CHAPTER 6
GEOGRAPHY OF RELIGION:
SPACES AND PLACES OF
SACREDNESS
1
Introduction
• Core component of culture
– Can help people make sense of their place in
the world
– Often lies at root of conflict between cultural
groups
– Conquest of the Americas by Iberian
peoples—destructive, but also bridging
2
World Religions
3
Major Religions
• Judaism – 12 to 18 million
• Christianity – 2 billion
• Islam – 1.3 billion
• Hinduism – 800 million
• Buddhism – 400 million
4
Introduction
• Different types of religion
– Proselytic or universalizing religions—
seek converts
• Examples:
– Ethnic religion
•
•
•
•
Particular ethnic or tribal group
Focused on a particular part of the world
Does not seek converts
Examples:
– Judaism & Hinduism
– Others
5
Introduction
• Different categories of religion
– Monotheistic—believe in one god
•
•
•
•
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Hinduism ???
– Polytheistic—believe in many gods
• Animistic & ancient religions
– Philosophic & Deist–focused on how to
lead a good life and not concerned with
understanding God.
• Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism
6
Introduction
• Different types of religion
– Syncretic
• Elements of two or more different belief
systems blended
• Example of Umbanda religion
7
Introduction
• Different types of religion
– Orthodoxy – focus on correct belief
• Many religions have orthodox strains
– Adhering to traditional theology & beliefs
• Example of Judaism
– Orthopraxy – focus on correct behavior
• Stress on ritual and behavior
– Fundamentalism—intolerant of other
religions
• Convinced that their beliefs are the only
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correct ones
Diffusion of Universalizing
Religions
9
Diffusion of Christianity
• All three types: relocation, contagious ,
hierarchical
• Major thrusts from the hearth in Israel & Judea
– 33-100 c .e. Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, North Africa
– 312 c.e. – recognized & accepted in the Roman Empire
– 380 c.e. made the official religion of the Roman
Empire
– Europe & Russia
– European colonial possessions
10
Diffusion of Buddhism
• Siddhartha Gautama achieves “enlightenment” in
7th century b.c.e.
• 257 b.c.e. Emperor Asoka becomes a Buddhist &
encourages spread in India
– Asoka’s son leads a mission to Sri Lanka
– 3rd century b.c. spread to Kashmir, Himalayas, &
Burma
• Traders introduce Buddhism to Tibet & China 1st
century c.e.
• From China, spreads to Korea, Japan,
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Diffusion of Islam
• Begins with Muhammad in 622 c.e.
• By 9th century c.e. Spread by conquest
– Arabian Peninsula
– Persian Empire
– North Africa and most of Iberian peninsula
• 14th century c.e. conquest of northern India
and then spread to Malaysia & Indonesia by
traders
• 1454 c.e. Fall of Constantinople and the end
of the Christian Eastern Roman Empire
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(Byzantium)
Religious culture regions
• Judaism
– Arose in Southwest Asia
– Claims to be first great monotheistic
faith—4000 years old
– Ethnic religion, not proselytic
(universalizing)
– Father of Judaism: Abraham
– Founder of Judaism: Moses
– Scripture: Hebrew Testament (inspired
revelation)
15
Religious culture regions
• Judaism
– Dispersal of Jews & shaping events
•
•
•
•
From Palestine in Roman times 70 c.e.
Main cause for many subgroups
Nazi years—Holocaust
After World War II—fled Europe, mainly to
America & Israel
– 20th Century leader or role model
• Elie Wiesel
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Religious culture regions
• Judaism - divisions
– Jewish sects 70 C.E. – Pharisees,
Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, etc.
– Modern Judaism developed from the
Pharisees
– Israel:
• Sephardim – from N. Africa & Middle East –
descendants of those who fled Spain
• Ashkenazi – German, E. European, & Russian
• Secular, Traditional, & Religious
– U.S.A.: Orthodox, Conservative, Reformed
17
Orthodox Synagogue
• In Orthodox synagogues men and women sit
separately, and everyone (except young
girls) has their head covered.
• Synagogue services can be led by a rabbi, a
cantor or a member of the congregation.
Traditional Jewish worship requires a minyan
(a quorum of ten adult males) to take place.
• In an Orthodox synagogue the service will be
conducted in ancient Hebrew, and the
singing will be unaccompanied.
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Orthodox Shul (Synagogue)
19
20
Conservative Judaism
• Conservative Judaism maintains that the truths
found in Jewish scriptures and other Jewish
writings come from G-d, but were transmitted
by humans and contain a human component.
Conservative Judaism generally accepts the
binding nature of halakhah, but believes that
the Law should change and adapt, absorbing
aspects of the predominant culture while
remaining true to Judaism's values.
• Men and women may sit together in the
synagogue.
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Conservative Synagogue
22
Reform Judaism
• Reform Judaism doesn’t believe the Torah was
written by G-d. It accepts the critical theory of
Biblical authorship: that the Bible was written by
separate sources and redacted together.
Reform Jews do not believe in observance of
commandments as such, but they retain much
of the values and ethics of Judaism, along with
some of the practices and the culture.
• Men and women sit together in the temple and
singing may be choral and accompanied by
musical instruments.
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Reform Temple
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25
Jewish Terms
• 10 Commandments - Judaism teaches that G-d gave the
Jews 613 commandments, not merely ten. The biblical
passage known to most people as the "Ten Commandments"
is known to Jews as the Aseret ha-Dibrot, the Ten
Declarations, and is considered to be ten categories of
commandments rather than ten individual commandments.
• Abraham (Abram) - The first Jew, the founder of Judaism,
the physical and spiritual ancestor of the Jews
• Afterlife - Contrary to popular belief, Judaism does believe
in an afterlife, but it is not the primary focus of the religion
and there is a lot of room for personal opinion about the
nature of the afterlife.
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More Terms
• Ark - The English translation of aron kodesh, lit., holy
chest. The cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept.
• Ascham (ah-SHAHM) - A guilt offering. A type of
sacrifice used to atone for sins of stealing things from the
altar, for when you are not sure whether you have
committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for
breach of trust.
• Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim - Jews from eastern
France, Germany and Eastern Europe, and their
descendants. Most Jews in America are Ashkenazic.
• Bar Mitzvah - Lit. son of the commandment. A boy who
has achieved the age of 13 and is consequently obligated to
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observe the commandmen
Terms
• Bat Mitzvah (BAHT MITS-vuh) - Lit. daughter of the
commandment. A girl who has achieved the age of 12 and is
consequently obligated to observe the commandments.
• Betrothal - The first part of the two-part process of Jewish
marriage, which creates the legal relationship without the
mutual obligations.
• Bible - Also referred to as the Tanakh. The Jewish Bible
more or less corresponds to what non-Jews call the "Old
Testament.“
• Chanukah - Lit. dedication. An eight day holiday
celebrating the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem
after it was defiled by the Seleucid Greeks.
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Terms
• Chasidism (KHAH-sid-ism); Chasidic (khah-SID-ic)
From a word meaning "pious." A branch of Orthodox
Judaism that maintains a lifestyle separate from the nonJewish world.
• Circumcision - Removal of the foreskin, a commandment
in Judaism performed on the 8th day of a male child's life or
upon conversion to Judaism. Referred to in Hebrew as brit
milah or in Yiddish as a bris.
• Conversion - Judaism does not seek out converts, and
actively discourages converts (because a person does not
need to be a Jew to be righteous in G-d's eyes), but
conversion to Judaism is possible.
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Terms
• Diaspora - Any place outside of the land of Israel where
Jews live. Refers to the fact that Jews were dispersed from
the land of Israel by the Romans after the last Jewish War.
• Ethiopian Jews - The Jews of Ethiopia, whose customs and
practices are somewhat different than those of Ashkenazic
or Sephardic Jews.
• Family Purity Laws relating to the separation of husband
and wife during the woman's menstrual period.
• Gemara (g'-MAHR-uh) - Commentaries on the Mishnah.
The Mishnah and Gemara together are the Talmud.
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Terms
• Goy - Lit. nation. A non-Jew, that is, a member of one of
the other nations.
• Haggadah (huh-GAH-duh) - The book read during the
Passover Seder, telling the story of the holiday.
• Haredi - Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel.
• High Holidays - The holidays of Rosh Hashanah, the Days
of Awe and Yom Kippur are commonly referred to as the
High Holidays or the High Holy Days.
• Interfaith Marriage - Marriage to a non-Jew is not
recognized as "marriage" in Jewish law.
• Kabbalah (kuh-BAH-luh) - Lit. tradition. Jewish mystical
tradition.
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Terms
• Kiddush (KID-ish) - Lit. sanctification. A prayer recited
over wine sanctifying Shabbat or a holiday.
• Kosher (KOH-sher) - Lit. fit, proper or correct. Describes
food that is permissible to eat under Jewish dietary laws.
Can also describe any other ritual object that is fit for use
according to Jewish law.
• Levite (LEE-vahyt) - A descendant of the tribe of Levi,
which was set aside to perform certain duties in connection
with the Temple.
• Machmir (makh-MEER) Strict application of Jewish law
in cases of doubt: in a matter of Torah law, you must be
machmir (strict); when there is a doubt in a matter of
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rabbinic law, you may be makil (lenient).
Terms
• Matzah (pl. Matzot) (MAHTZ-uh; matz-OHT) Unleavened bread traditionally served during Passover.
• Menorah (me-NOH-ruh) A candelabrum. Usually refers to
the nine-branched candelabrum used to hold the Chanukkah
candles. Can also refer to the seven-branched candelabrum
used in the Temple.
• Mezuzah (m'-ZOO-zuh) Lit. doorpost. A case attached to
the doorposts of houses, containing a scroll with passages of
scripture written on it.
• Midrash (MID-rash) From a root meaning "to study," "to
seek out" or "to investigate." Stories elaborating on
incidents in the Bible, to derive a principle of Jewish law or
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provide a moral lesson.
Terms
• Oral Torah (TOH-ruh) Jewish teachings explaining and
elaborating on the Written Torah, handed down orally until
the 2d century C.E., when they began to be written down in
what became the Talmud.
• Passover - Holiday commemorating the Exodus from
Egypt. The holiday also marks the beginning of the harvest
season.
• Patriarchs - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. The forefathers of
Judaism.
• Pharisees (PHAR-i-sees) A movement of Judaism that
began approximately 2200 years ago. It is the forerunner of
rabbinic Judaism, which encompasses all of the movements
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of Judaism in existence today.
Terms
• Rabbi (RA-bahy) A religious teacher and person who
makes decisions on issues of Jewish law. Also performs
many of the same functions as a Protestant minister.
• Rosh Hashanah (ROHSH hah SHAH-nuh) Lit. first of
the year. The new year for the purpose of counting years.
• Seder (SAY-d'r) Lit. order. The family home ritual
conducted as part of the Passover observance.
• Sephardic Jews (s'-FAHR-dic) or Sephardim (seh-fahrDEEM) Jews from Spain, Portugal, North Africa and the
Middle East and their descendants. Jews from North Africa
and the Middle East are often described separately as
Mizrachi Jews.
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• Shabbat (shah-BAHT) Lit. end, cease, rest. The Jewish
Sabbath, a day of rest and spiritual enrichment.
• Synagogue (SIN-uh-gahg) From a Greek root meaning
"assembly." The most widely accepted term for a Jewish
house of worship. The Jewish equivalent of a church,
mosque or temple.
• Talmud (TAHL-mud) The most significant collection of
the Jewish oral tradition interpreting the Torah.
• Tanakh (tuhn-AHKH) Acronym of Torah (Law), Nevi'im
(Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). Written Torah; what
non-Jews call the Old Testament.
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Terms
• Torah (TOH-ruh) In its narrowest sense, Torah the first
five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers and Deuteronomy, sometimes called the
Pentateuch. In its broadest sense, Torah is the entire body of
Jewish teachings.
• Yom Kippur (YOHM ki-PAWR) Lit. Day of Atonement.
A day set aside for fasting, depriving oneself of pleasures,
and repenting from the sins of the previous year.
• Zionism (ZAHY-uhn-ism) A political movement to create
and maintain a Jewish state. The word is derived from Zion,
another name for Jerusalem.
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Religious culture regions
• Christianity
– Claims about one-third of world's population
– Arose in Southwest Asia along with Judaism
and Islam
– Derived from Judaism, sharing many elements
• Father of Christianity – Jesus
• Founder of Christianity – St. Paul
• Scripture: Hebrew Testament & New Testament
(inspired revelation)
– Major divisions—Catholics, Protestants, and
Eastern Orthodox
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Religious culture regions
• Christianity
– Roman Catholics
• Claims to be the oldest Christian denomination
• Constantine – 312 CE
– Council of Nicea (Nicene Creed)
– Church bureaucracy modeled after Roman Empire
• Claim infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith &
morals – authority over all bishops & priests
• Largest single Christian denomination
• Administers 7 sacraments
• Emphasize devotion to Mary
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Seven Sacraments
• Administered by Roman Catholics, Eastern
Orthodox, Anglican (Episcopalian), and some
Lutherans. Others administer only some of them:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Baptism (administered by all Christians)
Reconciliation (penance)
Eucharist (Communion) – administered by all
Confirmation
Matrimony
Holy Orders
Rites of the sick
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Baptism
• Sprinkle to immersion
• Infant to adult
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Reconciliation (Confession)
General Confession & Absolution
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Private Confession & Absolution
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46
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Eucharist (Holy Communion)
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49
50
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Confirmation
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Matrimony
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55
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Holy Orders (Ordination)
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Rite of the Sick (Extreme Unction)
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Religious culture regions
• Christianity
– Eastern Orthodox
• Divided into many national churches
• Great Schism
• Patriarch of Constantinople (Istanbul) is the titular head of
the group
– Just one bishop among many bishops
• Theologically more like Roman Catholics than Protestants
– Administers 7 sacraments
– Emphasize devotion to Mary
• Largely found in Greece and in Slavic nationalities
– Minority status in Southwest Asia
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Religious culture regions
• Christianity
– Protestants
• Origin
– Martin Luther, Gutenberg, & power hungry German princes
• Divided into many denominations
–
–
–
–
Mainline churches
Non-denominational & mega-churches
Administers 2 to 7 sacraments . . .
De-emphasize devotion to Mary
• American frontier breeding ground for new religious
groups
• Description of general denominational distribution
across the United States
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Religious culture regions
• Christianity
– 20th Century leader or role model
•
•
•
•
Mother Theresa
Pope John XXIII
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Billy Graham
– Others of questionable status
• Usually claim to be part of the Christian community
of denominations but differ significantly enough to
be questioned by mainline Christians
– Church of Jesus Christ of Later Day Saints
– Jehovah's Witnesses
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Christian Terms
• Acolyte (Greek, "follower"). A lay person, usually a child or
young adult, who assist ministers in worship services.
• Apocrypha (Lit. Greek "out of the writings"). Books not
included in the Hebrew canon of the Old Testament, but
included in the Greek Septuagint. Catholic and Orthodox
Christans include the Apocrypha in the canon of scripture;
Protestant Christians do not.
• Apostolic succession Doctrine that the authority of
ordained clergy (to perform valid sacraments and teach right
doctrine) derives from an unbroken succession of valid
ordinations beginning with the apostles.
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More Terms
• Archbishop - In Catholicism and Anglicanism, a bishop
who oversees the other bishops in the province. In the
Episcopal Church, he is called the Presiding Bishop.
• Baptism - The rite of membership in Christian churches
involving immersing, sprinkling or anointing with water.
Regarded as a sacrament by Catholic, Orthodox and
Protestant Christians. Most denominations practice infant
baptism; whereas, some only baptize adult believers.
• Bishop - The priest and spiritual leader of a diocese.
• Canon - A fixed group of writings considered inspired and
authoritative. The New Testament canon consists of 37
books. Roman Catholics also consider the books of the
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Apocrypha to be canonical.
More Terms
• Canon law - Body of law related to the organization,
discipline, and belief of the church and enforced by church
authority.
• Catechism A class or manual on the basics of Christian
doctrine and practice, usually as a precursor to confirmation
or baptism. Catechisms normally include lessons on the
creeds, the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Commandments, as
well as the Hail Mary in Roman Catholicism.
• Church - The worldwide body of Christian believers, a
particular denomination or congregation, or the building in
which they meet. The study of the nature of the church is
ecclesiology.
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More Terms
• Confession - 1. A profession of faith (e.g. by the martyrs)
or statement of doctrine (e.g. Augsburg Confession). 2.
Admission of sin, either directly to God, generally to the
congregation, or privately to a priest.
• Diocese A geographical region headed by a bishop, which
usually includes several congregations. In Orthodoxy, a
diocese is called an eparchy.
• Doxology - A short hymn glorifying God.
• Ecumenical council A council of the Christian church at
which representatives from several regions are present. To
be distinguished from a "synod," which is a meeting of the
local church.
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More Terms
• Eschatology - Branch of theology dealing with end times or
last things. Includes such subjects as the afterlife, the Day of
Judgment, the Second Coming, and the end of the world.
• Eucharist - A sacrament recognized by all branches of
Christianity. Commemorates the Last Supper of Christ with
the sharing of bread and wine.
• Excommunication - A penalty imposed by the Catholic
Church prohibiting a person from receiving or administering
sacraments or holding church office.
• Ex cathedra - (Latin "from the throne.") Authoritative
statements made by the Pope in Roman Catholicism.
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More Terms
• Fall, the - Disobedience of Adam & Eve resulting in ill
effects for the remainder of humanity.
• Gospel ("good news"). - The content of Christian
preaching; that is, that Christ died to save humans from the
penalty of sin and reunite them with God. When capitalized,
the word usually refers to one of the first four books of the
New Testament, which relate the life of Christ.
• Grace - The undeserved gift of divine favor in the
justification and then sanctification of sinners.
• Hell - In Christian theology, hell is generally believed to be
the place or state into which unrepentant sinners pass after
this life.
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More Terms
• homily - A message delivered to lay Christians for their
edification; sermon.
• Immaculate Conception - Roman Catholic doctrine that
the Virgin Mary was born without original sin.
• Imprimatur (Latin, "let it be printed"). Official
authorization to print a book or other work, usually granted
by a bishop for Catholic publications.
• Incarnation - In general, to take on a bodily form. In
Christianity, the historical event in which God became a
man in Jesus of Nazareth. According to the gospel of John:
"The Word became flesh (Lat. carne) and dwelt among us."
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More Terms
• Indulgences - In Roman Catholicism, a partial remission of
temporal (non-eternal) punishment for sin after the sin has
been forgiven through penance. The concept grew from the
beliefs that 1) divine justice needed the sinner to pay for
his/her sins even though they’ve been forgiven, either now
or in Purgatory; 2) giving alms to the church is a penitential
work; and 3) the church possessed a treasury of merit
earned by the saints that could be applied to sinners. By
1517, the system of indulgences was rampantly abused, and
greedy ecclesiastics sold tickets to heaven to pay for
expensive building projects and provide income. Council of
Trent stopped the abuses in 1562, and today one must do
good works, not pay money, to earn indulgences.
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More Terms
• Justification - The act of God moving a sinner from a state
of sin to one of grace or, especially in Protestantism, the act
by which God declares a sinner righteous.
• Orthodox - branch of Christianity prevalent in Greece,
Russia and Eastern Europe. Originates as a separate body
when the Eastern (Orthodox) church split from the Western
(Catholic) church in 1054 AD. Orthodox Christians do not
recognize the authority of the Pope.
• Passion - The crucifixion of Jesus and the events leading up
to it.
• Pope - The bishop of Rome, who became the recognized
leader of the entire Western church.
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More Terms
• Real Presence - In Catholic &some Protestant churches, the
physical and spiritual presence of the body and blood of
Christ in the bread and wine of the Eucharist.
• Sacrament - A solemn Christian ritual believed to be a
means of grace, a sign of faith, or obedience to Christ's
commands. The Anglican catechism defines a sacrament as
"an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual
grace...ordained by Christ himself." In the Catholic and
Orthodox churches, there are seven sacraments: baptism,
confirmation, the eucharist (communion), penance, extreme
untion, ordination and marriage. In Protestant churches,
only baptism and the eucharist are regarded as sacraments.
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More Terms
• Stations of the Cross - Series of fourteen events in the
passion of Christ, beginning with Jesus' condemnation and
ending with his body being laid in the tomb. The stations
are a subject of public and private devotion in Catholicism,
especially during Lent.
• Transubstantiation - The doctrine that the bread and wine
of the Eucharist actually becomes the body and blood of
Christ, although it continues to have the appearance of
bread and wine. Transubstantiation was rejected in different
degrees by the Reformers. See also Real Presence.
• Trinity – The doctrine of the unity of Father, Son and Holy
Spirit as three persons in one Godhead.
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Orthodox Sanctuary
Traditional
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Orthodox Sanctuary
Modern
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Roman Catholic Sanctuary
Traditional
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Roman Catholic Sanctuary
Modern
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Protestant Sanctuaries: 2 Examples
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Christian Mega-church
Sanctuary
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Christian
Church
Structures
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Eucharistic or Communion Elements
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Religious Basis for Conflict: Lebanon
Religious culture regions
• Islam
– Monotheistic—worship Allah
• Founder – Muhammad
– Qur’an—serves as basis of Islamic law, Sharia
– Share some basic beliefs with Christians and Jews
• Monotheism & Some dietary restrictions
• Scripture: Qur’an – Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, Moses,
Jesus, Mary (mother of Jesus), etc. (inspired revelation)
– No official clergy needed – no intermediaries
required
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Religious culture regions
• Islam
– Holy city of Mecca destination of
pilgrimages (Hajj)
– Two major sects—Shiite and Sunni
• Smaller sects – Sufi
• Wahabi an Arabic subdivision of the Sunni
– Fastest growing world religion
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Religious Culture Regions
• Islamic Unity
– Qur’an in Arabic – one book & one
language regardless of sect affiliation
– Brotherhood of all people – teaches racial
and ethnic equality
– 5 pillars of Islam fits urban, agricultural,
and nomadic life styles
• The same regardless of sect affiliation
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Religious Culture Regions
• Five Pillars of Islam
– Daily recite the creed (basic statement of belief)
– Pray facing Mecca 5 times a day
• Pray at a mosque on Friday (optional but desirable)
– Give alms (charity) to the poor
– Fast every day during the Holy Month of
Ramadan
• Exemptions: youths, aged, sick and infirmed
– Make the Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca if at all
humanly possible
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Religious culture regions
• An understood and clearly implied 6th
pillar?
– Live a life based on the teachings of the
Qur’an
• Learn to read Arabic
• Actually read and consult the Qur’an when
making life decisions
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Islamic Terms:
• Allah – means God (not the name of God)
• Ayatollah - A Shiite who is learned in Sharia, Koran
(Quran), and the Hadith, and who is known for his piety.
He is considered to be the most learned person of his time,
giving him authority to make independent judgments.
• Islam – surrender (to the will of God)
• Muslim – one who has surrendered to the will of God
• Minaret – The minaret is a tower attached to a mosque
from which the muezzin issues the call to prayer (the
adhan). Although the tower can be any shape, it is typically
round
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More Terms
• Friday Mosque – On Friday, muslims are expected to
gather in community prayer at noon. This is usually done
in a large, centrally located mosque called a "Friday
Mosque.”
• Mosque (masjid in Arabic) – is a house of prayer for
community worship. The main prayer hall of a mosque is
usually fairly empty; having floors covered with fine
carpets rather than chairs. The hall has a niche--called a
mihrab--which indicates the direction of Mecca, towards
which prayers are offered.
• Hijra - The exodus of Mohammed and his followers from
Mecca to Medina in 622. The year marks the beginning of
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the Muslim calendar.
More Terms
• Mullah – In Sunni Islam, a mullah is a scholar who is
learned in the Sharia.
• Hadith* The stories about and sayings of Mohammed.
After his death, these were tested for accuracy and
collected into an organized body of material. They
provide examples of proper behavior and instances of
Mohammed's understanding of his role.
• Hajj* The fifth of the Five Pillars of Islam. It lays out the
goal of each Moslem performing a pilgrimage to Mecca
to worship at the Kaba and to rededicate themselves to
Allah at sites important in his life. The Hajj is
immediately followed by the festival of Eid al-Adha.
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More Terms
• Imam - (1) In Sunni Islam, the leader of worship in a
mosque. (2) In Shiite Islam, a spiritual leader whose
authority comes from Mohammed through his son-in-law
Ali.
• Jihad - Two types of Jihad: The Lesser Jihad is the
expectation that Moslems will defend their homeland and
Islam from attack. The Greater Jihad is the inner battle
which Moslems continually fight within themselves to
submit to Allah and to fulfill his expectations of humans.
• Sura - The Arabic term for a chapter in the Quran
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More Terms
• Quran - It is belived, Allah composed the Quran and his
angel Gabriel transmitted it to sura by sura. These
recitations began in 610 and continued until Mohammed's
death in 632. Gabriel would teach each recitation to
Mohammed, who would memorize it and teach it to his
followers, who would also memorize it. The third Caliph
Uthman had the Quran written down by Islam's best
memorizers. This established a fixed text. The Quran is
Islam's only sacred text; to be sure, the hadith, the sunna,
and other writings are important, but they are the work of
humans whereas the Quran comes from Allah himself.
Since it is the direct words of Allah, it provides God's
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final and definitive revelation.
More Terms
• People of the Book - Islam considers the Jews, the
Christians, the Zoroastrians, and the Sabeans to be
People of the Book. This gives them a special legal status
within Islamic regions, essentially one of second-class
citizenship, but with clearly defined rights and
responsibilities. In Arabic, this status is that of dhimmi. In
contrast to other non-Moslems, they could worship as they
wished, own property, and had legal rights in Moslem
courts. They could also serve in government. By contrast,
they could not build new synagogues or churches,
proselytize, or serve in the military. These rights gave
them a place in Moslem society and protected them from
persecution.
100
More Terms
• Sharia - (1) Historically, the term "Sharia" refers to all
the elements of a proper--i.e., righteous--Islamic life;
these include proper moral behavior, proper respect
towards Allah, correct belief, proper personal piety, and
so on. In other words, it means the right way to life one's
life as a Moslem. (2) In more recent times, it has come to
refer to a much narrower notion, that of "Islamic Law."
This usage is quite common in the Western press.
• Sufi, Sufism - Sufism is a term that designates Islam's
mystical and ascetic movements. A Sufi is one who
practices Sufism. Sufis attempt to go beyond the
restrictions of a "typical" Moslem life and to seek Allah in
101
more intimate ways.
Umrah
• The Umrah or (Arabic: ‫ )عمرة‬is a pilgrimage
to Mecca performed by Muslims that can be
undertaken at any time of the year. It is
sometimes called the 'minor pilgrimage' or
'lesser pilgrimage', the Hajj being the 'major'
pilgrimage and which is compulsory for
every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it.
The Umrah is not compulsory but highly
recommended.
102
Kaba (the holiest place on earth)
103
The Dome of the Rock
104
Mosque
Northern
Nigeria
105
Mosque Istanbul, Turkey
106
Religious culture regions
• Hinduism
– Oldest of the major religions 5000 to 7000 yrs. ago
• Father or Founder unknown
– Polytheistic or Monotheistic?
– Brahman ultimate reality
• Brahma - consorts & incarnations
• Vishnu - consorts & incarnations
• Shiva - consorts & incarnations
– Social divisions—castes based on occupational
categories
– Belief in Reincarnation: role of dharma & karma
107
Brahman: Hindu Trinity
108
Brahma - Creator
109
Vishnu – Preserver or Sustainer
110
Shiva - Destroyer
111
Hindu Pantheon
• Incarnations
• Consorts
• Offspring
112
Religious culture regions
• Hinduism - Caste system
– Initiated by Aryan conquerors – based on
ethnicity (race?) and occupation
– A rigid system
•
•
•
•
Priestly (Brahmins)
Warrior/Ruler (Kahatriyas)
Merchants and skilled trades (Vaishyas)
Peasants (Shudras)
– Unofficial 5th caste – “outcastes” or untouchables
(20% of population)
– No official or legal standing under the current
113
constitution of India
Religious culture regions
• Hinduism
– Scripture: wise writings (not necessarily
revelation) – Vedas, Upanishads, etc.
– No clergy or religious bureaucracy
– Jainism—ancient outgrowth of Hinduism
• absolute adherence to ahimsa
– Remarkable ability to absorb other
religious systems
– Sikhism arose in the 1500s
• Attempt to reconcile Hinduism & Islam
114
Religious culture regions
• Hinduism
– Practices often associated with Hinduism
• Asceticism
• Yoga
• Nonviolence
– 20th Century leader or role model
• Mahatma Gandhi
115
Hindu Temple in Delhi, India
116
Asian Hindu
Temple –
colorful and
intricately
decorated
117
Typical Hindu Temple in USA
118
Bathing in the Sacred Ganges R.
119
Hindu Terms
• ahimsa In Sanskrit, literally, "noninjury." It is the principle
that a person should do no harm. In Jainism, this restriction
includes all living creatures because they all contain a jiva .
• Ashram Place where devotees live, often a guru’s house.
• Aryans A group of people who emigrated from the west
into the upper Indus Valley and the nearby territory around
1500 bce. They conquered the Dravidians and established
what is now termed the Vedic culture.
• Ascetic A general term for a person who denies themselves
some of the necessities of life, such as food, clothing, and
shelter. Often such a person goes to the extreme of rejecting
all social norms and expectations.
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Terms
• Atman An individual's soul or self. The ultimate goal in
Hinduism is to achieve moksha through the realization that
one's Atman and Brahman are the same thing. This is
accomplished through different types of yoga .
• Avatar A manifestion of a god in an earthly form, usually
that of a human or animal. The god Vishnu has two main
avatars: Krishna and Rama, and eight others.
• Brahma Brahma is the manifestation of Brahman into the
world of maya. In opposition to Brahman as the essence of
creation (a spirit), Brahma takes on a form fitting with the
natural world. He is often mentioned as an equal with
Vishnu and Shiva.
121
Terms
• Brahman The power behind and within the cosmos that
makes it function and live. Can also be seen as the Ultimate
Reality. Sometimes it is thought of as a god. In the early
Vedic religion, this was the focus of worship by the
Brahmins. In classic and modern Hinduism it is rarely
worshipped directly. One of the recurring goals in Hinduism
is to understand the link between Brahman-the force behind
the cosmos-and the Atman--the soul of each individual
human
• Brahmanas Early, Vedic commentaries about Hindu ritual.
• Brahmin The highest of the four main Hindu castes or
Varnas. It is the priestly caste.
122
Terms
• Dharma In Hinduism, Dharma means virtue. In particular,
it refers to the duties of a person's caste (varna and jati ) and
the idea that it is virtuous always to fulfill those duties
willingly and expertly.
• Durga A wife of Shiva - the goddess of retribution and
justice. She is beautiful and fierce, and usually appears with
her weapons and riding upon a tiger or a lion.
• Ganesha/ Ganesa The god of good fortune. He takes away
obstacles and brings success. This is the elephant-headed
son of Shiva and Parvati. He is sometimes called Ganapati.
• Guru A holy teacher. Occasionally, a Brahmin who
teaches.
123
Terms
• Householder The second of the four stages of human life.
This is when one takes on the responsibilities of adult life. It
is the time for marriage, raising children, being involved in
business and one's community. It is followed by retirement.
• Jati The Hindu term for sub-caste. A varna is made up of
many jatis.
• jiva The soul of a person, essentially the same as Atman. It
is made of spiritual or divine matter.
• Kama Pleasure, one of the four encouraged goals of life in
Hinduism. Kama refers primarily to aesthetic pleasure, such
as the enjoyment of music, drama, dance, painting,
sculpture, and so on. It can also refer to sexual pleasure.
124
Terms
• Karma The Sanskrit term meaning "action." It refers to a
concept in which the results of one's actions accumulate
over one's life. Upon death, an individual's karma-this store
of the results of actions-determines whether one is reborn in
a higher or lower status.
• kshatriya The second of the four main Hindu castes, or
Varnas. This is the caste of warriors, leaders, and
administrators.
• Mantra A sequence of sounds used as a focus of
meditation. The most famous mantra is that of "om," which
consists of the three sounds "aa", "oo", "mm". For some
examples of mantras and their explanation, go here.
125
Terms
• maya The true nature of the cosmos we can see. In
Sanskrit, the word means "illusion," but that does not just
mean that it is imaginary. Instead, since it is what we can
see, we must deal with it and live within it.
• moksha Liberation or release from the cyle of death and
rebirth, or samsara.
• puja An offering (usually flowers, food, adoration, music,
etc.) to a god or goddess.
• Rama A popular hero god who is an avatar of
Vishnu. His wife is Sita.
• Reincarnation The cycle of death and rebirth. The
transmigration of an individual soul to a new body
126
after death. This is samsara.
Terms
• Retirement This is the third of the four stages of human
life; it is followed by that of sannyasin. During this time, a
retiree, also known as a "forest dweller," contemplates their
life and attempts to formulate an understanding of "what it's
all about."
• Sadhu This is essentially the same as a sannyasin. This is a
person who renounces life and everything that goes with it
(religion, caste, family, etc.) and essentially becomes a
wandering hermit seeking moksha. The Fourth "life stage"
of Hinduism.
• samadhi The eighth and final stage of meditation in raja
yoga in which a person's mind realizes the Ultimate Reality.
127
Terms
• samsara The cycle of death and rebirth in both
Hinduism and Buddhism. Reincarnation.
• Sanatana Dharma What Hindus call Hinduism.
• sannyasin The fourth stage of the Hindu
understanding of the human life cycle. In
description, this usually follows the stage of
retirement. In life, however, it can be entered at
anytime and gives the individual the opportunity to
become an ascetic. For a fuller discussion, go here.
• Sanskrit The language in which the Vedas and
other Hindu sacred texts are written.
128
Terms
• shudra The fourth and lowest Hindu caste. It literally
means "slave." Historically, the members of this varna were
servants to those of the higher-castes. They are the only
caste that is not twice-born.
• Student First of the four stages of human life. This is the
time from adolescence to about age 20 when one learns and
studies. It is followed by the stage of householder.
• Transmigration Refers to the idea of the transmigration of
one's soul. It is also called samsara or reincarnation. This is
the notion that after death, a person's soul is born-again into
another individual (human, animal, etc.).
• Twice-born Males of 3 top castes go through a "re-birth"
129
ceremony when they come-of-age at around 12.
Terms
• Untouchables The Untouchables are the fifth caste, or more
precisely, they are the people who are below the fourth
varna and indeed outside the caste system altogether. They
are outcaste. Westerners would be put into this caste.
• Upanishads The latest of the writings to be considered part
of the Vedic period, written between the eighth and third
centuries BCE. These are collections of stories, discussions,
and instructions addressing issues of the relationship
between the human and the ultimate realms.
• vaishya The third Hindu caste, that of the merchants,
traders, farmers and craftsmen.
130
Terms
• varna The Hindu term for caste, a social division into
which a person is born. There are four major castes in
Hindu society: Brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra.
The first three castes are considered "twice-born." Each
Varna can be divided into a number of jatis. Below these
four varnas are the untouchables.
• Vedas The oldest collection of Hindu sacred texts. They
include the best-known Rig-Veda.
• yoga Refers to an organized form of discipline leading to a
goal. It usually involves practices of meditation, mental
concentration, exercises of the body including both ones of
control and asceticism. In Hinduism, this goal is usually that
of moksha, the release of the soul.
131
Religious culture regions
• Buddhism
– Derived from Hinduism 2500 years ago
– Teachings of Prince Siddhartha Gautama
• A Hindu prince who sought “enlightenment” in
Hinduism but couldn’t find it there
• Search for enlightenment led to the four “noble
truths”
• Reincarnation with an understanding different
from Hinduism
• Equality of people – no caste system
• Concept of nirvana
132
Nirvana
• Nirvana is the supreme state free from suffering
and individual existence. It is a state Buddhists
refer to as "Enlightenment". It is the ultimate goal
of all Buddhists. The attainment of nirvana breaks
the otherwise endless rebirth cycle of
reincarnation. Buddhists also consider nirvana as
freedom from all worldly concerns such as greed,
hate, and ignorance. No one can describe in words
what nirvana is. It can only be experienced
directly.
133
Sidhartha
Gautama upon
being
“enlightened” –
The Buddha or
“enlightened one”
134
Religious culture regions
• Buddhism
• The Four Noble Truths
– 1. Life means suffering.
– 2. The origin of suffering is attachment.
– 3. The cessation of suffering is attainable.
– 4. The path to the cessation of suffering –
the eight-fold path.
135
Religious culture regions
• Buddhism - The eight-fold path.
– Wisdom
• 1. Right view
• 2. Right intention
– Ethical conduct
• 3. Right speech
• 4. Right action
• 5. Right livelihood
– Mental discipline
• 6. Right effort
• 7. Right mindfulness
• 8. Right concentration
136
Religious culture regions
• Buddhism
– Teachings of Prince Siddhartha
Gautama continued
• No specific teachings about “God”
• No clergy or religious bureaucracy needed
• A philosophy and manner of living that
leads to enlightenment and nirvana
– The eight-fold path or “middle way”
» Detachment
» Between asceticism & materialism
137
Religious culture regions
• Buddhism
– Tendency to merge with native religions
– One of three great proselytic religions
• Divisions in Buddhism
– Northern (Mahayana) - "Greater Vehicle“
• Lamaism (Tibet)
• Zen (Japan)
– Southern – (Theravada) – the more
proselytic
138
Origin, Spread, & Branches
139
Mahayana: Prayer flags
140
Mahayana: Prayer Wheels
141
Theravada:
Role of monk
emphasized:
boy, young
men, &
western man
142
143
144
Buddhist Temple in Honolulu
145
Buddhist
Temple interior
146
Candles can be lit before the Buddha
147
Other Buddhist Temple Interiors
148
Buddhist Terms
• Anuttara-Samayak-Sambodhi The incomparably, completely and fully awakened mind; it
is the attribute of buddhas
• Arhat - Arhatship is the highest rank attained by Sravakas.
An Arhat is a Buddhist saint who has attained liberation
from the cycle of Birth and Death, generally through living
a monastic life in accordance with the Buddhas' teachings.
This is the goal of Theravadin practice, as contrasted with
Bodhisattvahood in Mahayana practice
• Arthakrtya - One of the Four All-Embracing Virtues:
performance of conduct profitable to others in order to lead
them toward the truth.
149
• Attachment - In the Four Noble truths, Buddha
Shakyamuni taught that attachment to self is the root cause
of suffering: From craving [attachment] springs grief, from
craving springs fear; For him who is wholly free from
craving, there is no grief, much less fear. (Dhammapada
Sutra. In Narada Maha Thera, The Buddha and His
Teachings.) If you don't have attachments, naturally you're
liberated
• Avatamsaka (Flower Ornament) Sutra - The basic text of
the Avatamsaka School. It is one of the longest sutras in the
Buddhist Canon and records the highest teaching of Buddha
Shakyamuni, immediately after Enlightenment.
150
Terms
• Awakening vs. Enlightenment - A clear distinction should
be made between awakening to the Way (Great Awakening)
and attaining the Way (attaining Enlightenment).
• Bardo - The intermediate existence between death
and reincarnation -- a stage varying from seven to fortynine days, after which the Karmic body from previous lives
will certainly be reborn.
• Bhiksu - Religious mendicant; Buddhist fully ordained
monk. Bhiksuni is the equivalent term for a woman.
• Bhadanta - "Most virtuous"; honorific title apllied to a
Buddha.
151
Terms
• Bhutatathata - The true character of reality. The real as
thus, always or eternally so. True Suchness.
• Bodhi - Sanskrit for Enlightenment. Also Perfect
knowledge or wisdom by which a person becomes a
Buddha.
• Bodhi-Tao - Bodhi-path: The way or path to the Supreme
Enlightenment of Buddhahood
• Bodhisattvas - Those who aspire to Supreme
Enlightenment and Buddhahood for themselves and all
beings. The word Bodhisattva can therefore stand for a
realized being such as Avalokitesvara or Samantabhadra but
also for anyone who has developed the Bodhi Mind, the
152
aspiration to save oneself and others.
Terms
• Bodhisattva-Tao - The way of the practitioner of
Mahayana Buddhism.
• Brahma Net Sutra (Brahmajala Sutra) - This is a sutra of
major significance in Mahayana Buddhism. In addition to
containing the ten major precepts of Mahayana (not to kill,
steal, lie, etc.) the Sutra also contains forty-eight less
important injunctions. These fifty-eight major and minor
precepts constitute the Bodhisattva Precepts, taken by most
Mahayana monks and nuns and certain advanced lay
practitioners.
• Buddha - Lit., the Awakened One; one who through aeons
of spiritual development has attained Anuttara-Samyak153
Sambodhi.
Terms
• Buddharupa - A statue or Image of the Buddha, used for
devotional purposes.
• Charity - or almsgiving, the first Paramitas. There are three
kinds of charity in terms of goods, teaching (Dharma) and
courage (fearlessness). Out of the three, the merits and
virtues of the teaching of the Buddha Dharma is the most
surpassing.
• Dana - The practice of generosity or charity: one of the
Paramitas as well as one of the All-Embracing Virtues,
where it means, in the latter, giving others what they want
just to lead them towards the truth.
154
Terms
• Delusion (Ignorance) -"Delusion is belief in
something that contradicts reality. In Buddhism,
delusion is ... a lack of awareness of the true nature
or Buddha nature of things, or of the true meaning of
existence. "According to the Buddhist outlook, we
are deluded by our senses-- among which intellect is
included as a sixth sense. Consciousness, attached to
the senses, leads us into error by causing us to take
the world of appearances for the world of reality,
whereas in fact it is only a limited and fleeting
aspect of reality."
155
Terms
• Dharma - a) The teachings of the Buddhas (generally
capitalized in English); b) duty, law, doctrine; c) things,
events, phenomena, everything.
• Difficult Path of Practice - According to Pure Land
teaching, all conventional Buddhist ways of practice and
cultivation (Zen, Theravada, the Vinaya School ...), which
emphasize self-power and self-reliance.
• Dusts (Worldly Dusts) - A metaphor for all the mundane
things that can cloud our bright Self-Nature. These include
form, sound, scent, taste, touch, dharmas (external opinions
and views). These dusts correspond to the five senses and
the discriminating, everyday mind (the sixth sense, in
156
Buddhism).
Terms
• Easy Path of Practice – (Mahayana) The Easy Path relies
on the power of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, in particular
Buddha Amitabha ("other-power") in addition to one's own
cultivation ("self-power").
• Eight Sufferings - (1) Suffering of Birth; (2) Suffering of
Old Age; (3) Suffering of Sickness; (4) Suffering of Death;
(5) Suffering of being apart from the loved ones; (6)
Suffering being together with the despised ones; (7)
Suffering of not getting what one wants; (8) Suffering of the
flouishing of the Five Skandhas.
• Eight Winds - Winds of Eight Directions. Most people are
usually moved by the winds of the eight directions: (1)
Praise; (2) Ridicule; (3) Suffering; (4)Happiness; (5) 157
Benefit; (6) Destruction; (7) Gain; (8) Loss.
Terms
• Eightfold Path - The eight right ways leading to the
cessation of sufferings. (1) Right View; (2) Right Thought;
(3) Right Speech; (4) Right Action; (5) Right Livelihood;
(6) Right Effort; (7) Right Remembrance; (8) Right
Concentration.
• Evil Paths - The paths of hells, hungry ghosts, animality.
They can be taken as states of mind; i.e., when someone has
a vicious thought of maiming or killing another, he is
effectively reborn, for that moment, in the hells.
• Externalists - Literally, followers of non-Buddhist paths.
This term is generally used by Buddhists with reference to
followers of other religions
158
Terms
• Five Desires (Five Sensual Pleasures) - Desires connected
with the five senses, i.e., form, sound, aroma, taste and
touch.
• Five Precepts - Precepts taken by lay Buddhists,
prohibiting i) killing, ii) stealing iii) lying, iv) sexual
misconduct, v) ingesting intoxicants
• Four Aspects (of Buddha Dharma) - (1) the
teaching; (2) the principle; (3) the practice; (4) the
fruit/reward/result.
• Four Elements - All matters are formed and are
composed by four conditioned causes : (1) earth; (2)
159
water; (3) fire; (4) wind.
Terms
• Four Noble Truths - 1)Sufferings; 2)Cause of Sufferings;
3)Cessation of sufferings; 4)The Path leading to the
cessation of sufferings.
• Four Ways (of learning Buddhist Dharma) - (1)
Belief/faith; (2) Interpretation/discernment; (3)
Practice/performance; (4) Verification/assurance. These are
the cyclic process in learning a truth.
• Karma - Volition, volitional or intentional activity. Karma
is always followed by its fruit, Vipaka. Karma and Vipaka
are oftentimes referred to as the law of causality, a cardinal
concern in the Teaching of the Buddha.
• Kasaya - The monk¹s robe, or cassock
160
Terms
• Nirvana - The deathless; the cessation of all suffering. The
very opposite of the Wheel of Birth-and-Death; it is what
those in the Buddhist tradition aspire to experience. The
Absolute, which transcends designation and mundane
characterization.
• Non-Birth (No-Birth) - "A term used to describe the nature
of Nirvana. In Mahayana Buddhism generally, No-Birth
signifies the 'extinction' of the discursive thinking by which
we conceive of things as arising and perishing, forming
attachments to them.
• One-Life Bodhisattva - A Bodhisattva who is one
lifetime away from Buddhahood. The best known
161
example is the Bodhisattva Maitreya.
Terms
• Paramita - : Refers to the six practices, the perfection of
which ferries one beyond the sea of suffering and mortality
to Nirvana. The six Paramitas are the following: (1)
Dana, charity or giving, including the bestowing of truth
on others; (2) Sila, keeping the discipline; (3)
Ksanti, patience under suffering and insult; (4) Virya, zeal
and progress; (5) Dhyana, meditation or contemplation;
(6) Prajna, wisdom, the power to discern reality or truth. It
is the perfection of the last one -- Prajna -- that
ferries sentient beings across the ocean of Samsara (the sea
of incarnate life) to the shores of Nirvana.
• Pure Land - Generic term for the realms of the Buddhas. In
this text it denotes the Land of Ultimate Bliss
162
Terms
• Saha World - World of Endurance. Refers to this world of
ours, filled with suffering and afflictions, yet gladly endured
by its inhabitants.
• Samadhi - Deep concentration: the state of one-pointedness
of mind characterized by peace and imperturbability.
• Samatha - Quiet, tranquillity, calmness of mind, absence of
mind.
• Sastra - Commentary; the commentaries constitute one of
the three parts of the Buddhist canonical scrptures.
• Sutra - An aphorism; a thread of suggestive words or
phrases summarizing religious and philosophical
instruction.
163
Terms
• Tao - Path or Way.
• Ten Evil Acts (Ten Evil Deeds, Ten Sins) - 1. Killing;
2.stealing; 3. sexual misconduct; 4. lying; 5. slander; 6.
coarse language; 7. empty chatter; 8. covetousness; 9. angry
speech; 10. wrong views.
• Theravada - Lit., the School of the Elders; one of 2 main
forms of Buddhism known in the world today; practiced
chiefly in south-east Asia; has the Pali Canon for textual
foundation; this tradition advocates the Arahantship.
• Three Poisons - Craving, aversion and delusion; also,
termed the 3 root-stains or the 3 roots of unskillfulness.
164
Terms
• Tripitaka - Lit., three baskets: The earliest Buddhist
canonical text consisting of three sections: 1. Buddha's
discourses (sutras), 2 Rules of Discipline (Vinaya), 3.
Analytical and explanatory texts or commentaries (sastras);
usually referred to as the Pali canon.
• Two Truths - 1) Relative or conventional, everyday truth of
the mundane world subject to delusion and dichotomies and
2) the Ultimate Truth, transcending dichotomies, as taught
by the Buddhas.
• Vinaya - Disciplined conduct, referring specifically to the
monastic rules for the disciples who have left home; also,
one of the three divisions of the Buddhist scriptures.
• Vipasyana - Discernment; insight, correct perception.165
Terms
• Zen. - A major school of Mahayana Buddhism, with
several branches. One of its most popular techniques
is meditation on koans, which leads to the
generation of the Great Doubt. According to this
method: The master gives the student a koan to
think about, resolve, and then report back on to the
master. Concentration intensifies as the student first
tries to solve the koan intellectually. This initial
effort proves impossible, however, for a koan cannot
be solved rationally. Indeed, it is a kind of spoof on
the human intellect.
166
Religious culture regions
• Animism/Shamanism
– Found mostly in indigenous regions
• A shaman may possess great knowledge of
folk medicine derived from indigenous
plants
– World may be threatened with the loss of this
knowledge
– Believe certain inanimate objects
possess spirits or souls
– Elements can be found in established
religions—Japanese Shintoism
167
Religious
culture regions
• Animism/
Shamanism
– Shaman serves
as intermediary
between people
and spirits
– Can be very
complex
168
169
Religious culture regions
• Changing religious profiles
– Decline of Roman Catholicism in Latin
America and Caribbean
• Failure of church to fill needs of modern urban
societies
• People turning toward evangelical Protestant
faiths
• Some turning to African-based spiritist religions
170
Religious practice &
secularization
171
Religious culture regions
• Changing religious profiles
– United States
• Roger Stump—religious divergence
• Others feel America is becoming more
religiously mixed
• Growing number of “unchurched”
172
Religious culture regions
• Changing religious profiles
– Europe is becoming secularized
– Secularization is growing around the
world
• About 14 percent in the United States
• Displays a marked regionalization
173
Diffusion from Religion Hearths
174
Religious diffusion
• The Semitic religious hearth
– Expansion diffusion
• Early Christianity
• Early Islam
– Relocation diffusion
• Period of colonialization – particularly W.
Hemisphere
• Result of immigration
– Proselytic faiths far more likely to
diffuse than ethnic religions
175
Religious diffusion
• The Semitic religious hearth
– Early Christian diffusion
• Displayed spatial distribution reflecting
hierarchical diffusion
• Missionaries used technique of converting
kings or tribal leaders
• Militaristic expansion led to contagious
diffusion
• Oddities in Christian diffusion
176
Early Christian Diffusion
177
Religion & Nature
178
Religious diffusion
• The Semitic religious hearth
– Islamic faith
• Spread in a militaristic manner
• Muslim missionaries followed trade routes
• Tropical Africa is current major scene of
Islamic expansion
179
Religious diffusion
• Barriers and timedistance decay
– Ideas weaken with
distance from places
of origin and with
time
– Permeable
barriers—examples:
Indian groups
– Absorbing
barriers—example of
China
180
Religious diffusion
• Barriers and time-distance decay
– Religious taboos
• Mormons and coffee (caffeine)
• Pennsylvania Dutch churches—tobacco
raising and cigarette smoking
• Hindus – beef
• Jews – pork
• Muslims – pork and alcohol
181
Religious ecology
• Cosmology & dealing with the
forces of nature
– Natural hazards and disasters exert a
powerful influence on religious
development
• Environmental influence most apparent in
animistic faiths
• Ceremonies and rites to placate spirits
• Pre-Columbian temple pyramid at Cholula in
central Mexico
• Pre-Columbian cenotes in Yucatan penninsula
182
Cosmologies
183
Religious ecology
• Cosmology & dealing with the
forces of nature
– Environmental influence less
pronounced on major religions
• Examples of God punishing sinners
• Special services to alter unfavorable
weather conditions
184
Religious ecology
• Cosmology & dealing with the
forces of nature
– Feng shui
• Alignment with cosmic forces
• Some principles adopted by Westerners
– Natural places as sacred space
185
Religious ecology
• The environment and
monotheism
– Three major faiths have roots among
desert dwellers of Middle East
– Ellen Semple’s deterministic view
– Some scholars feel social structure of
nomadic people may have answers
186
• C. Ecotheology
– Literature studying role of religion in habitat
modification
– Example of Maori people of New Zealand
– Example of the Navaho
187
Religious ecology
• Ecotheology
– Judeo-Christian religious tradition
promotes a teleological view
• Earth created for humans, who are separate
from and superior to natural world
• God's message to Noah after Flood
188
• Teleology (Greek: telos: end, purpose) is the
philosophical study of design, purpose,
directive principle, or finality in nature or
human creations. It is traditionally contrasted
with metaphysical naturalism, which views
nature as lacking design or purpose. In
opposition to this, teleology holds there is a
final cause or purpose inherent in all beings.
There are two types of such causes, intrinsic
finality and extrinsic finality
189
• A teleological argument, or argument
from design, is an argument for the
existence of God or a creator based on
perceived evidence of order, purpose,
design, or direction—or some combination
of these—in nature. The word "teleological"
is derived from the Greek word telos,
meaning end or purpose. Teleology is the
supposition that there is purpose or directive
principle in the works and processes of
nature.
190
Religious ecology
• Ecotheology
– Judeo-Christian religious tradition promotes
a teleological view
• Humans were God's helpers in finishing creation
• Role of monastic orders in modification of
environment
191
Religious ecology
• Ecotheology
– Marriage of technology and teleology
is root of modern ecological crisis
– Great religions of Asia and many
animistic faiths
• Highlight teachings and beliefs protecting
nature
• Example of Hinduism – ahimsa
• Example Navaho
192
Religious ecology
• Ecotheology
– Geographer Yi-fu Tuan—discrepancy
between stated ideals of religion and reality
• Destruction of Chinese woodlands
• Example of forest destruction by Asian and tribal
religions
193
Religious ecology
• Godliness and greenness
– Judeo-Christian tradition—Book of Leviticus
– Some fundamentalist Protestant sects herald
ecological crisis
• Some have adopted conservationist views, citing
biblical admonitions
• Hope is to mobilize Christian Right
194
Religious ecology
• Godliness and
greenness
– Ecofeminist
• Teleology—its
role in
banishing
female deities
• Holiness of
ecosystems has
perished
195
Religious ecology
• D. Godliness and greenness
– Results of mid-1980s conference in
Italy
• Included Greens and religious leaders from
major religions
• Examples of policy changes religious
leaders are making
196
Cultural interaction in religion
• Religion and economy
– All religion have food choices (taboos)
• Few pork producers in largely Muslim areas
• Kosher – affects how food is prepared or processed
(higher prices)
– Demand for wine used in ceremonies aided
diffusion of grape growing
197
Cultural interaction in religion
• Religion and economy
– Food taboos explain regional absence
of crops or animals
– Example of Spain and Morocco:
regional absence of pigs
198
Food Avoidance
199
Religious belief & law
200
Cultural interaction in religion
• Religion and economy
– Scholars explain Islamic and Judaic pork
taboos in various ways
• Biblical
• Environmental
– Taboos on consumption of alcohol differs
from one religion to another
201
Cultural interaction in religion
• Religious pilgrimage
– Typical of both ethnic and proselytic
religions
– Sacred places vary in character
– May be a main source of revenue for some
sites
202
Cultural interaction in religion
• Religious pilgrimage
– Mecca sacred place for Muslims
• Attracts hundreds of thousands during the
month of Ramadan
• City closed to all non-Muslims
• Mass pilgrimages have major impact on
transportation routes and carriers
203
Red dot – Muslim Pilgrimage Sites
204
During the Hajj
205
Religious landscapes
• Religious structures
– Usually vary by faith
• Catholic churches typically large
• In medieval European towns, Christian
cathedrals were tallest buildings
206
VI. Religious landscapes
• Religious structures
– Usually vary by faith
• Smaller Protestant churches considered
simply a place to worship
• Amish and Mennonites may meet in houses
or barns
• Muslim mosques usually most imposing
items in the landscape
207
Religious landscapes
• Religious structures
– Example of the Maori—blending of
faiths
– Wayside shrines vary with faith
– Example of the Ganga River
208
VI. Religious landscapes
• Landscapes of the dead
– Practices of the Parsees and Hindus
– Spectacular monuments erected by
Egyptians and some Muslims
– Example of the Chinese practices
209
Religious landscapes
• Landscapes of the dead
– Variation among Christian
denominations
– Example of traditional rural cemeteries
of the South
210
New Orleans Christian
211
Calvary Cemetery in Queens, N.Y.
212
Mexican
Cemetery on
the Day of the
Dead
213
Tuscany, Italy
214
Memorial at
Asian
cemetery in
Honolulu
215
Asian grave offerings
216
Religious landscapes
• Religious names on the land
– Example of saint names used in
French Canada
– Saints’ names common in Roman
Catholic and Greek Orthodox areas
217
Religious landscapes
• Sacred space
– May be avoided by faithful and sought out by
pilgrims
– Often site of supposed supernatural events
• Hinduism
– Natural features, frequently river banks & coasts
• Judaism – Wailing Wall
• Christians (all) – Holy Land sites
• Roman Catholic – Places associated with
miracles & appearances (often Mary)
218
Religious landscapes
• Sacred space
– Example of
conflict over
the Dome of the
Rock
– Can establish
a geographic
center where
society can be
anchored
219
Religious landscapes
• Sacred space
– Description of the Sacred Land Project
– Mystical places—unconnected with
established religions
220
221
Religion and conflict:
• Often an emotional “cover” for questions of power
and control – economic & political “haves” and
“have-nots”
• Northern Ireland – really a civil rights struggle
– Protestants have been the political & economic “haves”
• Israeli-Palestinian Arab conflict
– Palestinians desire sovereignty
– Sticking points
• Who will control Jerusalem
• Who will control Jewish settlements in the Palestinian territory?
222
Umbanda – a Syncretic Religion
• Umbanda is a religion that blends Catholicism,
Kardecist Spiritualism, and Afro-Brazilian religions. It
originated in Brazil in the early 20th century through a
medium, Zélio Fernandino de Moraes, who worked
among the Afro-Brazilian population of Rio de Janeiro.
It has since spread across Brazil and to Uruguay and
Argentina. The Some of the classic characteristics of
Umbanda include: the believe in One God (Olôrum); the
existence of Orixás as God's energy and plain power
expansions and the natural ability of communicating
with the spiritual world. Umbanda, overall, is a religion
based on the Karmic Law and the Christian Charity.
RETURN
RETURN
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