh: Which way now?
http://www.ben-center.org/flood/flood-control-in-bangladesh-which-way-now
8. National Plan for Disaster Management (2010 – 2015)
www.lcgbangladesh.org/derweb/doc/Final%20Version%20National%20Plan%20for%20Disaste
r%20(2010-2015).pdf
9. The United Nation Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific – Flooding in
Bangladesh
http://www.unescap.org/drpad/publication/integra/modalities/bangladesh/4bl000ct.htm
10. The World Bank support for flood control in Bangladesh
http://Inweb90.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/DocUNIDViewForJavaSearch/C76A820FEOC
BD784852567F5005D8234
11. Water management in Bangladesh: an analytical review
http://www.iwaponline.com/wp/01201/0032/012010032.pdf
18
I.
What are the water problems in the UK?
The northern and western part of the UK normally gets plenty of rain but the
eastern and southern part receives less. Therefore the UK experiences both flooding
and drought problem. From 1990 – 2012, there are more floods than dry spells. The
most recent dry spell happened in 2004/06 and is the third driest as recorded since
1932. From 2000-2012, there was heavy rainfall / flooding every year except for
the year 2006.
Besides, river and underground water also suffers from the pollution problem.
In 2000, the UK government agreed to adopt a higher standard for water and
ecologically quality in all water bodies. So the UK government needs to do much
work to improve the water quality.
1. Flooding
 Over 5 million people in England and Wales live and work in properties that
are at risk of flooding from rivers or the sea. In 2009, around 5.2 million
properties in England remained at risk of flooding. These properties included
offices, factories, commercial properties and warehouses. The two graphs on
P.20 show the number of people and properties that have different chances of
being affected by flooding in 2009.
 In the past, flooding mainly occurred after heavy rainfall. The most recent
one happened in July 2012. Many parts of England were greatly affected by
flooding. Rivers overflowed its bank and affected the area around the
floodplain.
 Sometimes, flooding will become more serious when it coincides with a high
tide. Tidal surge can cause serious flooding.
19
1200
1000
no. of people ('000)
800
Low chance
Moderate chance
600
Significant chance
400
200
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ire Lo
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re
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n
. M nd
re
id
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i
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re
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0
Government office regional boundaries
Figure 5: Regions ranked by the number of people living in the floodplain
600
500
no. of properties
('000)
400
Low chance
300
Moderate chance
Significant chance
200
100
SE
En
gl
an
Yo
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id
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Government office regional boundaries
Figure 6: Regions ranked by the number of properties at significant risk of flooding
20
2. Drought
 Water supply in the UK mainly comes from three sources: reservoirs, rivers
and underground aquifer. Every year, around 18 billion tonnes of water are
taken from these sources in England.
 People thought that water is an unlimited resource as there are fewer droughts
than floods. However, the most severe droughts happened in 2003 and 2004/6
awakened people’s awareness towards water shortage problem.
 For the one happened in 2004/6, the main dry spell happened from November
2004 to July 2006, with 17 out of these 21 months recording below-average
rainfall across SE England & Central South England. This dry spell was
mainly caused by abnormally low amount of rainfall.
 This problem is expected to be more serious as population continues to
increase. Climate change also leads to drier and hotter summers. Protecting
water resources becomes essential.
3. Water pollution
 With a stricter pollution control, the water quality of rivers has improved
greatly in the last 10 years. The percentage of total river length of ‘good’
biological quality has increased in many parts of the UK except North Ireland
from 2000-2009. For example, in Wales, the percentage has increased from
77.6% in 2000 to 87.1% in 2009.
(Biological water quality is assessed on the numbers of macro-invertebrates
present in the water.)
 All areas within the UK has been recorded an increase in the percentage of
total river length of ‘good’ chemical quality. For example, in England, the
percentage has increased from 75.9% in 2000 to 80% in 2009.
(Chemical water quality is assessed on the amount of dissolved oxygen,
ammonia and biochemical oxygen demand in the water.)
 There are two main sources of pollution: point source pollution and diffuse
pollution. Point source pollution mainly comes from an identifiable point such
as factories or sewage treatment plants. Diffuse pollution comes from multiple
dispersed sources, such as runoff from farmland. The latter one is more
difficult to be dealt with. Their main cause is due to the improper use of
fertilizers and mismanagement of livestock waste from agriculture.
21
II. How are these problems solved?
The drought in South East England in 2004-06 and the floods in 2007 have
alerted the British government on the importance of adopting a long-term water
policy to prepare for possible hazards. In 2008, the British government issued the
“Future Water: The government’s water strategy for England” which set out
long-term objectives and policies to tackle these water problems. It aims to
preserve water resources and how to make best use of it through an integrated
strategy.
The following paragraphs list out the measures that have already been taken
and those that will be taken under this water strategy.
1. Flood control
The Environment Agency is the main government body to handle the flood
problem. It has adopted a risk-based approach to tackle the problem by making best
use of the budget and resources available. Their aim is to minimize the harm
caused by flooding. This involves reducing the likelihood of flooding and reducing
impacts when flooding occurs. The Agency introduced the Strategy for Managing
Flood Risk 2009-2015 which co-ordinates the different sectors in reducing flood
risks. This strategy has alleviated the impact of flooding of the country. In 2009,
around 8 pounds of long term economic damage have been avoided for every 1
pound invested in flood control measures. Measures adopted are listed below:
a. Improving emergency relief
 The government has co-ordinated the different parties involved in emergency
work so as to carry out emergency relief in a quick and effective ways. Each
party has been assigned a duty to work such as assessing the risk and making
plans to prevent, reduce, control and mitigate the effects of any flood event.
22
b. Forecasting and warning
 The Environment Agency, together with the Met Office, has developed a
Joint National Flood Forecasting Centre which gathered information on
rainfall, groundwater levels and sea conditions to provide the most complete
picture of national flood risk.
 Flood map which shows where flood may occur and how severe they could
be is issued. People can check on the web to see whether their areas are
affected by flood.
 Flood warnings including “Flood Alert”, “Flood Warning” and “Severe
Flood Warning” are issued so that people can get prepared to adopt
appropriate response.
 A “3-day flood risk forecast” will also be issued so that people can be
notified of the risk beforehand.
 In 2009, over 55% of residents in Flood Warning Areas were able to receive
a flood warning. Three out of five have taken actions to prepare for flooding.
The public got access to this information through the “Floodline Warnings
Direct” service or “Floodline”. The former provides flood warnings to the
at-risk public by telephone, mobile, e-mail, SMS text message, fax or pager.
The later is a 24-hour telephone helpline which gives the public access to
updated information about flooding.
c. Building and maintenance of flood control structures
 Flood control structures such as straightened river channels, walls and raised
embankments, flood barrier and pumps are built and installed.
 These structures are maintained regularly, including inspection and repair of
flood defence structures, clearing grills and obstructions from rivers and
maintaining flood barriers and pumping stations, to ensure they can perform
their function effectively.
23
d. Landuse management
 Locating development outside the floodplain is the most effective method.
However, this is not practical. Therefore, the government tried to have new
development in areas with lower flood risk.
 Developers must produce a flood risk assessment to show how their
development proposal has compiled with the planning policy on flooding.
e. Post-hazard recovery
 The national government provides a framework for future emergency
planning, response and recovery. Local authorities will be responsible for
recovery at community level.
 There is the development of a strong and reliable insurance system to
spread risks and to ensure coverage to as many properties as possible from
flooding. This measure helps to ensure a quick recovery when flooding
occurs.
References:
1. Environment Agency – At home &leisure – Flood
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/floods/default.aspx
2. Flooding in England: A national assessment of flood risk
http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/PDF/GEHO0609BQDS-E-E.pdf
3. Investing for the future: Flood and coastal risk management in England
http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/PDF/GEHO0609BGDF-E-E.pdf
24
2. Managing drought
a. Legislation and management

In order to manage drought efficiently, the government has designed a national
drought plan to co-ordinate the duties of different parties involved. These parties
will also communicate with different sectors and report on the drought
conditions.

Water companies of each local region must prepare a drought plan to ensure
adequate water supply even in times of drought.



The Environment Agency will collect all these plans and co-ordinate with
different parties on the kinds of actions that need to be taken.
Water companies are empowered to issue temporary water use restrictions so as
to reduce the demand for water.
Water companies monitor water availability by collecting data about the state of
their water resources. The Environment Agency monitors river flows,
groundwater levels and the environmental impacts of the drought. They will take
corresponding action according to the seriousness of the problem.
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b.
Searching for alternative source of water
i.
ii.
iii.
water transfer

Water companies need to ensure the local supply of water. So water can be
shared at a local or regional scale. Water transfer through canals or rivers
becomes common at local scale. Water transfer has been carried out through
existing infrastructure.

However, since such transfer is expensive and may lead to environmental
damages, all new water transfer projects need to undergo environmental
assessment. Only the project that demonstrates to be an economically and
environmentally viable option to meet the water demand deficit will be
approved. Therefore, this option is not very workable.
Desalination


It is the process used to create fresh water from seawater.
However, this is very expensive and uses a lot of energy. Carbon emission
during the process may lead to global warming.

This method is not preferred until technology on desalination improves.
Rainwater capture and harvesting

Rainwater can be harvested in water butts. They can be used for non-potable
household uses, such as toilet flushing, garden watering and industrial uses,
such as cooling of machines.

iv.
Rainwater collection system can be more economically installed in new
buildings and in large premises. Developers, owners or managers of land can
create local rainwater storage for both commercial sites and houses.
Reservoir development

This is a more traditional way of increasing water supply. The government is
intended to speed up the process of planning permissions for reservoir
development where such development is appropriate. This will increase the
storage facilities by capturing increased winter precipitation.
26
c.
Restriction on the use of water

In the first phase of drought, water companies and the Environment Agency will
use publicity campaigns to encourage people and businesses to reduce water
consumption.

However, when the condition is becoming more serious, water companies can
restrict certain types of water use, such as car washing and garden watering.

Spray irrigation to farmland is also restricted when the water level of rivers drops
to a certain level.
d.
Water conservation






All sectors in the country are encouraged to develop a habit of water conservation
even there is no drought or dry spell. It has been targeted that the average per
capita consumption of water has to be reduced to 130 litres by 2030. Therefore,
the government has brought together all interested groups to develop a range of
measures to reduce water consumption.
In 2012, the amount of water used has been reduced by 18% compares with that of
2005/6.
Different sectors have also set their targets of reduction in water use. For example,
in 2007, the food industry has set a 20% water reduction by 2020.
The water companies in the south and the east have launched “use water wisely”
campaigns to raise public awareness of the possible occurrence of dry spell and
encourage users to save water. Measures include checking of pipe leakage, setting
water reduction target, installing of low flush toilets, waterless urinals and low
flow showers, conducting a water audit and producing a water management plan.
All these measures can help to prevent wastage of water.
The government has also amended the Building Regulations to include a
requirement for a minimum standard of water efficiency in new buildings. This
ensures a high level of water efficiency.
For agriculture which uses much water, research has been carried out to
investigate the possible methods of minimizing the amount of water used.
27
References:
1. Environment Agency – At home & leisure – drought
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/drought/default.aspx
2. Future Water: The government’s water strategy for England (2008)
http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/water/strategy/pdf/future-water.pdf
3. Large-scale water transfers
http://publications.environmet-agency.gov.uk/PDF/GEHO0811BTVR-E-E.pdf
4. Managing drought in England and Wales 09/09/2011
http://publications.environemnt-agency.gov.hk/PDF/GEHO0911BUDJ-E-E.pdf
5. Met Office – Dry weather during 2003
http://metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/interesting/2003dryspell.html
6. Met Office – Dry spell 2004/6
http://metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/interesting/2004_2005dryspell.html
7. The 2004-06 drought and the outlook for 2007
http://www.nwl.ac.uk/ih/nrfa/water_watch/dr2004_06/index.htm
8. Water resources and drought prospects for summer/autumn and winter 2012/3
http://publications.environemnt-agency.gov.hk/PDF/GEHO0612BWNW-E-E.pdf
28
3. Controlling water pollution
a. Legislation
 The UK government has passed legislation to control the various sources of
water pollution. It aims at achieving a higher water quality standard set by the
European Union.
 Local level monitoring is carried out by the Environment Agency to detect the
sources of pollution.
 Punishment will be imposed to those who offend the legislation. For example,
charges for pollution from industry are calculated by the cost of treatment and
disposal.
b. Sewage treatment
 There are about 9000 sewage treatment plants in the UK in 2012.
 Waste water will undergo 3 types of treatment. Primary treatment involves
settling out much of the solid matter, followed by secondary treatment which
uses bacteria to break down organic substances. To protect some sensitive
water environments, the waste water will undergo tertiary treatment. The
discharged water from these plants is monitored to ensure they will not

damage the environment.
There are also regular investigations on whether there is a need to improve
existing waste treatment infrastructure or to build new one. For example, there
will be large scale infrastructure improvements to London’s combined sewer
system and treatment works which will be completed by 2020. The water
quality of River Thames is expected to have great improvement.
29
c. Providing incentives to help different parties to reduce pollution
 In order to reduce diffuse pollution caused by farming, the government has
adopted the following measures to help farmers:

Education through organizing workshops and meetings on how to utilize
fertilizers or insecticides which can avoid them from entering the river.

Provision of capital grant scheme that funds small scale infrastructural
changes to help reduce diffuse pollution. For example, farmers in South
West England have been funded to install roofing over manure stores
and waterside fencing to keep clean and dirty water separate. They also
provide ‘bio-beds’ to treat water contaminated with farm pesticides.
Water pollution levels have fallen by up to 30% on many rivers in 2011.
References:
1. Department for Environment Food & Rural Affairs (Defra)
http://www.defra.gov.uk
2. Defra – Inland water
http://www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/files/Environmental-key-statistics-Dec-2011.pdf
3. Farmers awarded grants to tackle water pollution
http://www.edie.net/news/news_story.asp?id=210708title=Farmers+awarded+grants+to+tackle+
water+pollution
4. Future Water: The government’s water strategy for England (2008)
http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/water/strategy/pdf/future-water.pdf
5. River water quality indicator for sustainable development – 2009 annual results
http://www.defra.gov.uk/statistics/files/rwq-ind-sus-2009-resultsv2.pdf
6. Tackling diffuse water pollution in England
http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/1011/water_quality.aspx
30