Oceanography 101
Introduction to
Oceanography
Fall 2013
Course Materials
2
Table of Contents
Preliminary Materials
Basic physical science materials for Oceanography_______________________________________________ 5
Topic Outline ____________________________________________________________________________ 7
Review Materials ________________________________________________________________________ 11
In-class exercises ________________________________________________________________________ 17
Lab Exercises
Lab 1: Maps and the Seafloor ______________________________________________________________ 53
Lab 2: The Physical Behavior of Water in the Oceans ___________________________________________ 63
Lab 3: Currents _________________________________________________________________________ 77
Lab 4: Waves ___________________________________________________________________________ 87
Lab 5: Plankton from Puget Sound __________________________________________________________ 99
Lab 6: Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics ___________________________________________________ 103
Lab 7: Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents ____________________________________________ 109
Fieldtrip Dates, Directions, and Assignments
Fieldtrip #1: Beach Dynamics at Owen Beach ________________________________________________ 115
Fieldtrip #2: Marine Organisms at Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium _____________________________ 123
Extra Syllabus
_____________________________________________________________________________________ 131
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Basic physical science material for Oceanography
PART I: Vocabulary/Concepts
Know the following definitions:
atom
neutron
proton
electron
ion
covalent bond
ionic bond
hydrogen bond
element
molecule
mass
density
smallest unit of an element that retains the element’s physical and chemical properties
electrically neutral elementary particle in the atomic nucleus having the mass of one proton
electrically positive elementary particle in the atomic nucleus (charge of +1)
electrically negative elementary particle with negligible mass found outside the atomic nucleus (charge
of –1)
an atom (or group of atoms) that has gained or lost electrons and so has a net charge
a bond between atoms in which electrons are shared
a bond between atoms by electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
relatively weak bond formed between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative
adjacent molecule
a substance of identical atoms which cannot be broken into simpler substances by chemical means
a group of atoms held together by chemical bonds
a measure of the quantity of matter
a measure of mass per unit volume
PART II: The Periodic Table of Elements
Know the following:
1) symbols for the following elements see Periodic Table:
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium, silicon, iron, magnesium, nickel, sodium, potassium, sulfur
PART III: Units
Know the following:
1) how to convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = (1.8 x C) + 32
2) number of:
meters in a kilometer: 1000
centimeters in a meter: 100
millimeters in a centimeter: 10
milliliter in a liter: 1000
grams in a kilogram: 1000
3) with respect to water: 1 cubic centimeter = 1 milliliter =1 gram
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C = (F – 32)
1.8
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Topic outline: Oceanography 101
This is a list of topics that will be on the exams. Some of the items are facts and some are concepts. Questions on the exams
that cover these topics may be multiple choice, true/false or matching. There may also be simple diagrams that illustrate
oceanographic processes and you may be asked to identify features in these diagrams. My advice is to study with other
students if possible, and test yourselves by explaining these facts and concepts to each other.
Basic Physical Science
See previous review sheet for topics. There may be a few questions about these topics specifically on the first exam. More
likely and more importantly, many of these facts and concepts will be integrated into other exam questions on the material
below throughout the course.
Earth origin
Origin of solar system
Early earth history and chronology (including origin of water)
Ocean Physics
Water molecule characteristics
Heat
definition and effects on matter
temperature
heat capacity
States of water
fusion
latent heat of fusion
evaporation
latent heat of evaporation
latent heat vs. sensible heat
Heat budget of earth
amount of heat gained/lost by low latitudes vs. high latitudes
thermal equilibrium of the earth
transfer of heat by water and water vapor
modulation of polar climates by ice formation
Water density
temperature and salinity (T-S diagram)
density structure of the ocean (the 3 layers, their thicknesses and respective volumes)
thermocline (latitudinal and seasonal variation)
Atmospheric circulation/weather
The atmosphere
composition and vertical structure
density of air
effects of temperature, pressure (expansion/contraction), water vapor
ability of air to hold moisture at different T
Atmospheric circulation
convection in the atmosphere
ideal model vs. actual
Coriolis effect, the three circulation cells (know names)
know circulation pattern of each cell
surface wind patterns
doldrums (ITCZ), trades, horse latitudes, westerlies, polar easterlies
global climatic regimes (low and high pressure bands; e.g. deserts)
Variation in atmospheric circulation
meteorological equator and latitudinal position of the ITCZ
Storms
Tropical cyclones (tropical storms/ hurricanes)
location/development, rotation direction, energy supply
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Global warming
Currents
Surface Currents: Wind driven horizontal currents
geostrophic gyres
5 major ones (plus West Wind Drift)
Ekman spiral/transport
geostrophic flow
currents within the gyres (know characteristics of each kind)
western boundary, eastern boundary, transverse, countercurrents, undercurrents
El Nino/Southern Oscillation events (ENSO)
causes
effect on climate and currents
Surface Currents: Wind driven vertical currents- upwelling
by divergence and coastal surface flow
Deep Currents: thermohaline circulation
water masses in the ocean (identified by density and therefore depth)
surface waters, central waters, intermediate waters, deep waters, bottom waters
ideal thermohaline circulation model
origin of some of the deep dense water masses and factors creating them
Antarctic Bottom Water, Antarctic Intermediate Water, North Atlantic Deep Water, Mediterranean Deep
Water
rates of flow
Global thermohaline and surface circulation (the “average” path of water)
circulation time, mixing time
Waves
Generation of waves
disturbing force, restoring force
progressive waves, stationary waves
Wave anatomy
variables describing a wave
deep vs shallow water waves
Wind Waves
generation and characteristics
gravity and capillary
wave height and variables contributing to it
dispersion
swell vs. “sea”
interference
interaction with the shore
breaking and types of breakers
refraction, diffraction
Storm Surges (generation and characteristics)
Seiches (generation and characteristics)
Seismic Sea Waves (Tsunami) (generation and characteristics)
Tides
disturbing/restoring forces, wave characteristics
spring tides, neap tides
semidiurnal, diurnal, mixed
tidal currents
flood current, ebb current, slack water
difference between equilibrium and dynamical tidal analysis (rotary standing waves, cotidal lines)
Beaches
definition
typical beach profile
rip currents
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longshore current
mechanism
coastal cell systems
coastal features caused by longshore current
spits, bay mouth bars
results of human interaction and ways of mitigating coastal erosion
Marine Ecology
classification of habitats
by light
by location
photosynthesis and primary productivity
photosynthetic reaction
respiration reaction
chemosynthesis
trophic pyramid
autotrophs, heterotrophs
primary productivity
types of phytoplankton
main factors effecting primary productivity
distribution of primary productivity
limiting factors
with respect to depth
euphotic zone
with respect to geographic location
coastal areas
non-coastal areas
tropical latitudes
temperate latitudes
polar latitudes
with respect to time
tropical latitudes, temperate latitudes, polar latitudes
zooplankton
biomass relative to phytoplankton
main types
Seawater Chemistry
Salinity
definition, units
Water
polarity of the water molecule
Components of sea water
abundant ions (know all seven)
minor elements (present in ppm)
trace elements (present in ppb)
the three main sources of the dissolved components in sea water
principle of constant proportions
Steady state ocean model
inputs (sources) roughly balanced by outputs (sinks)
examples
residence time
mixing time of the oceans
Acid-Base balance
acids/bases
pH scale
sea water pH
carbonic acid
H20 + CO2 = H2CO3 = HCO3- + H+ = CO3-2 + 2H+
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at equilibrium in oceans at about pH 7.8
ocean acidification
Interior structure of the earth
Seismology
kinds of seismic waves, characteristics, and how velocity changes allow us to interpret the
interior of the earth
interior structure of earth as inferred from seismic data
division by chemical composition (know depths of layers and compositions)
division by physical properties (know depths and properties)
History of the development of Plate Tectonic Theory
The historical development of the idea
Alfred Wegener and continental drift
post WWII evidence that led to a reevaluation of continental drift
Idea of sea floor spreading
Paleomagnetic test of seafloor spreading
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics
lithospheric plates (know thickness and composition)
principle of isostacy
density difference between continental and oceanic crust
driving forces
mantle convection
slab pull
plate boundaries (their plate tectonic setting and associated features)
divergent
convergent
subduction, collisional
transform
rates of plate motion
hot spot volcanism
Pacific Northwest plate tectonic configuration
Ocean basins
Know how the following ocean basin features may be explained primarily by plate tectonic processes
mid ocean ridges (and hydrothermal vents)
fracture zones
hydrothermal vent systems
abyssal plains
seamounts and seamount/island chains
trenches
volcanic arcs
continental margins
passive margins, active margins
continental shelf/slope/rise
submarine canyons
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Review questions, Oceanography 101
I. Diagrams
Make sure you understand the perspectives of the many diagrams we use in the course. Cross-sections are “cut-away” views,
or side views. Plan views are showing a feature from above. To be sure you understand the difference draw a subduction zone
in a cross sectional view and also a plan view and label the plate boundary, the trench, and the volcanic arc in each diagram.
II. Sample study questions
These question will help you review the lecture and reading material in preparation for the exams. They are not comprehensive
but they do represent a good starting point for you for studying.
Earth Origin/Interior Structure of the Earth
1) Where did the water in the oceans originate?
2) What is the difference between P waves and S waves?
3) What are the three compositional layers of the earth?
4) What are the lithosphere and asthenosphere how do seismic waves indicate their presence?
Ocean Physics
1) Draw a water molecule and label the individual atoms and where on the molecule the residual positive and negative
charges are.
2) What is the difference between heat and temperature?
3) Define heat capacity. How does the heat capacity of water compare to rock?
4) Why does water have a high heat capacity compared to many other compounds (use the concept of a hydrogen bond in
your explanation)?
5) What is the difference between latent heat and sensible heat?
6) Trace the heat consumption of a glass of water containing 1 liter as it goes from a frozen state at 0° C to water vapor at
100° C. Provide the number of calories the melting consumes, the phase from 0-100° C, and also the evaporation, plus
total.
7) If the polar regions lose more heat to space than they receive from the sun how do they keep from getting colder and
colder (i.e. how does the earth maintain its thermal equilibrium)?
8) What two variables control the density of seawater?
9) How are the ocean organized in a general sense with respect to density? Include in your explanation appropriate terms.
Atmospheric circulation/weather
1) Draw a cross section of the troposphere and stratosphere, with an altitude scale on the side. Also note the approximate
proportion of gases (by mass) of the whole atmosphere that exist at the top of each of these layers.
2) Describe two process that can decrease the density of air thereby causing it to rise.
3) How does temperature affect the ability of air to hold water vapor?
4) Draw a circle representing the earth with the poles and equator labeled, and indicate the heat gradient of the surface of the
earth (i.e. how does surface temperature vary with latitude?). Also draw the ideal circulation pattern that atmospheric air
masses would follow because of the heat gradient.
5) On the figure, draw or otherwise indicate these features at their proper positions on the globe:
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∙ Hadley cell
∙ Ferrell cell
∙ Polar cell
∙ Northeast Trade winds
∙ Southeast Trade winds
∙ Westerlies
∙ Polar easterlies
∙ Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
∙ Meteorological equator
∙ Doldrums
∙ Horse latitudes
∙ Persistent low pressure zone
∙ Persistent high pressure zone
∙ Latitudes where deserts are most common
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Currents
1) Describe why wind driven water does not flow in the same direction as the wind blowing on it. (In essence, describe the
concept of Eckman transport.)
2) On the figure, draw either the Atlantic or Pacific ocean basins. Also draw the major geostrophic gyres in the basin and the
prevailing winds that are driving them. Why don’t the currents travel according to the concept of Eckman transport?
3) Draw a single geostrophic gyre and label the four currents on each side as to their general category. Also indicate how
heat is transported north (or south) in this system. Describe two fundamental ways in which the two north-south flowing
currents differ from one another.
4) How do the equatorial countercurrents differ from the undercurrents?
5) Use figures to describe/illustrate how upwelling occurs.
6) Why do we refer to deep ocean circulation as thermohaline circulation?
7) Describe how Antarctic Bottom Water forms. Be specific about where it forms, where it flow, and how fast it flows on
each segment of its path.
8) Do the same for Mediterranean Deep Water.
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9) What is the model that oceanographers use to describe how surface and deep ocean circulation are linked? Describe where
geographically these two systems are most strongly linked.
Waves
1) A wave is a balance between two forces, a disturbing force and a restoring force. For wind waves, what specifically are
these two forces?
2) Draw a cross section of a wave and label these properties: crest, trough, wavelength, height, pathway of the motion of
water.
3) What three factors contribute to the height of a wave during its formation?
4) How is the behavior of a wave affected once it encounters shallow water?
5) A wave with a wavelength of 100m is in water that is 4m deep. What is its speed?
C=L/T (for deep water waves)
C=3.1√depth (for shallow water waves)
6) On a windy day you see the surface of Puget Sound as a choppy irregular surface. Would you call this a “sea” of a
“swell”? Explain why you chose the term you did.
7) With figures, explain the difference between refraction and diffraction of waves.
8) The coffee in your mug sloshes back and forth after you bump the cup. Is this a wave? Draw a figure to illustrate that it is
in fact a wave and label the crest, trough and wavelength. What is the proper name for this type of wave? Indicate where
on your sketch the node exists.
9) Give one example, using a figure and words, of how a tsunami might form.
10) What are the three disturbing forces of tides? Draw a separate figure for each, showing how each affects sea level in the
oceans.
11) With respect to the disturbing forces of tides, why are there spring tides and neap tides?
12) How many tidal bulges does a geographic area pass through that experiences two high tides and two low tides in 24 hours?
What is this tidal pattern called?
13) Draw a simple bay or harbor. With arrows indicate flow direction for flood currents, ebb currents, and slack water, caused
by the falling and rising tide.
14) What are cotidal lines on a rotary standing tidal wave? Use a sketch if necessary to explain.
Beaches
1) Draw a typical beach profile with the three main segments and the individual features within each segment.
2) How does a rip current differ from a longshore current? Explain how each type of current forms in your answer
3) What is a spit and why does it form? Would a spit form on a perfectly straight coastline?
Marine Ecology
1) If you were swimming in the ocean with your feet touching the bottom, what type of oceanic habitat would this area be
classified as? Provide the name of a class based on presence of light and another class name based on location (depth).
2) Draw a trophic pyramid with five levels and label them according to the following terms: autotrophs, heterotrophs,
primary producers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, quaternary consumers. Each level should have two terms
associated with it.
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3) Describe one group of primary producers with respect to their size, test composition (if any), and overall shape.
4) Discuss two limiting factors that constrain primary production and why.
5) How does the euphotic zone differ from the photic zone as depth classifications?
6) How does primary production in coastal areas differ from the open sea and why?
7) Describe the pattern of primary production over a year in the temperate latitudes. How does this pattern differ from the
tropics and the polar seas?
8) Describe one group of zooplankton with respect to their size and body shape.
9) How does the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide change with depth from the surface of the ocean to just below
the photic zone? What causes this pattern?
Seawater Chemistry
1) Contrast the units with which we express the concentration of the abundant ions in seawater and the trace elements. In
your explanation use examples of real concentrations for each category from tables in your text.
2) What does the principle of constant proportions state?
3) Give an example of a source and a sink for one of the abundant ions. In your description use the concept of residence
time.
4) If a constituent has a short residence time what does that imply about the rate of input from the source and the rate of
output in the sink?
5) Contrast a compound classified as an acid versus one classified as a base.
6) What does the pH scale measure?
7) Using the equation describing the formation of carbonic acid, describe how the oceans behave as a buffered solution.
8) If the oceans behave as a buffer then why is seawater pH dropping in recent decades?
Plate Tectonics
1) What are two lines of evidence Wegener used to support continental drift?
2) Explain the process of seafloor including the telltale paleomagnetic pattern recorded in the ocean lithosphere.
3) Draw a cross section of a subduction zone with all of the major associated geologic features.
4) Draw a cross section of a mid ocean ridge and include an accurate depiction of the thickness of the lithosphere close to the
ridge and farther way and the thickness of marine sediment on the seafloor close to the ridge and farther away.
5) Draw a plan view (from above) of a transform plate boundary.
6) What kind of plate boundary lies off the coast of the Pacific Northwest? Is it an active margin or a passive one?
7) Contrast the origin of the magma that erupts from the following three types of volcanic regions: a mid ocean ridge, a
volcanic arc, a hot spot.
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In-class exercises
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States of water and latent heat
This figure shows the different states of water and the amount of latent heat needed to be added or
removed for water to change phase.
1) What is the specific heat of liquid water?
2) Calculate how much heat (in calories) is needed to take 50 g of water from ice at 0 degrees to water
vapor at 100 degrees.
3) Calculate how much heat is released as 15 grams of water vapor at 100 C condenses into liquid.
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Heat budget of earth
1) The figure below illustrates the heat budget of the earth, with a surplus in the low latitudes and a deficit
in the high latitudes. The arrows below indicate that this imbalance is corrected by” heat transfer by air
and water”. Ellaborate on this explanation. What water? Why and how is water able to transfer heat?
How does air transfer heat? Are all the gasses in the air transfering heat or does one play a greater role?
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General atmospheric circulation
1) Along the side of each latitudinal band, draw the path that circulating air follows from the surface of
the earth to about 30,000 feet. Complete for both hemispheres. Label each circulation “cell” with the
proper name.
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Climate patterns
1) Label the globe with each of the features listed below. For the first four (which are prevailing winds)
indicate where they are by drawing arrows showing wind direction within the correct latitudinal band.
The other features can be noted along the sides of the globe.
∙ Northeast Trade winds
∙ Doldrums
∙ Southeast Trade winds
∙ Horse latitudes
∙ Westerlies
∙ Persistent low pressure zone
∙ Polar easterlies
∙ Persistent high pressure zone
∙ Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
∙ Latitudes where deserts are most common
∙ Meteorological equator
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Geostrophic gyres
1) Draw an outline of the Pacific Ocean from memory or based on a map in your book. Include the
equator. Next draw the two geostrophic gyres in this ocean, as well as arrows indicating the prevailing
winds from 0-30 degrees N and S and 30-60 degrees N and S. Answer the following discussion
questions.
a) The gyres are caused by the prevailing winds. Explain why East-West current flow (the tops and
bottoms of the gyres) doesn’t align itself with the winds. Also explain why the currents don’t
even follow the directions predicted by Eckman transport (you’ll need to define Eckman
transport as part of your answer).
b) Explain why the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch exists where it does, in the context of geostrophic
flow.
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Wave characteristics
1) Label the different parts of the wave shown below, using the following attributes.
wavelength
orbital path of water molecules
still water level
crest
trough
height
2) How does the definition of a deep water wave differ from a shallow water wave?
3) What are two effects the seafloor has on a shallow water wave?
4) If the wavelength of the wave is 100 m how fast is the above wave traveling? The bottom of the
figure represents the seafloor. You’ll need your book or notes to find the correct equation.
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5) Holding wave height constant, wave energy scales up with the period. Looking at the figure above
this gives you an idea of how powerful different types of waves are. If tsunamis are so much more
powerful than common wind waves why is more of the total wave energy in the oceans accounted for by
common wind waves? Likewise, if storm waves are more powerful than common wind waves why do
they not account for more of the total energy?
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Tide mechanics
1) Draw a configuration of three circles representing the sun, moon, and earth that illustrates the
conditions necessary for spring tides. Do the same for the conditions necessary for neap tides. Include
on the earth ellipses around it that represent the centrifugal bulge, the lunar tidal bulge, and the solar
tidal bulge. Use different colors or line patterns for the three different bulges.
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2) Label each graph below with the correct tide type: semi-diurnal, diurnal, mixed semi-diurnal.
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Coastal Dynamics
Draw an uneven coastline, with straight sections, bays, and points. Include a jetty (a straight pile of
boulders that is perpendicular to the shore). Now draw parallel wave crests (as lines) coming towards
the shore at an angle.
On your drawing indicate with arrows the direction of longshore flow.
In a different color or shading draw the distribution of sand along the coast, showing where there is less
sand and more sand, based on the influence of the longshore current. Include sandspits and bay-mouth
bars if appropriate.
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Trophic pyramid
1) Predict where on the trophic pyramid the following organisms would occur.
dinoflagellate- single-celled photosynthesizer
killer whale- eats fish or marine mammals
forminefera- single celled organism that principally eats single celled photosynthesizers
diatom- single celled photosynthesizer
sardine- eats small crustaceans (which eat single celled photosynthesizers), as well as foraminifera when
a juvenile
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2) List two of the principal factors that limit primary productivity. Look at the figure below. Describe
what the compensation depth is and which limiting factor controls it.
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3) Explain why the areas in the middle of the oceans have such low primary productivity. Which
limiting factors are at work here?
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Sources/sinks/residence time
1) Define a source, with respect to a chemical component in seawater.
2) Define as sink, in the same context.
3) Define residence time.
4) Describe one chemical component of seawater, its source, its sink, and its estimated residence time.
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Acids and bases and ocean acidification
1) Are H+ ions more concentrated in an acid or a base? What about OH- ions?
2) How many more times are H+ ions concentrated in orange juice than in milk?
3) Using the chemical formula below, describe why the addition of CO2 to seawater increases the
acidity.
-
+
-2
+
H20 + CO2 = H2CO3 = HCO3 + H = CO3 + 2H
4) Currently, the oceans are absorbing more and more CO2. Where is the CO2 coming from that is
dissolving into the oceans?
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Seismic waves
1) Contrast P and S waves. Note differences in vibration direction as well as velocity. With respect to
vibration direction, draw figures that show the different vibration pattern.
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Using seismic waves to study the earth’s interior
1) Identify points on the graph of seismic wave velocity where velocity values deviate significantly from
expected values and explain what these deviations might mean about the composition and state of the
material. Identify at least three deviations.
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Layers of the earth
Identify by name each of the layers labeled A, B, C, D, E on the figure. A, B, C represent layers
recognized by composition. D and E are layers based on structural intregrity. Also answer these
questions:
1) Which is the least dense of A, B, and C?
2) Which layer is metallic?
3) Which layer is partially molten?
4) Which layer has a part that is completely molten?
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Seafloor spreading and plate boundaries
1) Identify the letter corresponding to each of the following and write it next to the term. Letters can be
used more than once.
asthenosphere
lithosphere (plate)
location of a deep sea trench
seafloor spreading
decompression melting
subduction
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2) Use the two maps below and identify one example of each type of plate boundary (divergent,
convergent, transform). For each example, list the two plates involved and at least one type of seafloor
or landscape feature you would predict to exist at that boundary. You’ll have to look back and forth
between the two maps because one shows plate names and the other shows the directions that they are
moving.
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Lab 1
Oceanography 101
Name:
Lab day/time:
MAPS
Objectives:
1) Review the longitude and latitude coordinate system.
2) Become familiar with the major seafloor features.
3) Learn how to use a bathymetric map.
4) Learn how to use a nautical chart.
Instructions:
We will work with three kinds of maps: world maps with physiographic drawings of features,
bathymetric maps which show submarine topography, and nautical charts which show coastlines, depths
soundings, and shipping channels. It may also be helpful to refer to the maps in your textbook.
Do Part I and II first, in either order, and then do Part III.
Introduction:
Oceanographers use maps extensively to convey information about the oceans such as features
on the sea floor, currents on the surface, or the distribution of organisms. In this lab we are concerned
with maps representing sea floor features.
PART I: Map Coordinates and Seafloor Features
Use the physiographic map of the ocean basins for this portion of the lab.
A. Latitude and Longitude
The Earth rotates about an axis passing through the north and south poles. Longitude lines
(called meridians) divide the earth into 360 equal sections (degrees) joining at the poles. Think of these
as analogous to sections of an orange. Latitude lines (called parallels) divide the Earth into 180 equal
angles perpendicular to the longitude lines.
Furthermore, the Earth is divided into hemispheres. Latitude lines range from 0 to 90 N in the
northern hemisphere and from 0 to 90 S in the southern hemisphere. Likewise, longitude lines range
from 0 to 180 E in the eastern hemisphere and 0 to 180 W in the western hemisphere.
Each degree () of longitude and latitude are divided into 60 smaller units called minutes (’) and
each minute is divided into 60 smaller units called seconds (”).
Longitude and latitude lines thus define a grid on the Earth on which any location can be
pinpointed with excellent precision. The convention is to list latitude first and then longitude. The best
way to understand this system is to start looking at a map (longitude/latitude is reviewed, with figures on
pages 37-38 of your text).
1) Find 0 longitude. This line of longitude is called the prime meridian (0) and passes directly
through London, England for historical reasons. Travel west until you reach the longitude which passes
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through Tacoma, WA. What is the longitude? After the degree number of the longitude always put an E
or W to indicate the appropriate hemisphere.
Now find the equator (0 latitude). Travel north (into the northern hemisphere) until you reach the
latitude which passes through Tacoma. What is the latitude of Tacoma? As with the longitude value be
sure to indicate which hemisphere we are in, N or S.
2) Locate the following points on the Earth and name the most obvious feature there.
143W, 57N
145E, 12N
40W, 70S
3) Degrees of latitude are constant in distance (111 km, for future reference). Degrees of longitude are
not. Explain what happens to degrees of longitude with respect to their length as they approach the
poles. (You may want to look at the globe in the front of the room.)
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4) Projecting the surface of a sphere (the Earth) on a flat medium may be done in many ways. A very
common projection is called the Mercator projection, a version of which the map you are studying uses.
In order to project a spherical surface on a flat piece of paper some areas of the world are distorted. By
studying the map, explain which latitudes are distorted by the Mercator projection, and exactly how they
are distorted.
B. Seafloor Features
Fill in the table with information you can observe from the small physiographic map and the
large bathymetric map that shows the oceans basins. Some information you may have to find in your
text book. Do not be too worried at this point about understanding the geologic origin of these features.
The purpose of this work is for you to simply become familiar with the wide variety of submarine
features. Next week in lab we will learn about the amazing processes that create these forms on the
seafloor.
FEATURE
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
(shape, depth, etc.)
mid ocean ridges (MORs)
trenches
abyssal plains (or basins)
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NAME TWO EXAMPLES
(from any ocean basin)
fracture zones
seamount chains and island
chains
not labeled on map so you don’t need to
fill in
continental shelves
PART II: Bathymetric Maps
Use the colorful bathymetric map for this portion of the lab. What you see before you is a map
that depicts submarine relief, that is the three dimensional surface of the seafloor. The map is only two
dimensional, however. How it communicates three dimensional information is by isobaths, which are
lines that represent points of equal depth below sea level. Isobaths are also called contour lines,
although this terminology is usually restricted to a similar type of map (a topographic map) which shows
three dimensional relief above sea level.
The depth between isobaths is called the contour interval and will vary depending on the map.
On this map the contour interval is 50 meters. One implication of this fact is that the closest you can
determine the actual depth of any given point on the map is to 50 meters (estimations between isobaths
are meaningless; the map contains no information in those regions).
An added bonus of this map is that certain depths have been color coded. For example, depths
between 3000 m and 3100 m are colored a very light green. Depths between 3000-4000 meters are
colored various shades of green. This color code makes it easier to imagine the bathymetry of the
seafloor.
A. Profile
This map shows us a small segment of the mid Atlantic ridge where seafloor spreading occurs.
In order get a better understanding of the shape of the mid Atlantic ridge we will plot a crude profile (or
transect) of the feature. A profile is simply a side view, as if we were to cut the ridge in half and then
look at it sideways. In this case we will make a profile which cuts across the ridge from west to east.
Use the graph paper provided (at the end of the lab) and label the vertical axis depth and the
horizontal axis distance. Choose a latitude line and label your graph paper as such (e.g. profile of ridge
at 2410’).
 Determine the range of depth shown on the bathymetric chart. Label your vertical axis with depth
values (in meters) that will accommodate this range.
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 Determine the horizontal distance in meters represented by the ridge and label the horizontal axis to
accommodate this distance. At this latitude 1 longitude equals about 100 km, so 1 minute of
longitude equals 100/60=1.7 km.
 Start at the west side of the ridge and move east. Depth changes as color changes. On your graph
paper draw a line approximating the changes in depth as you travel from west to east.
B. Discussion
Briefly discuss in a sentence or two the cross sectional shape (profile) of the mid Atlantic ridge.
PART III: Nautical Charts
On the following page is a nautical chart of Commencement Bay, Tacoma, WA. This kind of
map is used for navigational purposes. The numbers in the bay are soundings of the depth and are
reported in fathoms below mean low tide sea level (1 fathom=6 feet). For your information, 1
meter=3.28 feet.
A. Conversions
1) What is the approximate depth at the third “M” in Commencement on your chart?
In fathoms:
In feet:
In meters:
B. Commencement Bay Bathymetry
1) Find the ferry route for the Vashon Island Ferry (from Point Defiance) represented by a line on the
chart. What is the shallowest depth along this route?
2) If you had a boat with a draft of 20 feet would you be able to bring it into the City Waterway (SE
corner of Commencement Bay)? Partway?
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3) Ship speed is generally reported in knots which is nautical miles per hour. A nautical mile is a
distance unit used on the sea and is a little longer than a conventional mile (1 nautical mile = 1852 m, 1
statute mile = 1609 m). If you are in a skiff traveling at 1.5 knots how long would it take you to get
from Browns Point to Point Defiance (remember, rate=distance/time)? A scale showing nautical miles
is provided at the top of the map. SHOW WORK.
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Lab 2
Oceanography 101
Name:
Lab day/time:
The Physical Behavior of Water in the Oceans
Objectives:
1) Understand the difference between latent heat and sensible heat.
2) Understand what a thermocline is, and how the thermocline in the ocean serves as a barrier
between deep waters and shallow waters.
3) Understand the variables that control the density of water in the oceans and how changes in these
variables can cause thermohaline circulation.
Instructions:
In this lab the class will break into six groups and conduct each of the following three experiments.
Two stations are set up for experiment 1. For the other two experiments, claim a tank and table space
and get the appropriate supplies from the front of the room as you require them. Clean and return the
supplies when you are finished with them.
Experiment 1: Latent heat and sensible heat
Water has a heat capacity of 1 calorie per gram per ºC. Heat added to water when it is in the liquid
state is called sensible heat and it causes a temperature change. Heat required to change the state of
water (from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, for example) does not change the temperature and is called
latent heat. In this experiment we will investigate the temperatures at which water changes states and
also observe firsthand the character of latent heat and sensible heat.
1) Fill the beaker with packed ice to the 100 ml level. Place it on the hot plate and position the
thermometer within the beaker so that the bulb lays about 2 cm off the bottom of the beaker. Turn the
hot plate on the highest setting.
2) At one minute intervals record the temperature on the next page. Before each reading use a stirring
rod to mix up the contents of the beaker thoroughly. Continue to record as the ice melts, heats up and
ultimately boils (should take about 15 minutes). After the water has begun to fully boil (about 100
degrees) record the temperature for an additional 4 minutes.
3) Plot your data on the graph paper provided.
4) Answer the following questions:
Briefly describe the general pattern of temperature change seen on your plot.
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What is the difference between sensible heat and latent heat?
What kind of heat do the plateaus represent?
What kind of heat does the steeper section represent?
If the temperature isn’t changing during a phase change (change in state) what’s happening to it?
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Time
T (º C)
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Experiment 2: The thermocline
In most regions in the ocean there is an abrupt decrease in temperature between the surface water
and the deep water. We call this decrease the thermocline. The thermocline varies in depth but
generally occurs between 100 and 1000 m. This rapid decrease in temperature acts as a barrier between
shallow and deep water masses, preventing them from mixing. This segregation helps establish the
fundamental structure of water masses in the ocean: the voluminous deep zone and the thin surface zone.
To see firsthand how water masses of two different temperatures may coexist without mixing we
will conduct the experiment described below.
1) Fill the tank with 5 cm of warm tap water. Set the ruler on end in the corner of the tank to measure
the depth.
2) Fill a bucket half way with ice and then two thirds full with cool tap water. Elevate the bucket next
the tank.
3) Establish a siphon from the bucket to the tank and hold the end of the hose in the middle of the tank
on the bottom. Gently allow the water to flow from the bucket to the tank. By gently I mean squeeze
the end of the tube so that the outflow is not too rapid. Allow the tank to fill to about the 8 cm level,
squeeze the end of the tube shut, and slowly remove it.
4) Measure the temperature at 1 cm increments starting at the bottom. The bottom of the bulb of the
thermometer should be at the desired depth. Record the data in the table on the next page and make a
plot of temperature against depth on the graph paper provided.
5) Take some food color, rub a few drops between your fingers and then rinse your fingers in the top
layer of the water. Do this in several areas until the top layer is well colored.
6) Blow on the top of the water gently, then hard. Now use the mixing stick and slowly stir the top
layer only of the water. Note what happens with each disturbance.
7) Answer the following questions.
Is there an abrupt decrease in temperature with depth (i.e. a thermocline)?
Does blowing on the surface cause any mixing the layers?
How about stirring?
What do the results of this experiment imply about mixing between the deep zone and the surface zone
in the ocean?
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Depth (cm)
T (º C)
surface
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm
4 cm
5 cm
6 cm
7 cm
8 cm
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Experiment 3: Generation of deep, dense water masses
The deep water masses in the ocean are denser than the surface waters. Why and where is this
dense water generated and how does it get to the deep zone? This experiment focuses on answering
these questions.
1) Fill the tank 10 cm deep with tap water.
2) Prepare 500 ml of a 35 o/oo salt solution and cool it on ice to 10º C. Pour the solution into the
cylinder, measure the density with the hydrometer, and record it below.
Density:
Pour the solution back into the flask and add food color until it is strongly pigmented.
3) Hold the flask at a level near the top of the tank and against the glass and slowly pour it in tank.
4) Briefly discuss what happened to the cold, saline water as it flows into the tank. (Does it mix with
the warmer tap water or remain as a distinct water mass?)
5) Now that we’ve discovered why dense water masses reside in the deep zone we need to address the
question of how dense water masses are created in the first place. What climatic conditions would you
expect to generate cold water masses (and therefore dense) in the surface waters?
Where geographically do such climates exist?
6) There is another way to produce dense water masses without the influence of climate. To understand
this concept we need to work with a temperature-salinity (T-S) diagram.
On the T-S diagram on the next page plot the following water masses as points by using their
temperature and salinity values. Be very precise in plotting the points or you won’t be able to
answer the questions below.
water mass 1: 4º C, 34.00 o/oo
water mass 2: 24º C, 39.5 o/oo
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How do the densities of these water masses compare?
If both were surface waters would they float at the same level? Why?
Now “mix” these two water masses by taking the average temperature and the average salinity and
plotting those values.
How does the density of the new water mass compare to the density of its two parents?
What would happen to this new water mass if it were surrounded by less dense waters (i.e. the parent
water masses)?
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Oceanography 101
Lab 3
Name:
Lab day/time:
Currents
Objectives:
1) Describe what forces drive the surface currents of the ocean
2) Learn the names of important Pacific Ocean and northern hemisphere surface currents.
3) Learn the classification categories of surface currents.
4) Learn which surface currents carry large amount of heat from the equator towards the higher
latitudes.
5) Identify the atmospheric and oceanic attributes of ENSO and how to determine which part of the
cycle is occurring at present.
6) Review what causes water masses to sink into the deep ocean.
7) Understand what happens to deep water masses once they sink to depth.
Instructions:
The first part of the lab is a worksheet where you will use your book as a primary reference. For the
second part you’ll use a NOAA website to learn about the ENSO cycle. The third part is an experiment
that will help visualize deep ocean circulation. Follow the instructions for each part carefully.
PART I: Surface currents
In this part of the lab we will focus on the primary surface currents in the oceans and their
characteristics, such as direction of travel and temperature. Surface currents have a huge impact on
ocean mixing and climate. For example, warm currents carry heat from the equator toward the poles,
significantly warming certain high latitude regions.
1) Using Figure 9.5 on p. 222 of your text, draw on the world map at the end of the lab the major
geostrophic gyres (5 of them) in the ocean basins and label them. Also include the world’s only
circumpolar current and label it.
2) In the tables below note the characteristics of each surface current. Consult the same figure as in 1)
to identify the currents and then use the information below to determine the attributes of each.
 Temperature
Surface water becomes warm at the equator. In the northern hemisphere, water circulating in the gyres
remains warm until it reaches an eastern boundary current. In the southern hemisphere the circulating
water loses most of its heat once it hits the West Wind Drift.
 Type (if the current is not part of a gyre or a counter current you don’t need to classify it)
Eastern boundary current
Western boundary current
Transverse current
Circumpolar
Counter current
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 Driving forces
Winds drive the transverse currents. For each transverse current identify the surface wind responsible
for it (e.g. Trades, Westerlies, or Polar Easterlies). Counter currents are caused simply by gravity; water
that accumulates on the western margins of ocean basins flows back eastward (downhill) as a counter
current.
The minor currents we will disregard (the boxes are shaded).
North Pacific
Current
Temperature
(warm or cold)
type of current
(from list
above)
driving force
Kurashio
North Pacific
California
North Equatorial
Equatorial Counter
South Pacific
Current
Temperature
(warm or cold)
type of current
(from list
above)
South Equatorial
East Australian
West Wind Drift
Peru
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driving force
North Atlantic
Current
Temperature
(warm or cold)
type of current
(from list
above)
driving force
Gulf Stream
North Atlantic
Canary
North Equatorial
Equatorial Counter
Questions:
1) Debris or spilled cargo from vessels in the western Pacific often washes up on the beaches of the
Pacific Northwest. How do these materials get here (i.e. which currents transport them)?
2) The climate of Great Britain is much milder than similar latitudes in central Canada or Asia. The
same is true of Japan; it has a much warmer climate than landlocked regions of similar latitude. Explain
how ocean currents could affect the climate so drastically.
3) Marine detritus (garbage) accumulates in a large area east of Hawaii called the Great Pacific Garbage
Patch (a smaller patch lays to the west). Why doesn’t it get dispersed once it’s in this area?
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PART II: ENSO
Use the Internet to access graphs that display current atmospheric and oceanic conditions in the
southern Pacific Ocean. By analyzing this information for anomalies, you will be able to identify
whether or not we are in a warm period (El Nino) or a cold period (La Nina). Oceanographers rarely rely
on only actual sea surface temperature or wind speed data to analyze ocean and atmospheric conditions.
Instead, they analyze anomalies. An anomaly is defined as a difference from normal conditions.
“Normal” conditions are determined by averaging the observed conditions over a long period of time.
Characteristics such as sea surface temperature (SST), atmospheric pressure, depth of the thermocline,
and sea surface height exhibit some variability over the course of a year due to seasonal changes in solar
heating and other factors. However, major departures from average or normal conditions are considered
anomalies. For oceanographic purposes, anomalies are determined based on comparison with a 30-year
running average. An area of the ocean that has a positive SST anomaly, for example, indicates warmer
than normal water. Conversely, an area that has a negative anomaly indicates that the water is cooler
than normal.
Before you begin, use your lecture notes or textbook to complete the following table.
Normal
El Nino
Wind direction (from east,
west, or weak)
Wind speed
Surface water temp in west
Pacific
Surface water temp in east
Pacific
Thermocline depth in W.
Pacific
Thermocline depth in E.
Pacific
Sea surface height W.
Pacific
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La Nina
Navigate to NOAA’s TAO website to answer the questions below. http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/
1) What does TAO stand for?
2) Click on the Project Overview tab. Under Scope and relevance, use The TAO story and the Virtual
tour links to answer the following questions.
a. In what year was TAO completed?
b. TAO uses “real time data from moored ocean buoys for improved detection, understanding, and
prediction of El Nino and La Nina.” What is real time data? 2
c. What is a moored buoy?
d. How is data from the buoys made available to ocean scientists?
e. Approximately how many buoys make up the TAO array?
f. Describe where the buoys are located and how they are arranged.
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3) Click on the Data display tab and choose Lat Lon plots. Select Sea Surface Temperature as your
parameter. Select the Monthly button. Ensure that the Latest month and year are selected before you
click Make Plot. Once your plot has been generated, click on it to see the full-sized version.
a. What is the mean sea surface temperature on the equator near South America (~100° W)?
b. Now look at the anomaly plot. Has the sea surface temperature in the past month been average,
warmer than normal or colder than normal near South America? How did you make this
determination?
4) Make the latest monthly plot of Dynamic Height to look at sea surface height.
a. Is sea surface height higher or lower than normal at 100 °W? By how much?
b. Is sea surface height higher or lower than normal at 150 °E? By how much?
5) Make the latest monthly plot of Wind Speed. Examine the arrows on the wind speed plot (look
closely; sometimes they blend in).
a. In which direction is the wind blowing (i.e. in which direction are the arrows pointing)?
b. Are the winds blowing faster or slower than usual near South America?
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6) Based on the table you completed and the data you’ve examined, do you think we’re in/closer to an
El Nino event or a La Nina event? Why?
PART III: Thermohaline circulation
In the “Physical Behavior of Water” lab we did an experiment in which we determined how deep
water masses in the oceans are generated.
1) As review, a change in what two basic properties can cause a water mass to sink?
2) What are two examples of natural processes that can create water masses that are capable of sinking?
(I.e.,what processes can change the two properties in question 1?)
3) Given that those water masses don’t stay on the seafloor forever, we are left with two important
theoretical questions:
1) what happens to them once they hit the seafloor, and
2) how does the water get back up
This simple experiment will help answer those questions as well as provide a basic picture of how the
oceans as a whole circulate.
a) Set the experiment up following this procedure.



Fill your small beaker with ice and clip it in place in the large beaker.
Fill the large beaker up to ~900 mL (or nearly to the top of the small beaker to the brim) with
cool water.
Orient the heat lamp so that it will shine directly on the side of the large beaker that is opposite
from the small beaker.
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

Turn the heat lamp on for about one minute and then take a dropper full of the food color, place
the tip at the juncture of the suspended beaker and side of the larger beaker, and slowly drip the
entire contents into the water.
Watch your system for about 5-7 minutes (sometimes it helps to hold something white behind
the beaker so the food color is more visible).
b) Describe briefly the flow path that the colored water took. Accompany your explanation with an
illustration.
Where did the water travel most quickly?
Where did the water travel more slowly?
What does the iced side of the beaker represent in the real world?
What does the heat lamp side represent?
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Lab 4
Oceanography 101
Name:
Lab day/time:
Waves
Objectives:
1) Understand the different components of a wave and the variables that describe a wave.
2) Understand the difference between deep water waves and shallow water waves, specifically what
variables control the speed of each of these types of waves.
3) Understand what an internal waves is, how one might be generated, and how their behavior
differs from surface waves.
4) Understand how the moon, the sun, and the spin of the earth generate tidal displacement (i.e. the
tidal waves).
Instructions:
Follow the directions in each part of the lab. There will also be verbal directions about the order in
which to do the different parts. Use the equations below when needed.
Deep water wave equations: C=L/T, or C=1.56T, or C=1.3L
C is celerity (equivalent to velocity)
L is wavelength
T is period
(These units are for meters- to convert to cm multiply by 100)
Shallow water wave equation: C=gd
C is celerity (equivalent to velocity)
g = 980 cm/sec2 (the gravitational attraction of the earth)
d = depth of water in cm
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PART I: Wave properties
1) Label the different parts of the wave shown below, using the following attributes.
wavelength
orbital path of water molecules
still water level
crest
trough
height
2) What does the period (T) of a wave describe? Consult your book if you are unclear on this concept.
3) Consider a wave with a wavelength of 100 m and a period of 8 seconds. If this wave is traveling in
water 60 m deep is it a shallow water wave or deep water wave?
What is the velocity of the above wave?
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PART II: More on wave properties
Use the large, long wave tank for this section. Make sure the water level is about ¼ of the way up
the shoreline insert. If it’s not have the instructor add or remove water. First, use a transparency pen to
draw a line of the outside of the tank along the still water level. This line will serve as a visual
reference.
1) Make small waves by lifting the wedge up about four inches and then pushing down the same.
Observe the motion of the float relative to the still water level line. Draw the motion it follows and
describe it as well. Is it: forward? backward? back and forth? circular? elliptical? The float follows the
motion of the water as the wave passes through it.
2) Draw the shape of the wave on the surface of the water and label the parts you can observe following
the attributes and vocabulary in Part I.
3) Make a large displacement by lifting the wedge to the top of the tank and pushing quickly all the way
down. This motion should generate several waves. Waves of similar height and wavelength that travel
together are called wave trains. Most wind generated waves in the oceans travel in trains. The first
wave in a train is constanbtly dying as it’s energy is spent displacing the water in front. However, as it
disappears a new wave appear at the end of the train (figure below).
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What does this behavior say about the velocity of an individual wave versus the wave train as a whole?
Watch the two waves travel from the wedge to the shore insert. What happens to the wave in front as it
approaches the insert? Does it stay the same size across the whole tank?
4) In order to determine the velocity of these waves using established equations, you need to classify
them as shallow water waves or deep water waves:
Measure the wavelength by noting the position of the second wave just as the first crosses a reference
point such as the vertical part of the shore insert, or any other reference point. Now measure the depth
of the water. The equations describing the velocity for deep water waves are very accurate if the water
depth to wavelength ratio is >1/2. They are still pretty good if the water depth to wavelength ratio is
>1/4 (accuracy within 5%) but get rapidly worse beyond this point. Is the depth to wavelength such that
you could use deep water wave velocity equations, or do you need to use shallow water wave equations?
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Now calculate the velocity.
Once you have determined the velocity by equation, now try measuring it directly by timing how long it
takes a wave crest to travel from the wedge plunger to the edge of the shore insert. This distance is
about 170 cm, so you can determine an answer in cm/s.
Is your answer close to the velocity calculated by equation?
PART III: Determination of velocity for shallow water waves
Progressive waves begin to feel the friction of the seafloor at depths that are 1/2 their wavelength
and slow down as a result. When the depth becomes 1/20 or less of the wavelength the velocity of the
wave is even more strongly affected, and we classify such waves as shallow water waves. In this
experiment we will investigate exactly how depth effects wave velocity for shallow water waves.
1) We will create shallow water waves in a tank and measure their velocity as they travel from one end
to the other. Since velocity=distance/time, the first variable we need to find is the length of the tank
(distance). Measure the inside length of the tank in centimeters and then multiply it by two.
Length =
Length x2 =
In order to create a shallow water wave, fill the aquarium with water to a depth of 1 cm. Lift one end
about 3 cm and quickly but gently set it back down. The wave formed is a shallow water wave. Let the
wave stabilize by crossing the tank once and then measure the time it takes for the wave to travel two
lengths of the tank. Be as precise as possible in measuring the time. Repeat the procedure twice more
and record your data from the three runs in the table below. Now repeat the procedure with the tank
filled to the water depths of 2, 3, and 4 cm.
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Water
depth
travel
time (1)
travel
time (2)
travel
time (3)
average of
runs 1, 2, and 3
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm
4 cm
Now calculate the velocity of the waves at each depth using the data you just collected. Velocity =
distance/average travel time.
water depth
Velocity
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm
4 cm
The term shallow water wave means that the seafloor strongly effects the velocity of the wave (this
occurs when the depth<1/20 of the wavelength). In fact, the depth of water completely controls the
velocity of shallow water waves. We can say the velocity of shallow water waves is fixed relative to
water depth. The following equation describes this relationship, from which a theoretical velocity for
any shallow water wave can be derived.
C=gd
C= celerity (equivalent to velocity)
g = 980 cm/sec2 (the gravitational attraction of the earth)
d = depth of water in cm
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Calculate the theoretical velocity for each depth and record it in the table below.
water depth
theoretical
velocity
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm
4 cm
On the graph paper provided, plot and label both the measured and theoretical shallow water wave
velocities against depth. You will need to add scales to the graph. When you are finished with your plot
answer the following questions.
a) How does the velocity change with water depth?
b) Do your experimental data support the theory that depth controls the velocity of shallow water
waves? How does this differ from deep water waves (what variable controls their velocity- see
velocity equation for deep water waves)?
c) Is the change in velocity with depth linear (in other words, is the line you plotted perfectly straight or
slightly curved)? Another way of asking this question is: does the change from 3 to 4 cm depth
affect the wave velocity as much as the change from 1 to 2 cm depth? Yet another way is asking this
question is, is the equation for velocity for a shallow water wave a linear equation or an exponential
one?
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PART IV: Breaking waves
Make sure the water level is about ¾ up the shore insert for this experiment. If it’s not have the
instructor add or remove water. Also, remove the wave buffer laying on the shore.
Waves break on shore when the wave height to water depth ration reaches 1/7.
1) Describe what happens to the height of the wave as it enters shallow water. Draw the shape of
the wave crest in both deep water and shallow water to contrast the two.
2) Describe what happens to the wave crest as the wave breaks. What part of the wave deteriorates
in shape to create the turbulence of the whitewater?
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PART V: Internal Waves
Internal waves are waves that occur in water between two layers of different densities. They are
caused by a disturbance between the layers. We will produce in the tank two distinct layers of water and
generate an internal wave between them. Follow the instructions below. Be careful: after we generate
an internal wave it rapidly becomes difficult to observe because of mixing between the two layers, so
keep on your toes with respect to making the necessary observations.
1) Fill the tank to a depth of 10 cm with warm tap water.
2) Prepare a saline solution of 60 o/oo. Add about 15 drops of food color.
3) Hold the flask at the end of the tank against the glass about half way up. Pour the brine at a
moderate rate so that it flows down the glass into the water.
4) Immediately after the flask is emptied look at the boundary between the two water masses in the
tank. Identify a wave crest(s).
a) describe the relative speed at which the crests and troughs are traveling (compared to your
earlier experiment for example)
b) estimate the speed at which the internal wave is traveling by timing how long it takes the
wave crest to travel a certain distance.
c) sketch a side view of the tank illustrating the internal wave.
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Lab 5
Oceanography 101
Name:
Lab day/time:
Objectives
1) To learn how to use a microscope.
2) To observe and identify living plankton.
PART I: PLANKTON
Plankton are known as the “drifters” or “wanderers” of the pelagic realm. Though most are too
small to see without the aid of a microscope, they are of utmost importance in marine food webs.
Indeed, the tiny producers are the foundation for most marine food webs. As such, they have the ability
to transform sunlight energy into carbohydrates. Phytoplankton are responsible for producing 90-96% of
oceanic biomass! In doing so, they produce large amounts of oxygen (O2) and consume carbon dioxide
(CO2). Because they require sunlight energy to photosynthesize, phytoplankton possess many
adaptations that allow them to remain neutrally buoyant in the water. For example, they have small
bodies (which gives them a large surface area to volume ratio), long, thin appendages, and may also
manufacture small amounts of fat & oil.
Zooplankton are animal plankton that are generally larger than their photosynthetic counterparts.
Zooplankton are the primary consumers of the ocean. Many of them are vegetarians, feeding only on
phytoplankton, while others are carnivores and eat other tiny animals. Though plankton are defined by
their inability to move against currents and waves, most zooplankton have some control over their
vertical position in the water column. They participate in a huge vertical migration event on a daily
basis. At dusk, they ascend into the photic zone in search of food, and at dawn they retreat to the aphotic
zone to hide from predators.
Zooplankton can be classified as holoplankton or meroplankton. Holoplankton are those that
spend their entire lives as a drifting organism (i.e. copepods or jellyfish), while meroplankton only spend
part of their lives (usually the larval phase) as plankton. Examples of meroplankton include sea stars,
coral, and even tuna!
Plankton samples are obtained using conical, woven nets with very fine meshes. One end of the net (the
“cod end”) is equipped with a collection receptacle while the other end is outfitted to a tow rope. The net
may be lowered into the water to a predetermined depth and towed vertically, or it may be towed
horizontally through the water attached either to a sophisticated oceanographic research vessel or a
human-powered kayak. All the organisms encountered by the net are directed into the collection bucket
and can easily be retrieved.
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Instructions:
1) For the light microscopes the instructor will prepare slides for viewing. For the dissecting
microscopes, scoop or drop some plankton from the sample jar into your petri dish. Add a few drops
of dilute detergent and then set under the objective lens.
2) Using the microscopes, search for at least 2 different types each of phytoplankton and zooplankton.
Observe, classify, identify, and sketch them.
PHYTOPLANKTON
1) Identification: ____________________________
Sketch:
2) Identification: ____________________________
Sketch:
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ZOOPLANKTON
1) Identification: ____________________________ Holoplankton or meroplankton? (circle one)
Sketch:
2) Identification: ____________________________ Holoplankton or meroplankton?
Sketch:
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3) Were any of your specimens moving? Describe their movements.
4) Calculate the volume of water that was filtered to obtain the plankton sample. The net was lowered
to a depth of 5 meters and brought to the surface. This was done four times. The area of a circle = πr2.
You may discount the volume of the conical net itself. Show your work!
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Lab 6
Oceanography 101
Name:
Lab day/time:
Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics
Objectives:
1) Review the composition and contrasts in density of the materials composing the different layers
of the earth.
2) Understand the principle of isostacy and it helps determine the elative elevations on the surface
of the earth.
3) Understand the three principle types of plate boundaries and the features associated with them.
4) Understand the rates at which plate movement occurs.
Instructions:
The different parts of this lab may be completed in any order.
Introduction:
The purpose of this lab is to explore some aspects of earth structure and plate tectonic theory,
which we have covered to some extent in lecture and reading. In several of the sections in this lab you
will need to use figures in your textbook.
PART I: Density earth materials
Density is the measure of how much mass is in a given volume and is expressed in grams (mass) per
cubic centimeter (volume), or g/cm3 for short. You have heard me telling you in lecture that the earth is
composed of chemically distinct layers of increasing density. But why take my word for it? One way to
test these claims is to make direct density measurements of materials believed to represent the different
regions of the earth.
1) List the three chemically distinct layers of the earth below in order of increasing density.
Listed below are samples of rocks that we can use as representative of these layers. [In the case of
the crust and mantle we can directly observe that they are made of these materials, but for the core it is
only an inference.] To determine the density of each sample, we must find the mass and volume of a
sample of each. Follow the directions below.
a) iron: approximates the composition of the earth’s core
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b) olivine: the mantle is composed largely of this mineral
c) basalt: oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt
d) granite: continental crust is composed primarily of granite
Determine the mass of each sample.
Weigh it (make sure it is dry). Record the mass in the table on the next page.
Determine the volume of each sample.
Fill the beaker with enough water to cover the sample and put the sample in and mark the level
of the water on the side of the beaker with a piece of tape.
Now carefully remove the sample without splashing too much.
Carefully pour water from the graduated cylinder into the beaker until the water has risen to the
original level.
Record the amount of displaced water in the table.
Pour all of the water out, peel off the tape marks, and dry off the samples for the next group.
Density calculation:
VALUES
IRON
OLIVINE
BASALT
GRANITE
mass of sample (g)
volume of sample
(volume of the water it displaces)
density [mass (g) divided by volume
(cm3)]
2) Based on your results, does it make sense that the crust lies on top of the mantle which lies on top of
the core? Why (explain)?
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PART II: Isostacy
Isostacy is a fancy work to describe the principle of buoyancy. It states that in order for an
object to float in a medium (liquid for example), that object must displace a volume of equal mass. For
example, if we look at an ice cube floating in water part of the ice cube is submerged. That submerged
part of the ice cube has displaced a volume of water, the mass of which is equal to the mass of the whole
cube. The denser an object is the more mass it has and in order to float it must displace a large volume
of whatever it is floating in. As a result, a dense object will sit low relative to the surface of the medium
it is floating in. If the object is so dense that it is actually denser than the medium in which it sits, then it
will simply sink.
This experiment will illustrate how two objects of different densities float at different levels
relative to the surface of the water. We will use the results to understand how the difference in density
of continental versus oceanic crust accounts in part for the presence of ocean basins.
1) Take a look at the pieces of wood and styrofoam. They are of about equal volume. Which is
heavier?
Which, therefore, is denser?
Now put them in the tank and observe and note (write it down!) which displaces a greater volume of
water. Also describe which object sits lower relative to the water level. These are qualitative
observations; you do not have to note exact volumes.
2) The lithosphere (crust plus uppermost mantle) of the earth floats on the partially molten underlying
asthenosphere (partially molten layer of upper mantle) and obeys the principles of isostacy. Given your
experimental results about the density of oceanic and continental crust, and what you observed about
isostacy in the previous question, briefly explain both the presence of the ocean basins on earth (why
such large areas of the earth’s surface lie at such low elevations) and, just as importantly, the presence of
high area, the continents. Use the appropriate terminology in your discussion (e.g. oceanic crust,
continental crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, density, isostacy). Also use an illustration to aid
your explanation.
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PART III: The Plates
1) The plate boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate is divergent (see p. 66,
in your text for a map). With this in mind what is happening to the size of the Atlantic Ocean?
2) Briefly explain the process of subduction and include a simple sketch to aid your explanation.
Subduction zones occur along practically the entire perimeter of the Pacific Ocean. Knowing this what
is happening to the size of the Pacific Ocean? Why?
PART IV: Rates of plate motion
There are a number of ways the rate at which two plates are spreading may be measured. For
example, satellites can locate precisely two points on two different plates and measure directly the rate
at which they are spreading apart. We will use a cruder method here. Use the large map of the world
provided and follow the instructions below.
Approximately 135 million years ago (135,000,000) the continents of South America and Africa
were joined. They then rifted apart and a divergent plate margin formed between them and they have
been spreading apart ever since.
By measuring the distance between the continents, and using the fact that they rifted apart 135
million years ago, determine the rate at which the Atlantic Ocean is opening (in centimeters per year).
You will need to use the rate equation, rate=distance/time.
To determine distance measure the distance between the margins of South America and Africa at
the equator. Remember that at the equator one degree of longitude equals 111 km.
Time: 135 million years
Distance:
Rate:
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PART V: Plate boundaries and sea floor features
1) On the world map, find the seafloor features listed in the table below. Use the geologic processes
table as a key to identify what kind of geologic process created each feature you list.
KEY:
seafloor feature
mid ocean ridge
oceanic trench
continental collision
island arc
fracture zone
transform plate boundary
hot spot island chain
geologic process
convergence of two plates with
continental crust
plate moving over an upwelling
mantle plume
sea floor spreading
strike slip (transform) motion
between plates
subduction (convergence of two
plates, at least one of which is
oceanic)
In the Pacific Ocean:
sea floor feature
East Pacific Rise
Aleutian Islands
Hawaiian Islands
Peru-Chile Trench
Clipperton Fracture Zone
Japan
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geologic process
In the Atlantic Ocean
seafloor feature
geologic process
Mid Atlantic Ridge
West Indies
2) We are all probably familiar with the fact that volcanoes are abundant in the Cascade Mountains (e.g.
Rainier, Hood, St. Helens, Adams, Baker etc). A small plate off the coast of Washington and Oregon,
the Juan de Fuca Plate (refer to p. 71 in your text for a figure) is moving eastward relative to the North
American Plate. What kind of plate boundary does this motion dictate must exist between these two
plates (i.e. divergent, convergent, transform)?
How can you use this observation to explain the presence of many volcanoes in western Washington and
Oregon?
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Lab 7
Oceanography 101
Name:
Lab day/time:
Continental Margins, Submarine Canyons, and Turbidity Currents
Objectives:
1) Describe the difference between passive and active continental margins.
2) Identify the type of margin that borders the Pacific Northwest.
3) Describe submarine canyons and submarine fans.
4) Describe a turbidity current and draw parallels between the theory of how turbidity currents work
and a small-scale physical model of a tubidity current.
5) Describe the role turbidity currents play in seafloor sedimentation, especially the formation of
submarine fans.
Instructions:
The different parts of this lab may be completed in any order.
Introduction:
Complete PART I and then watch the demonstration for PART II and answer PART II questions.
PART I: Continental margins
Continental marigns are either passive or active. We call a margin active if it coincides with a
plate boundary such as a subduction zone or transform fault.
1) Is the Washington coast an active or passive margin?
All margins exhibit the following bathymetric features, illustrated below: continental shelf, shelf
break, continental slope, continental rise.
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The shelf and adjacent features are continental crust blanketed by sediments that are dominantly
terrigenous in origin (from land) such as sand and silt. Passive margins exhibit broad shelves, active
margins narrow ones. At active margins processes such as convergence keep the margin narrow by
either subducting sediment or pushing it back on land in the form of an accretionary wedge.
The slope and rise of the margins are mostly sediment that traveled down from the shelf. This
transportation can occur by submarine slides and slumps but also by turbidity currents and other types
of sediment gravity flows. Sediment gravity flows are mixtures of water and sediments that flow like
avalanches, driven by gravity. Turbidity currents are frequent on the continental shelves as sediment
builds up on the edge and then collapses, often traveling down submarine canyons (see below figure
and also the previous one).
2) Describe the shape and location of a typical submarine canyon (use textbook or notes).
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Turbidity currents flow down the slope and rise because they are denser than the surrounding
water. Densities of turbidity currents range from 1.03 g/ cm3 to 1.3 g/ cm3. The velocity of a current is
controlled partly by its density: the greater the density the faster it goes. See the figure below of a
turbitity current and the different parts of it. Turbidity currents may travel as fast as 90 km/hr and travel
as far as 700 km! In fact, submarine canyons themselves appear to be in part eroded by turbidity
currents.
The tail of the current actually goes faster than the head so the sediment/water mixture if forced
into the head as the current travels. This causes the mixture to curl back as small waves on top of the
current (see figure below and previous figure too).
4)
Thinking about this, is the velocity of a sand grain in the current faster or slower than the current as a
whole?
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5)
Calculate the density of the following hypothetical turbidity current:
1 liter of sediment/water mixture comprised of 900 ml of seawater (1.035g/cm3) and 100ml of fine
quartz sand (2.65 g/cm3). (1 ml= 1cm3)
Since most turbidity current travel in submarine canyons their deposits end up at the mouth of these
canyons down on the continental rise. Deposits from currents are called tubidites and fan out from the
mouth of the canyons.
6)
What would you predict happen to the thickness of the continental rise over time as a consequence
of turbidity currents?
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PART II: Turbidity current demonstration
Watch the demonstration of the turbidity current and make careful observations about:
a) The speed of the flow. Use a stopwatch to measure how long it takes the head to reach the end
of the tank from when the sediment mixrure was released. Measure the distance traveled and
calculate the velocity below.
b) The top of the flow- what evidence do you see that the sediment mixture is getting pushed into
the head, that is, that the tail of the flow is traveling faster than the head? Make a sketch of this
evidence.
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c) The pattern of sediment deposition. Use the jar with sediment and water in it to understand the
pattern by which the tubidity flow deposit sediment. Shake the jar vigorously and then set it
down. After most of the sediment has settled, describe and make a sketch of the distribution of
particle sizes from bottom to top. What caused this?
This distribution you observed is part of the Bouma sequence (see figure below), and is
characteristic of turbidites (the deposits left from turbidity currents). Can you identify specific
divisions of the Bouma sequence in the jar model? Which ones?
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Oceanography 101 Fieldtrip #1
Owen Beach
11/5
Assignment due: 11/7 4:00p in Bldg 15 reception desk
Topic:
On this fieldtrip we will look at an example of a typical Puget Sound Beach and study topics such as the
composition of the beach sand, the origin of the beach sand, and currents that may affect the distribution
of the sediment.
Time:
Meet at Owen Beach parking lot, Pt. Defiance (directions below) at 10:45a. The drive from TCC takes
just under 15 minutes.
Directions:
 Take Pearl Street north toward Point Defiance. (See map on next page).
 Enter Point Defiance Park and follow signs that direct you to Five Mile Drive. [Be very careful at the
entrance to not take the road on the right; it leads to the Vashon Ferry terminal, which you do not want.]
 Continue for about 1/2-3/4 of a mile until you reach the Owen Beach turnoff and follow this to the
parking lot at the bottom of the hill. We will meet there and leave promptly for the field site, walking
west (to the left of the parking lot). If you are late it is conceivable that you could catch up by following
us on the beach but you would probably miss important information that I give out on our walk.
 Exiting directions: after leaving Owen Beach parking lot follow signs to Never-Never Land and Camp
Six. Then follow signs to the park exit.
Bring these items:
 appropriate clothing (such as a rain coat if necessary- trip will happen rain or shine)
 shoes that you don’t mind getting dirty or possibly wet
 note taking material (pencil, paper, and something stiff to write on)
 assignment materials (on the pages following this one)
Points:
This trip will count as one lab.
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I. Beach definition
unconsolidated, loose particles that cover a shore
II. Beach shape:
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III. Sediment budget of beaches:
Budget = (sediment added) – (sediment removed)
▪ positive budget means addition rate is greater than subtraction rate and the beach grows in width
▪ negative budget means removal rate is greater than addition rate and the beach shrinks in width
▪ equilibrium means the rates are equal and the beach is stable with respect to width
sediment description
▪ by size
▪ by sorting
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IV. Sediment sources
▪ local shore
▪ imported via longshore current from river mouths
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V. Geology of Puget Sound
▪ glacial sediments in Puget Sound cliffs from multiple glaciations
▪ Puget Sound channels scoured by from subglacial river systems
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Questions:
1) What appears to be the dominant source of sediment for the beach, material imported via longshore
current or local material from the cliffs? Cite examples.
2) Did you see any evidence of longshore current? Describe this evidence.
Evaluate whether or not longshore current could wash sediment to Owen Beach all the way from the
Puyallup River mouth.
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3) Describe the difference in sediment size and sorting between sediment near the water on the beach
and sediment close to the cliff. Hypothesize about why any differences exist.
4) Discuss the sediment budget at Owen Beach. (Does it appear to be a positive budget? negative? in
equilibrium?).
5) Describe Owen Beach in terms of a typical beach profile (only discuss the parts of the beach that are
exposed above water). Are all the parts of a typical profile present at Owen Beach?
Does this make sense given your discussion of the sediment budget?
Since beaches can act as buffers against wave erosion, would you consider Owen Beach to provide
much of a buffer against coastal erosion?
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Oceanography 101 Fieldtrip #2
Pt. Defiance Zoo and Aquarium
Anytime between 11/4 and 11/21
Assignment due: 11/21 4:00p in Bldg 15 reception desk
Note: Students need to go to the zoo on their own between 11/4 and 11/21. I will
provide tickets for admission prior to the 11/4.
Topic:
We will visit Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium to study a wide variety of marine organisms, from
corals to whales.
Time:
Any time between 11/4 and 11/21. Assignment due 11/21 4:00p in Bldg 15 reception desk. Zoo hours
are Thur-Mon: 9:30 a.m. - 4 p.m. Closed Tue & Wed.
Directions:
 Take Pearl Street north to Pt. Defiance Park. (See map on next page.)
 Enter the park and follow the signs to the Zoo/Aquarium.
Bring these items:
 appropriate clothes- much of the lab is outside
 Zoo fieldtrip lab exercise, pencil, and something stiff to write on
Points:
The field trip includes an assignment (following pages) that will count for one lab.
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Oceanography 101
Due 11/21
Name:
Lab day/time:
Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium Fieldtrip
Objectives:
1) Learn about the structure of a tropical reef and become familiar with some of the organisms that
inhabit them.
2) Learn about the ecology and functional anatomy of a selection of marine vertebrates.
Instructions:
You are responsible for visiting four exhibits and answering questions concerning them.
Questions that have an asterisk after them may be completed with information available in the
book (use the index). Depending on how quickly you are able to move along, you may want to leave
these questions for later. A map of the Zoo/Aquarium is provided on the back page.
PART I: South Pacific Aquarium Exhibit
Reefs:
1) Where are most coral reefs in the Pacific found?*
2)
From what material do corals build reefs?*
3)
List the three major zones that make up a coral reef.
4)
To which organisms are corals closely related?*
The Inner Reef:
5) Describe the physical environment of the inner reef.
6)
Why do juvenile and small fish find the environment of the inner reef appealing?
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The Outer Reef:
7) Describe the physical environment of the outer reef.
8)
Name two species of shark that you identified. What characteristics allowed you to identify them?
9)
How do sharks swim (what body parts provide the propulsion and how do those parts move)?
10)
How does the skeleton of sharks differ from other vertebrates?*
11)
List three senses that are highly developed in sharks that allow them to hunt effectively.
PART II: Penguin Point Exhibit
1) These penguins belong to the taxon Speniscus magellanicus, but are commonly referred to as
Magellanic penguins. What is the biogeographic range of all penguin species? This information can be
found by the puffin exhibit or in your book.
Antarctic only
Arctic only
Worldwide
South Hemisphere cool waters
Northern Hemisphere cool waters
2) Describe penguin coloration. Does it have a purpose?
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3) Providing there is water in the pool, observe how the penguins swim under water. The motion is the
same as for flight. Describe the shape of the penguin body (later you will compare this to that of the
puffin).
PART III: Rocky Shores Exhibit
Walrus (Odobeus rosmarus):
1) Describe the snout of the walrus. Does the shape of the snout seem to correspond to feeding
behavior? Why?
2) How does the walrus propel itself (which limbs does it mostly use)?
Sea otters:
1) All of the marine mammals you have seen up until now use a layer of fat, called blubber, to stay
warm in the cool water they inhabit. The sea otter has no blubber. How does it stay warm?
Why are oil spills especially harmful to sea otters?
How did humans endanger the sea otter population in the past?*
What do sea otters eat and how much does a typical otter eat per day? Compare this to the amount that
the walrus eats daily. Why do marine mammals need to eat so much?
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Puffins:
What is the biogeographic range of puffins?
Observe the puffins long enough to see one swim under water and describe how it does so.
Now compare the overall shape of the puffin body to that of the penguin. How do they differ? Which
one do think is adapted to spending more time swimming under water?
PART IV: Polar Bear Exhibit
What is the biogeographic range of polar bears?
Are polar bears social or solitary?
What is the function of their coloration?
What is the favorite food of polar bears?
PART V: Marine vertebrate adaptations*
All of the marine mammals you saw today evolved from four-legged, land-dwelling ancestors.
Likewise, the two birds you studied evolved from land-dwelling ancestors. Some of these critters, as
you surely noticed, are more completely adapted to living in the ocean than others.
Compile a list of the marine mammals and birds (don’t include the fish) that you saw today.
List them in order of the degree to which they have adapted to living in the oceans.
From this comparison identify two major anatomical trends in lineages of organisms that have
adapted to ocean living. Write answers on the next page.
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Oceanography 101: Introduction to Oceanography Fall 2013
GENERAL INFO:
Lecture: Room 15-202 MW 8:30a-10:20a
Lab: Room 15-223L T 8:30a-10:20a
Required Reading:
1) Introduction to the World’s Oceans, Sverdrup and Armbrust, McGraw-Hill, 10th Ed.
* The TCC bookstore carries only the hardback edition, but I have seen a paperback edition. I
recommend checking other vendors.
** In addition, using the 9th edition works fine for this class too, if you can find a used one. The
only problem here is that if you do use the 9 th edition then the page numbers in the reading
assignments in this syllabus won’t correspond precisely with the pages in the 9 th edition. You’ll
need to download a separate document from my webpage that has the reading assignment for the
9th.
2) Fall 2013 Oceanography 101 Course Materials
This booklet, available in the TCC bookstore, has all of the lab material you will need for the
course, including fieldtrip information.
Instructor: Ralph Hitz
Office: Building 15-234
Office Hours: MW 1:30-3:30, or by appointment
Office Phone: 566-5299
e-mail: rhitz@tacomacc.edu
website: http://www.tacomacc.edu/home/rhitz
NOTE: The details in this syllabus are subject to change or error. I will notify you in class about any changes or
corrections.
THE COURSE:
Oceanography is a science that encompasses everything to do with the oceans. There are biological oceanographers who
study organisms living in the oceans and there are coastal oceanographers who study how the ocean affects coastlines, and
there is every discipline in between. The oceans cover a huge portion of the earth and affect our lives continuously. To gain
a working knowledge of how the oceans function is to understand for the most part how the global environment works.
WEB-ENHANCED:
This is a web-enhanced course that uses TCC Canvas. We will use Canvas to complete two homework assignments.
1) If you’re new to Canvas, TCC has many support services to get you started, including a link to tutorials published by
Canvas. Follow this link for introductory tutorials.
http://www.tacomacc.edu/areasofstudy/learningoptions/elearning/onlineclasses/gettingstarted/weekzero/
2) Follow this link to reach TCC e-learning support for help with Canvas issues. There is a phone number here and an email
address and the hours during which they can help you.
http://www.tacomacc.edu/onlineclasses/
3) Alternatively, and sometimes this is faster than emailing the e-learning staff, or trying to reach them by phone, here is a
link to where you can submit a help “ticket” to which they’ll respond as quickly as they can.
http://tcclearn.tacomacc.edu/ics/support/default.asp?deptID=16061&task=ticket
4) Lastly, TCC e-learning maintains a “Knowledge base” of answers to common questions. You can always peruse this
resource. Open the Technology directory on the left and click on Canvas.
http://tcclearn.tacomacc.edu/ics/support/default.asp?deptID=16061
For content-related issues (for example, an assignment file is missing) contact the instructor.
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COURSE OUTCOMES:
These are the specific outcomes for Oceanography 101. PLO represents Program Learning Outcomes for the Science
disciplines, which may be found in the TCC catalog at this location: http://www.tacomacc.edu/catalog/11-12catalog/.
Each outcome may or may not relate to one or more of the Science PLOs.
1. Demonstrate through map use, basic cartography and map symbolization as it relates to oceanographic maps. PLO: 1
2. Describe the structure of the earth and explain how seismic evidence supports these ideas. PLO: 3
3. Explain how the interior structure of the earth relates to the process of plate tectonics. PLO: 3
4. Use plate tectonic theory to explain seafloor features and the origin of ocean basins. PLO: 3
5. Describe the distribution of seafloor sediments and explain the causes of these patterns. PLO: 3
6. Describe the fundamentals of coastal processes. Critique coastal land-use patterns with respect to the physical stability of
our coasts and their ecological integrity. PLO: 1, 3
7. Describe the origin of the major solutes in seawater and their residence times. Prepare solutions similar to seawater,
applying and interpreting appropriate terms for solute concentrations. PLO: 3
8. Explain the interaction of the atmospheric gases and the oceans and how that controls the pH of seawater. PLO: 3
9. Describe the distribution of water masses in the oceans and explain the pattern. Use experiments to demonstrate the
distribution of water masses in the oceans. PLO: 3
10. Describe the patterns of atmospheric circulation and explain the causes. PLO: 3
11. Describe the patterns of oceanic circulation and explain the causes and carry out experiments to model these patterns.
PLO: 2, 3, 4
12. Describe the attributes of different kinds of waves (including tides). Explain ocean wave theory and predict the behavior
of different types of waves. Carry out experiments to demonstrate wave behavior and visualize wave attributes. PLO: 2, 3, 4
13. Explain how physical factors control primary productivity in the oceans. PLO: 3
14. Explain the organization of trophic levels in the oceans. PLO: 3
15. Describe in broad terms biological diversity on the oceans. PLO: 3
16. Explain the organization of marine food webs. PLO: 3
17. Make observations of marine organisms and their ecology. PLO: 3
GRADING:
Grading will be based on the criteria below. The course grade will be determined by adding the percentages from each
of the categories below. A simple, straight percentage scale will then be used to assign course grade: 100%-92.5% is an A,
92.5%-90.0% is an A-, 90.0%-87.5% is a B+, 87.5%-82.5% is a B, 82.5%-80.0% is a B-, 80.0%0-77.5% is a C+, 77.5%72.5% is a C, 72.5%-70.0% is a C-, 70.0%-67.5% is a D+, 67.5%-60.0% is a D, less than 60% is an E.
Exam I
14%
Exam II
14%
Exam III (comprehensive) 18%
Labs and fieldtrips (9)
36% (4% each)
Canvas modules
12% (6% each)
In-class exercises
6%
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Exams:
The exams will cover both lecture and reading material. They will be multiple choice exams and will include a variety
of question formats such as diagrams, matching, true/false, and the standard multiple choice questions. No make up exams
will be given unless you discuss it with me beforehand.
Labs:
The lab grade will be based on completed lab work. Labs include in-class exercises and experiments as well as
fieldtrips.
Canvas modules:
We have two exercises to work through in Canvas. These involve reading the text, viewing videos, and accessing other
resources and then progressing through several quizzes. These exercises are designed to provide the student with critical
background concepts about sea water chemistry and atmospheric physics. Many of the topics in class build on these
foundational comcepts.
In-class exercises
These are short exercises that we will do in lecture from time to time, schedule to be determined, which are also due
in lecture the day we complete them. The topics vary but the goal is for students to work with concepts that we cover in
lecture in order to better understand the material. We will complete about 12-15 different in-class exercises. No credit is
granted for each unless the student is present in class and turns in the exercise at that class meeting.
CLASS POLICIES:
Assignments
Late work will have 25% of the score deducted per class meeting until there is nothing left. No late work will be
accepted if I have already graded and returned the assignment to the rest of the class. Please understand that I must act on
behalf of the students in the class who complete their assignments on time. No in-class exercises will be accepted late;
they’re due in class the day we complete them.
Attendance
There is a high correlation between lecture attendance and course performance. If you do not regularly attend lecture it
is very unlikely that you will do well in the course. The opportunity for personal interaction with the instructor is invaluable.
Oceanography is not always intuitive and topics often require repeated exposure for full comprehension. In addition,
important announcements are made in lecture that are not made available elsewhere.
Lab attendance is mandatory. In order for you to receive credit for a lab you must attend. There are no make-up
labs. Because the labs are an integral part of the class, more than three unexcused, missed labs will result in a failing
grade for the entire course. Further, punctuality is required. I want you to come to the lab but you have to be on time. The
doors to the lab room will be locked about 3-5 minutes after the lab meeting begins. If you come after this time, I will let you
in but I will deduct 50% of your lab points from that day’s assignment.
Field trips
Several of the labs will involve local field trips. Dress appropriately and wear sturdy shoes. Also bring note-taking
materials. See the Course Materials booklet for more information about the fieldtrips.
Withdrawals and Incompletes
November 15th is the last day to withdraw from the course with a grade of “W.” Under appropriate circumstances
students may obtain an incomplete for the course. This option requires that the student fulfill the remaining requirements
within a designated amount of time.
Cheating
Cheating on an assignment or exam will result in zero credit for that item and appropriate action as outlined in the TCC
catalog. Plagiarism is likewise unacceptable. See the TCC Students Bill of Rights and Responsibilities for more information
about cheating and plagiarism.
Students with Special Needs
All students are responsible for all requirements of the class, but the way they meet these requirements may vary. If you
need specific auxiliary aids or services due to a disability, please contact the Access Services office in Building 7 (253-5665328). They will require you to present formal, written documentation of your disability from an appropriate professional.
When this step has been completed, arrangements will be made for you to receive reasonable auxiliary aids or services. The
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disability accommodation documentation prepared by Access Services must be given to me before the accommodation is
needed so that appropriate arrangements can be made.
Classroom disputes
If you have questions or concerns about this class or me, please come to talk with me about your concerns. If we are
unable to resolve the issue the next step would be to talk to the Science and Engineering Department Chair, Rebecca Sliger..
CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR
General
I expect basic courtesy: no conversations with neighbors during lectures, no leaving in the middle of lecture, and
punctual arrival to class and fieldtrips.
Electronic devices
Cell phones will turned off or silenced in class and in the field while class is in session (unless arranged with me
beforehand). No texting. Computers may be used for note taking or topic research during class. If a student uses a computer
for other functions I will ban them from using it in class for the duration of the course.
If a student persists in rude behavior, counter to what I outlined in the two sections above, I will take appropriate
measures, contacting administrative officials if necessary. For further expectations of student behavior on the fieldtrip
specifically, please see the liability release form.
CALENDAR:
The reading should be completed before we cover the topics (after the first week of the course). That way you are
exposed to the information and ideas twice and have the opportunity to iron out any difficulties. Although I expect the
lectures to follow the calendar fairly closely there will be times when we stray. It is up to you to make sure that you are
keeping up on the appropriate reading assignments, but if you are unsure just ask me.
The labs will meet almost every week- see schedule. The calendar is subject to change. Be sure to pay attention to any
announcements regarding changes.
Week
1 9/23-9/27
Topic
Sverdrup, Duxbury, and Duxbury
Introduction to oceanography
Origin of the earth and oceans
p. 12-25 (sec. 1.6-1.10)
p. 27-33 (sec. 2.1)
p. 44-49 (sec.2.6)
p. 125-132 (sec. 5.1-5.7)
p. 140-145 (sec. 5.9, “Sea Ice” and
“Icebergs” only)
p. 201-204 (sec. 8.1)
Ocean physics
LAB 1: Maps and the Seafloor
Canvas: Atmospheric circulation
module due 9/29 11:59p
2 9/30-10/4
Atmospheric circulation
Surface ocean circulation
LAB 2: Physical Behavior of Water
in the Oceans
3 10/7-10/11
Surface ocean circulation (cont.)
Deep ocean circulation
LAB 3: Currents
4 10/14-10/18
Review for exam
Waves
10/14: Exam 1 in lecture
LAB: Movie- Japan’s Tsunami
5 10/21-10/25
p. 168-183 (sec. 7.1-7.6- through
seasonal changes)
p. 188-194 (sec. 7.7-7.8)
p. 219-225 (sec. 9.1-9.4)
p. 219-225 (sec. 9.1-9.4)
p. 204-210 (sec. 8.2-8.3)
p. 240-263 (sec. 10.1-10.11)
Tides
p. 271-286 (sec. 11.1-11.8)
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6 10/28-11/1
Beaches
NO LAB THIS WEEK
(NO DAY CLASSES 10/22)
p. 296-306 (sec. 12.3-12.6)
Marine ecology
p. 344-352 (sec. 14.1-14.4 to
“Salinity”)
p. 360-372 (sec. 15.1-15.5)
p. 378-396 (sec. 16.1-16.7)
LAB 4: Waves
Canvas: Ocean chemistry module
due 11/3 11:59p
7 11/4-11/8
Sea water chemistry
Fieldtrip 1: Owen Beach
Fieldtrip 2: Point Defiance Zoo and
Aquarium (between 11/4 and 11/21)
8 11/12-11/15
Review for exam
 11/13: Exam 2 in lecture
HOLIDAY-NO CLASSES
MONDAY 11/11
LAB 5: Puget Sound plankton
9 11/18-11/22
Earth structure
Plate tectonics
LAB 6: Plate Tectonics
(Fieldtrip 2: Point Defiance Zoo and
Aquarium due 11/21)
p. 51-56 (sec. 3.1-3.2)
p. 56-88 (sec. 3.3-3.7)
10 11/25-11/26
Plate tectonics (cont.)
NO LAB THIS WEEK
p. 56-88 (sec. 3.3-3.7)
11 12/2-12/6
Ocean basins
LAB 7: Turbidity Currents
p. 91-103 (sec. 4.1-4.2)
 Wed 12/11, 10:30-12:30, 15-202,
Review and Exam 3
(comprehensive)
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p. 149-161 (sec. 6.1-6.3)