Distributed Systems Architectures
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 1
Objectives




To explain the advantages and disadvantages of
different distributed systems architectures
To discuss client-server and distributed object
architectures
To describe object request brokers and the
principles underlying the CORBA standards
To introduce peer-to-peer and service-oriented
architectures as new models of distributed
computing.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 2
Topics covered




Multiprocessor architectures
Client-server architectures
Distributed object architectures
Inter-organisational computing
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 3
Distributed systems



Virtually all large computer-based systems
are now distributed systems.
Information processing is distributed over
several computers rather than confined to a
single machine.
Distributed software engineering is therefore
very important for enterprise computing
systems.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 4
System types



Personal systems that are not distributed and that
are designed to run on a personal computer or
workstation.
Embedded systems that run on a single processor
or on an integrated group of processors.
Distributed systems where the system software runs
on a loosely integrated group of cooperating
processors linked by a network.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 5
Distributed system characteristics

Resource sharing
•

Openness
•

Concurrent processing to enhance performance.
Scalability
•

Use of equipment and software from different vendors.
Concurrency
•

Sharing of hardware and software resources.
Increased throughput by adding new resources.
Fault tolerance
•
The ability to continue in operation after a fault has
occurred.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 6
Distributed system disadvantages

Complexity
•

Security
•

More susceptible to external attack.
Manageability
•

Typically, distributed systems are more complex than
centralised systems.
More effort required for system management.
Unpredictability
•
Unpredictable responses depending on the system
organisation and network load.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 7
Distributed systems architectures

Client-server architectures
•

Distributed services which are called on by
clients. Servers that provide services are treated
differently from clients that use services.
Distributed object architectures
•
No distinction between clients and servers. Any
object on the system may provide and use
services from other objects.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 8
Middleware



Software that manages and supports the different
components of a distributed system. In essence, it
sits in the middle of the system.
Middleware is usually off-the-shelf rather than
specially written software.
Examples
•
•
•
Transaction processing monitors;
Data converters;
Communication controllers.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 9
Multiprocessor architectures




Simplest distributed system model.
System composed of multiple processes
which may (but need not) execute on
different processors.
Architectural model of many large real-time
systems.
Distribution of process to processor may be
pre-ordered or may be under the control of a
dispatcher.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 10
A multiprocessor traffic control system
Senso r
p rocessor
Senso r
con trol
p rocess
Traffic flo w
p rocessor
Disp lay
p rocess
Traffic ligh t con trol
p rocessor
Ligh t
con trol
p rocess
Traffic ligh ts
Traffic flowsensors and
cameras
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Op erato r con soles
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 11
Client-server architectures




The application is modelled as a set of
services that are provided by servers and a
set of clients that use these services.
Clients know of servers but servers need not
know of clients.
Clients and servers are logical processes
The mapping of processors to processes is
not necessarily 1 : 1.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 12
A client-server system
c3
c2
c4
c12
c11
s4
s1
c1
Server p rocess
c10
c5
s2
c6
©Ian Sommerville 2006
c7
Client p rocess
s3
c9
c8
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 13
Computers in a C/S network
c1
CC1
c2
CC2
c3, c4
CC3
Netwo rk
s1 , s2
s3 , s4
SC2
Server
comp uter
SC1
c5, c6, c7
c8, c9
CC4
©Ian Sommerville 2006
CC5
c10 , c11 , c12
Client
comp uter
CC6
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 14
Layered application architecture

Presentation layer
•

Application processing layer
•

Concerned with presenting the results of a computation to
system users and with collecting user inputs.
Concerned with providing application specific functionality
e.g., in a banking system, banking functions such as open
account, close account, etc.
Data management layer
•
Concerned with managing the system databases.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 15
Application layers
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 16
Thin and fat clients

Thin-client model
•

In a thin-client model, all of the application
processing and data management is carried out
on the server. The client is simply responsible
for running the presentation software.
Fat-client model
•
In this model, the server is only responsible for
data management. The software on the client
implements the application logic and the
interactions with the system user.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 17
Thin and fat clients
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 18
Thin client model

Used when legacy systems are migrated to
client server architectures.
•

The legacy system acts as a server in its own
right with a graphical interface implemented on
a client.
A major disadvantage is that it places a
heavy processing load on both the server
and the network.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 19
Fat client model



More processing is delegated to the client as
the application processing is locally
executed.
Most suitable for new C/S systems where the
capabilities of the client system are known in
advance.
More complex than a thin client model
especially for management. New versions of
the application have to be installed on all
clients.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 20
A client-server ATM system
AT M
AT M
Account serv er
Telep rocessing
mon ito r
Custo mer
acco unt
database
AT M
AT M
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 21
Three-tier architectures



In a three-tier architecture, each of the
application architecture layers may execute
on a separate processor.
Allows for better performance than a thinclient approach and is simpler to manage
than a fat-client approach.
A more scalable architecture - as demands
increase, extra servers can be added.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 22
A 3-tier C/S architecture
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 23
An internet banking system
Client
HTT P interaction
Client
Database server
Web server
SQL query
Account serv ice
p rov isio n
SQL
Custo mer
acco unt
database
Client
Client
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 24
Use of C/S architectures
Arc hit ecture
Appli cations
Two-tier C/S
archit ecture with
thin c li ents
Legacy system appli cations whe re separating appli cation p rocessing and
data manage ment is impractical.
Computationa ll y-intens ive appli cations such as compil ers wit h littl e or
no data management.
Data-intens ive appli cations (browsing and que rying) wit h littl e or no
appli cation processing .
Two-tier C/S
archit ecture with
fat cli ents
Appli cations whe re appli cation p rocessing is provided by o ff -the-shelf
soft ware (e.g. M ic rosoft Exc el) on the cli ent.
Appli cations whe re computationa ll y-intensive p rocessing of data (e.g.
data visua lis ation) is requir ed.
Appli cations wit h relatively stable end -use r func tiona lit y u sed in an
env ir onment wit h well -establi shed system management.
Thre e-tier or
multi -tier C/S
archit ecture
Large scale applications with hund reds or thousand s of cli ents
Appli cations whe re both the data and the appli cation are vo latil e.
Appli cations whe re data fr om multi ple sour ces are integrated.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 25
Distributed object architectures




There is no distinction in a distributed object
architectures between clients and servers.
Each distributable entity is an object that provides
services to other objects and receives services from
other objects.
Object communication is through a middleware
system called an object request broker.
However, distributed object architectures are more
complex to design than C/S systems.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 26
Distributed object architecture
o1
o2
o3
o4
S (o 1)
S (o 2)
S (o 3)
S (o 4)
Object request brok er
©Ian Sommerville 2006
o5
o6
S (o 5)
S (o 6)
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 27
Advantages of distributed object architecture




It allows the system designer to delay decisions on
where and how services should be provided.
It is a very open system architecture that allows new
resources to be added to it as required.
The system is flexible and scaleable.
It is possible to reconfigure the system dynamically
with objects migrating across the network as
required.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 28
Uses of distributed object architecture


As a logical model that allows you to structure and
organise the system. In this case, you think about
how to provide application functionality solely in
terms of services and combinations of services.
As a flexible approach to the implementation of
client-server systems. The logical model of the
system is a client-server model but both clients and
servers are realised as distributed objects
communicating through a common communication
framework.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 29
A data mining system
Database 1
In tegrator 1
Database 2
Rep ort gen.
Visualiser
In tegrator 2
Database 3
Disp lay
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 30
Data mining system



The logical model of the system is not one of
service provision where there are
distinguished data management services.
It allows the number of databases that are
accessed to be increased without disrupting
the system.
It allows new types of relationship to be
mined by adding new integrator objects.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 31
CORBA


CORBA is an international standard for an Object
Request Broker - middleware to manage
communications between distributed objects.
Middleware for distributed computing is required at 2
levels:
•
•
At the logical communication level, the middleware allows
objects on different computers to exchange data and
control information;
At the component level, the middleware provides a basis
for developing compatible components. CORBA
component standards have been defined.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 32
CORBA application structure
Ap plicatio n
o bjects
Do main
facilities
Ho rizon tal CORBA
facilities
Object request brok er
CORBA serv ices
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 33
Application structure




Application objects.
Standard objects, defined by the OMG, for a
specific domain e.g. insurance.
Fundamental CORBA services such as
directories and security management.
Horizontal (i.e. cutting across applications)
facilities such as user interface facilities.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 34
CORBA standards

An object model for application objects
•



A CORBA object is an encapsulation of state
with a well-defined, language-neutral interface
defined in an IDL (interface definition language).
An object request broker that manages
requests for object services.
A set of general object services of use to
many distributed applications.
A set of common components built on top of
these services.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 35
CORBA objects




CORBA objects are comparable, in principle, to
objects in C++ and Java.
They MUST have a separate interface definition that
is expressed using a common language (IDL) similar
to C++.
There is a mapping from this IDL to programming
languages (C++, Java, etc.).
Therefore, objects written in different languages can
communicate with each other.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 36
Object request broker (ORB)



The ORB handles object communications. It knows
of all objects in the system and their interfaces.
Using an ORB, the calling object binds an IDL stub
that defines the interface of the called object.
Calling this stub results in calls to the ORB which
then calls the required object through a published
IDL skeleton that links the interface to the service
implementation.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 37
ORB-based object communications
o1
o2
S (o1 )
S (o2 )
IDL
stub
IDL
skeleto n
Object Request Bro ker
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 38
Inter-ORB communications




ORBs are not usually separate programs but are a
set of objects in a library that are linked with an
application when it is developed.
ORBs handle communications between objects
executing on the sane machine.
Several ORBS may be available and each computer
in a distributed system will have its own ORB.
Inter-ORB communications are used for distributed
object calls.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 39
Inter-ORB communications
o1
o2
o3
o4
S (o1 )
S (o2 )
S (o3 )
S (o4 )
IDL
stub
IDL
skeleto n
IDL
stub
IDL
skeleto n
Object Request Bro ker
Object Request Bro ker
Network
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 40
CORBA services

Naming and trading services
•

Notification services
•

These allow objects to discover and refer to
other objects on the network.
These allow objects to notify other objects that
an event has occurred.
Transaction services
•
These support atomic transactions and rollback
on failure.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 41
Inter-organisational computing



For security and inter-operability reasons,
most distributed computing has been
implemented at the enterprise level.
Local standards, management and
operational processes apply.
Newer models of distributed computing have
been designed to support interorganisational computing where different
nodes are located in different organisations.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 42
Peer-to-peer architectures



Peer to peer (p2p) systems are decentralised
systems where computations may be carried out by
any node in the network.
The overall system is designed to take advantage of
the computational power and storage of a large
number of networked computers.
Most p2p systems have been personal systems but
there is increasing business use of this technology.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 43
P2p architectural models

The logical network architecture
•
•

Application architecture
•

Decentralised architectures;
Semi-centralised architectures.
The generic organisation of components making
up a p2p application.
Focus here on network architectures.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 44
Decentralised p2p architecture
n4
n6
n8
n7
n2
n 13
n 12
n3
n 13
n9
n1
n 10
n 11
n5
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 45
Semi-centralised p2p architecture
Discov ery
server
n4
n1
n3
n6
n5
n2
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 46
Service-oriented architectures


Based around the notion of externally
provided services (web services).
A web service is a standard approach to
making a reusable component available and
accessible across the web
•
A tax filing service could provide support for
users to fill in their tax forms and submit these
to the tax authorities.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 47
A generic service


An act or performance offered by one party
to another. Although the process may be tied
to a physical product, the performance is
essentially intangible and does not normally
result in ownership of any of the factors of
production.
Service provision is therefore independent of
the application using the service.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 48
Web services
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 49
Services and distributed objects







Provider independence.
Public advertising of service availability.
Potentially, run-time service binding.
Opportunistic construction of new services through
composition.
Pay for use of services.
Smaller, more compact applications.
Reactive and adaptive applications.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 50
Services standards


Services are based on agreed, XML-based
standards so can be provided on any
platform and written in any programming
language.
Key standards
•
•
•
SOAP - Simple Object Access Protocol;
WSDL - Web Services Description Language;
UDDI - Universal Description, Discovery and
Integration.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 51
Services scenario


An in-car information system provides drivers with
information on weather, road traffic conditions, local
information etc. This is linked to car radio so that
information is delivered as a signal on a specific
radio channel.
The car is equipped with GPS receiver to discover
its position and, based on that position, the system
accesses a range of information services.
Information may be delivered in the driver’s
specified language.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 52
Automotive system
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 53
Key points




Distributed systems support resource sharing,
openness, concurrency, scalability, fault tolerance
and transparency.
Client-server architectures involve services being
delivered by servers to programs operating on
clients.
User interface software always runs on the client
and data management on the server. Application
functionality may be on the client or the server.
In a distributed object architecture, there is no
distinction between clients and servers.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 54
Key points




Distributed object systems require middleware to
handle object communications and to add and
remove system objects.
The CORBA standards are a set of middleware
standards that support distributed object
architectures.
Peer to peer architectures are decentralised
architectures where there is no distinction between
clients and servers.
Service-oriented systems are created by linking
software services provided by different service
suppliers.
©Ian Sommerville 2006
Software Engineering, 8th edition. Chapter 12
Slide 55