Maps, GIS, and the
Environment
Geography 210/Environmental Science 210
Course Materials Spring 2012
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Table of Contents
Lab activities for week one (computer competency) ______________________________________________ 5
Cartography Section _______________________________________________________________________ 7
Lecture topic outline ____________________________________________________________________ 9
Lecture slides _________________________________________________________________________ 11
Cartography lab _______________________________________________________________________ 25
Cartography ancillary reading sources______________________________________________________ 39
Introduction to GIS Section ________________________________________________________________ 41
Lecture topic outline ___________________________________________________________________ 43
Introduction to GIS lecture slides _________________________________________________________ 45
Introduction to GIS ancillary reading ______________________________________________________ 53
Hydrology Section _______________________________________________________________________ 55
Lecture topic outline ___________________________________________________________________ 57
Lecture slides _________________________________________________________________________ 59
Hydrology work problems _______________________________________________________________ 69
Graph paper for stream profiles ___________________________________________________________ 79
Soil Science Section ______________________________________________________________________ 85
Lecture topic outline ___________________________________________________________________ 87
Lecture slides _________________________________________________________________________ 89
Soil science required reading ____________________________________________________________ 101
Terrain modeling lecture slides __________________________________________________________ 103
GIS modeling ancillary reading sources ___________________________________________________ 113
Land Use Planning Section ________________________________________________________________ 115
Lecture topic outline __________________________________________________________________ 117
Lecture slides ________________________________________________________________________ 119
Land use planning required reading _______________________________________________________ 121
Documents for Land Use Planning Project _________________________________________________ 123
Biogeography, Conservation, Wetlands Section _______________________________________________ 125
Lecture topic outline __________________________________________________________________ 127
Lecture slides ________________________________________________________________________ 129
Biogeography, conservation, wetlands required reading _______________________________________ 135
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Required computer competency- quiz/review on these basic skills in lab during the first
week
You should be able to do the following operations in the Windows environment:
 Windows Explorer
navigating through directories (folders)
making new directories
copying, deleting, moving files and directories
 Windows
understand pathways (URLs) and be able to write pathways
minimizing/maximizing windows
moving windows
 basic menu skills
opening, closing, saving files
undoing, redoing
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CARTOGRAPHY
Cartography lecture topic outline
Cartography lecture slides
Cartography lab exercise
Cartography ancillary reading list
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Lecture Topic Outline: Cartography
I.
II.
Definition of a cartographic map
A. representation of a portion of the earth
1.
differs from photographs
Cartographic maps are comprised of two components
A. reference system
1.
allows for an accurate representation and for locating features
B. geographic information
1.
the information portrayed in the map
III.
Reference Systems
A. Components of a georeferencing system
1.
earth model
i. spheres
ii. ellipsoids
2.
datums
i. general purpose
ii. geodetic
iii. global
3.
projections
i. types
a.
azimuthal, cylindrical, conic
ii. orientation
a.
tangent, secant
iii. distortion
a.
conformal
b.
equivalent
iv. standard lines
4.
coordinates
i. origin
ii. easting, northing
IV.
Examples of georeferencing systems
A. Geographic Coordinates (unprojected)
1.
longitude, latitude
i. equator, prime meridian
ii. degrees and decimal degrees
B. Universal Transverse Mercator system (UTM)
C. State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)
V.
VI.
Scales
A. graphical scale
B. representative fraction
Depicting geographic features on a map
A. Graphical representations for discontinuous features
1.
points, lines, areas (polygons)
B. Abstract representations for continuous properties
1.
contour lines
2.
gradients
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C.
Spatial relationships
1.
topological
2.
proximal
3.
connectivity
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Cartography Lecture Slides
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Cartography Lab
Geography/Environmental Science 210
Goals:
I. Understand the four principal components of a reference system. A reference system is
comprised of specific elements that allow a cartographer to accurately depict the surface of the
earth.
1) earth model
2) datum
3) projections
4) coordinates
II. Understand three commonly used reference systems (below). In particular, understand what
kind of projection each uses (if any), and how to use the coordinates of each. [Sometimes
reference systems are called georeference systems, or coordinate systems. Try not to get
confused about these different terms.]
1) Geographic Coordinates System
2) Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
3) State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS) for Washington
III. Understand different ways that geographic information may be depicted on a map. This
includes the use of points, lines, and polygons as graphical elements, and the use of contours
lines and chloropleths for continuous properties. This also includes ways of categorizing
features and corresponding methods of display for depicting the categorical relationships.
Categorical relationships that we are particularly concerned with are nominal, ordinal, and ratio
relationships.
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PART I: Homework- The Components of a Reference System
A. The Earth Model
A sphere may be used to represent the earth but more commonly an ellipsoid or a geoid
(geometric shape that depicts strength of earth’s gravity) is used, because the earth is not
perfectly round, but bulges at the equator.
Ellipsoids are geometric shapes that bulge at their “equator.” Ellipsoids are described by two
parameters: the semi-major axis (a, equatorial radius-from center out to equator) and semi-minor
axis (b, polar radius- from center out to a pole). The “flatness” of an ellipse, or the amount that it
bulges is described by flattening (f).
f = (a-b)/a
U.S. cartographers have, for a long time, used the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid (developed by Clarke in
1866…). More accurate ellipsoids now exist, such as the WGS84 ellipsoid, or the GRS80.
1) Calculate the flattening for the WGS84 ellipsoid: semi-major axis = 6378137.0 meters, semiminor axis = 6356752.3142.
2) Calculate the flattening for the ellipse on the next page by measuring the two axes. Use a
ruler to draw the two axes directly on the ellipse and then measure the axes, using millimeters as
units.
3) Given your two answers above is the shape of the earth flattened much? Do you think you
could see the flattening from space?
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B. Datums
A datum may be defined as a reference point. Sea level for example serves as a vertical datum
when expressing elevation (i.e. a location is so many feet above sea level). The purpose of the
datum concept in cartography is to identify a surveyed point (or points) on the earth that can be
placed on the reference ellipsoid so that the ellipsoid is “anchored” to the earth. We can then
place features on the map (like mountains or roads) relative to the datum point (or points) and be
assured that these features are in the right place relative to each other.
[The term geodetic datum has a slightly different connotation and generally refers to a specific
reference ellipsoid and the system of points that anchor it to the earth.]
1) Draw a square. This square represents the shape of our computer classroom, just like an
ellipsoid represents the shape of the earth. Now draw a figure of yourself in the square to scale
(approximately) that accurately depicts where you usually sit in the room.
2) Explain how you know where to place the figure in the square so that it was positioned
accurately?
[Chances are, you established a datum. You probably thought, “I’ll let the upper left corner of
the square be the front-left corner of the room. This “tie-point” is a datum. It is a point common
to the earth and the reference shape. Once a common point is established then the reference
shape can be populated with features positioned relative to the datum points (like the sketch of
you). Understand? If not, get help from me]
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Geodetic datums usually use multiple points to “anchor” the ellipsoid to the earth. Some use the
center of gravity of the earth as the common point between the ellipsoid and the earth. For a
long time the common geodetic datum used in the US was the North American Datum of 1927
(NAD27). NAD27 uses the Clarke 1866 ellipsoid, which is tied to the earth via a datum point at
sea level in Kansas at a place called Meade Ranch. Now other geodetic datums are in use in the
US, such as NAD83.
C. Projections
Once a reference ellipsoid is populated with features (positioned relative to a datum point, or
points) these features must be transferred somehow to a flat surface, which the ellipsoid is not.
This is the process of projection. The three types of surfaces that cartographers use to “project”
points onto from a reference ellipsoid are cylinders, cones, and planes. An important point to
understand is that when a point is projected onto a surface its distance to other points is changed,
producing distortion. The only place distortion does not occur is where the projection surface
touches the reference ellipsoid. This contact line is called a standard line and it is the only place
on the map surface that shows features undistorted.
Different types of projections distort in different ways (as you’ll see in the problem below).
Cartographers carefully choose projections when making a map to minimize distortion in the
area of interest.
1) For this problem we’ll work with a cylindrical projection and the figure on the next page. On
each of the circles circumscribing the ellipsoid (the “circle”) draw five points equally spaced
along each line. Now “project” these points onto the cylinder surface. [For the circle at the
“equator” of the ellipsoid no projection is necessary; the circle and the projection surface are one
in the same. To project the points from the smaller circle, simply distribute them evenly along
the entire length of the gray circle above on the cylinder and draw a dashed line between each
point on the ellipsoid and its corresponding point on the cylinder.]
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Which of the two circles on the cylinder represents a standard line and why?
Cylindrical projections like this are called conformal because they preserve the shape of features.
Does your projection confirm this (are the points still arranged in a line on the cylinder as they
are on the ellipsoid)?
Projection methods that preserve area of shapes and distance between points are called equal area
projections. Can we consider the cylindrical projection here an equal area projection? Why or
why not?
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D. Coordinates
Coordinates enable us to locate points on a map. They consist of “horizontal” and “vertical”
lines that produce a grid. The “horizontal” lines are called northings and the “vertical” ones are
called eastings. Each line has a value relative to a starting point called the origin, which would
have a value of zero. The origin is the actual point where the easting and northing of zero value
intersect.
1) For this problem draw a simple map of your block or neighborhood (don’t worry about using
an earth model or projection). Then superimpose on the map a grid of eastings and northings to
produce a grid. Identify the origin and label the successive eastings and northings with either
numbers or letters.
2) Now use your coordinate grid to identify the location of three features on your map.
Locations are reported in coordinate pairs, with the northing listed first.
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PART II. Common reference systems
A. Geographic Coordinates System
The Geographic Coordinates System (GCS) is a widely used reference system and also a simple
one to understand. A grid of eastings and northings are laid on the earth according to geometric
principles. The northings are called latitude and the eastings, longitude. The value of longitude
and latitude are expressed as degrees, as shown in the figure below. Height is another parameter
that can be included.
The origin is defined as the intersection of a specific easting and northing set, the prime meridian
and the equator. The earth is divided into two sets of hemispheres, the northern and southern, and
the western and eastern. Latitude starts at 0 at the equator and increases to 90 at the poles.
Longitude starts at 0 at the prime meridian and increases to 180 in either direction.
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Each degree is divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds to provide finer
resolution of position.
Finally, latitude and longitude values may be plotted as a grid on a flat surface irrespective of
projection. This is system is often described as unprojected.
1) On the world map determine the coordinate pairs that describe the locations of the following
great cosmopolitan cities of the world:
London
Tokyo
Paris
New York
Tacoma, City of Destiny
2) On the Mount Rainier map list the coordinate pair that describes the location of Little Tahoma
Peak, the summit. List as precisely as possible (i.e. include minutes).
B. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
This is a much more complicated system to understand, but it is very easy to use. UTM divides
the reference ellipsoid into 60 Zones. They look like orange slices.
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Each zone is then projected using a secant tranverse mercator method, which is a cylindrical
projection. By projecting each zone independently distortion in each zone is minimized.
A grid is then laid on the projected surface. For the north part of the Zones the northings begin at 0 at
the equator and increase northward, in meters. For eastings, a central meridian is drawn through the
Zone and given a value of 500 km. Eastings values are expressed relative to this meridian. As
indicated here, coordinate pairs for a given UTM zone are reported in meters.
1) On the Mount Rainier map express the location of Little Tahoma Peak in UTM coordinates.
C. State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)
Finally, individual states in the US typically have a standard reference system that they use internally.
It is usually a “custom” system comprised of a standard reference ellipsoid with a projection that
minimizes distortion within the area of the state. A grid in the units of feet is then laid down on the
projected surface.
Washington uses a conic projection.
It also splits the state into a North Zone and a South Zone and then projects them independently. The
origin for the coordinate grid is a point offshore to the southwest of the state. Northings and eastings
then increase north and east respectively from this origin using the units of feet. Because Washington
is a pretty big state coordinate pairs are usually very high numbers. Around Tacoma they are in
millions of feet.
1) Express the location of Little Tahoma Peak on the Mount Rainier map in SPCS units.
D. Grand Finale
Well-made maps always provide information about the reference system for the map user. Using the
Mount Rainier map look for information about the reference system and describe it for me. Include the
geodetic datum (not the elevation datum), projection, and different coordinates that are plotted on the
map.
PART III. Depicting geographic information
A. Discontinuous vs. continuous properties
Features that have discrete boundaries are referred to as discontinuous and are easy to represent on
maps using points, lines, and polygons.
1) Choose one the following maps and provide two examples of features that are depicted as points,
lines, and polygons (Nautical Chart of the North Sound; Soils Map of Pierce County, Geologic Map of
Mount Rainier).
Points:
Lines:
Polygons:
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Features that continuous (e.g. elevation, depth, temperature, humidity) must be represented in other
ways. Contour lines depict changes in a continuous property. Contour lines are drawn with a
particular contour interval (amount of change between lines). Also note that all points on a single
contour line have the same value.
2) On the Mount Rainier map study the contour lines, which here depict elevation, and answer the
following questions.
a) What is the contour interval on this map?
b) What is the change in elevation from Paradise Visitor Center to Camp Muir?
c) The closer contour lines are to one another the more abrupt the change in value. Briefly describe a
hike from Paradise Visitor Center to Camp Muir with respect to how the slope would vary in
steepness.
3) Another way to depict changes in a continuous property is by chloropleths. The changes in color
correspond to changes in value. Study the map of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and answer the following
questions.
a) Moving from west to east how does the depth of the seafloor change?
b) Which do you find easier to use, contour lines or chloropleths?
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B. Categorizing geographic features based on their relationships to one another
To enhance communication geographic features are usually categorized and the way in which they are
displayed follows the categorization.
Nominal categorization refers to the identification of features based on unique attributes, such as
individual city name. Unique symbols on the map represent features nominally categorized.
Ordinal categorization refers to ranking features according to a common attribute, such as land areas
relative to the amount of forest cover (none to densely forested). Symbols for ordinally categorized
features are usually different colors or textures or line thicknesses. The key is that the differences
between symbols represent qualitative (not quantitative) differences between the features.
Ratio categorization is based on values of an attribute measured on an absolute scale, such as cities
categorized by population level, or properties based on value. Usually symbols that show a visual
gradation (dark to light symbols or thin to thick lines) are used to represent features organized by a
ratio categorization. The key is that differences in gradation of the symbols represents numerical
differences in the features.
1) Using any of the maps we examined (or any on the walls), provide an example of features that are
categorized by each of the methods outlined above. In addition, describe how the map communicates
the categorization (for cities of different populations for example, the larger the city the larger the dot
could be that presents it).
Nominal
Ordinal
Ratio
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“Cartography” ancillary reading sources
Books on hold at the TCC library:
1) Chrisman, Nicholas. 2002. Exploring Geographic Information Systems. 2nd Edition. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York.
Chapter 1, especially pp. 20-33.
2) Clarke, Keith. 1997. Getting Started with Geographic Information Systems. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.
Chapter 2
3) Delaney, Julie. 1999. Geographical Information Systems, An Introduction. Oxford University
Press, South Melbourne.
Chapter 5.
Web:
The Geographers Craft is a web site at the University of Colorado devoted to geography. Follow the
“lecture and discussion notes” link and scroll through the topics. Ones relevant to our study in
cartography are:
a) Coordinate Systems
b) Geodetic datums
c) Map projections
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/contents.html
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEMS (GIS)
Intro to GIS lecture topic outline
Intro to GIS lecture slides
Intro to GIS ancillary reading
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Lecture Topic Outline: Introduction to GIS
I.
II.
Description of GIS
A. Association of graphical and descriptive geographic data
1.
necessarily requires hardware, software, a user, and information input
B. Topology
1.
what surrounds a feature
C. Dynamic environment
1.
allows for displaying, querying, and manipulating the data
Uses of GIS
A. types of tasks
1.
inventory
2.
manage
3.
make decisions
4.
predict outcomes (i.e. planning)
B. industries that use GIS
1.
utility companies
2.
municipalities
3.
transportation and shipping
4.
forestry
5.
mineral and other natural resources
6.
marketers
7.
farmers
III.
Structuring geographic data in a GIS
A. descriptive data is stored as tables with the following elements
1.
attribute
2.
record
3.
data file (table)
B. graphical data is treated in two ways
1.
vector method
i. depicts a feature or property as discontinuous
ii. points, lines (arcs), polygons (areas)
2.
raster method
i. depicts a property as continuous
ii. pixels
C. the two types of data are linked in a relational database
1.
linking records by a primary key
IV.
Common GIS analytical techniques
A. Basic tools
1.
querying
2.
reclassifying
3.
measuring
4.
reporting
B. Geoprocessing tools
1.
buffering
2.
extracting
3.
merging
4.
erasing
5.
point operations for raster structured data
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Intro to GIS lecture slides
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“Introduction to GIS” ancillary reading
Books on hold at the TCC library:
1) Clarke, Keith. 1997. Getting Started with Geographic Information Systems. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.
Chapter 3
2) Delaney, Julie. 1999. Geographical Information Systems, An Introduction. Oxford University
Press, South Melbourne.
Chapters 1-2
Web:
The Geographers Craft is a web site at the University of Colorado devoted to geography. Follow the
“lecture and discussion notes” link and scroll through the topics. The one relevant to the topics in this
section is:
a) Database Concepts: Issues of Modeling and Representation
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/contents.html
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HYDROLOGY
Hydrology lecture topic outline
Hydrology lecture slides
Hydrology work problems: recurrence interval, stream discharge
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Lecture Topic Outline: Hydrology
I.
II.
Hydrologic cycle
Concept of a watershed
III.
Stream anatomy
IV.
Capacity and Competence
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Channel Structure
A. bed, levee, overbank (floodplain)
B. meandering streams, braided streams
Streamflow and Channel variables
A. Discharge = Width x Depth x Velocity
1.
units are in cubic meters or feet per second
Flooding
A. bankfull discharge
B. levees, floodplain
C. factors effecting increased runoff leading to flooding
1.
soil infiltration rates
i. saturation, frozen soils
2.
degree of slope
3.
vegetation
4.
urbanization
i. capped soils, storm drain input, lack of floodways (wetlands that absorb flood waters)
5.
concept of lagtime and factors contributing to it
Flood Control/Floodplain management
A. artificial levees
1.
problems: overtopping, pore pressure, saturation
B. floodwalls
C. natural or engineered floodways
D. dams
E. zoning according to flood patterns
Flood patterns
A. Hydrographs
1.
gauging stations, record stage height
i. stage height can be correlated to discharge
B. recurrence intervals
C. R = (N+1)/M
1.
R is recurrence interval, N years in record, M is rank of event
2.
recurrence interval is average time between events
D. Discharge frequency curve
1.
used to communicate recurrence intervals
2.
bankfull discharge typically occurs every 1.5-2.5 years for most stream systems
E. flood hazard maps
1.
relate stage height to local topography
2.
elevation corresponding to specific flood magnitudes may then be determined
3.
flood plain zoning
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Hydrology lecture slides
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Hydrology work problems: recurrence interval, stream discharge
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Recurrence interval calculations
Flood frequency
1) Recurrence interval for a given peak discharge is:
R= (N+1)/M
R is recurrence interval; N years in record; M is rank of event (from high to low)
2) Discharge frequency curve is compiled from the discharge plotted against the recurrence interval for
each event.
3) The line or curve that these points make may be extrapolated to predict larger, less frequent flood
events.
[Probability for any given year may be calculated by dividing one by the flood recurrence interval (e.g.
1/10=0.1)]
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Water
Year
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Peak
Streamflow
(cfs)
17,700
21,100
25,800
20,700
31,400
32,600
33,300
6,560
40,600
10,300
17,000
24,900
28,000
19,600
37,100
17,400
34,400
43,800
16,300
16,000
44,800
41,900
11,900
12,700
9,040
19,200
46,700
22,800
14,500
23,900
23,500
9,250
16,000
21,100
16,100
29,600
20,400
39,700
15,200
Gage
Height
(feet)
18.48
19.84
21.6
19.82
23.46
23.87
24.6
13.51
27.2
15.5
18.4
21.56
22.78
19.56
26.01
18.77
24.94
27.74
18.58
18.56
28.04
27.19
16.43
16.79
15.08
19.58
29.77
21.99
18.91
22.22
22.18
15.68
19.24
21.5
19.26
24.98
21.2
28.69
19.09
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Water
year
1977
1994
2001
1979
1992
1993
1998
2008
1989
2002
2004
1988
1980
1985
1970
1995
1983
2006
1973
1971
2003
1997
2000
1999
1981
1972
1982
2005
1974
1975
1976
1986
1984
2007
1978
1991
1987
1990
1996
Gage
height
(ft)
13.51
15.08
15.68
15.5
16.43
16.79
18.91
19.09
18.56
19.24
19.26
18.58
18.4
18.77
18.48
19.58
19.56
21.2
19.82
19.84
21.5
21.99
22.18
22.22
21.56
21.6
22.78
24.98
23.46
23.87
24.6
24.94
26.01
28.69
27.2
27.19
27.74
28.04
29.77
Peak
streamflow
(cfs)
6,560
9,040
9,250
10,300
11,900
12,700
14,500
15,200
16,000
16,000
16,100
16,300
17,000
17,400
17,700
19,200
19,600
20,400
20,700
21,100
21,100
22,800
23,500
23,900
24,900
25,800
28,000
29,600
31,400
32,600
33,300
34,400
37,100
39,700
40,600
41,900
43,800
44,800
46,700
Rank
Recurrence
interval
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Stream gauging technique
The basic approach is to estimate the area of a stream channel and multiply that by the velocity to give
discharge (in volume per unit time). The technique involves breaking the stream into smaller areas,
determining the velocity of the current in those areas, calculating discharge and then adding the
discharge values of these areas together. See the series of figures following this page to visualize this
technique.
Steps:
1) Choose a length of stream where the current appears uniform across the channel (e.g. towards the
end of pool).
2) Divide the cross section into increments (20-30).
3) Measure depth in the middle of each increment.
4) Measure velocity for each increment at 0.6 times the incremental depth (this is the depth where the
mean velocity occurs).
5) Multiply velocity by incremental depth and incremental width; sum values.
For our in-class exercise, we will use a simplified example just to get a general idea of how stream
gauging is done. The key part to understand is that we divide the stream into increments and calculate
discharge separately for each increment and then add them all together for total discharge.
Directions:
On the graph paper, the solid line represents a profile of a stream bed. Consider each cell in the
horizontal direction as the width of the increment (twenty total). How deep does each increment go?
Choose the bottom of the increment as being the depth of the stream bed in the middle of the cell (draw
a line across each cell to mark this depth of the increment). The dashed line represents 0.6 times the
total depth. This dashed line is just for reference- you don’t need to use it in this example problem
After you have defined the bottom of each increment, calculate the area for each (width times depthnote the different scales on the two axes). Put this number under the number I’ve provided below.
The number I gave you below each increment is the hypothetical velocity in ft/s. Now multiply the
velocity by the area (=discharge) and write this number below the area. Units will be cubic
feet/second. Do this for each increment. Total the incremental discharges for a total discharge.
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SOIL SCIENCE
Soil science lecture topic outline
Soil science lecture slides
Soil science reading
GIS modeling ancillary reading sources
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Lecture Topic Outline: Soils
I.
II.
The Pedosphere
1.
Results from interaction of lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere
2.
Soil as a resource
i.
Agriculture
ii.
Water reservoir
iii. Carbon sink
iv. Enhances infiltration
Weathering of rock
A. Physical weathering
1.
frost weathering
2.
thermal expansion/contraction
B. Chemical weathering
1.
hydrolysis
i.
carbonic acid (from CO2 and H2O reacting) and organic acids
2.
oxidation
3.
chemical weathering often results in the formation of secondary or alteration minerals from
primary minerals
i.
FeSiO6 (pyroxene)
a.
hydrolysis liberates the Fe which then oxidizes into Fe2O3 (hematite)
ii.
KalSi3O8 (feldspar)
a.
hydrolysis liberates the elements which then react to form KAlSi4O10(OH) 2 (Illite- a
clay)
4.
quartz (SiO2) is the most resistant mineral to chemical weathering
III.
Soil formation
A. soils develop where erosion does not occur
B. additions
1.
organic matter (humus) from the biosphere
2.
nitrogen from the atmosphere
3.
mineral grains and dissolved ions from the lithosphere and hydrosphere
C. subtractions
1.
dissolution of ions from organic and mineral material and loss of them into groundwater
D. translocation
1.
materials dissolved/weathered in top of profile and then precipitated lower down
i.
primary minerals weather in the upper horizons and alteration minerals (e.g. oxides)
precipitate lower down
a.
desert soils tend to show precipitated calcite in the lower parts of the soil
E. transportation
1.
physical movement of material down a soil profile
i.
the middle layers of soils tend to be enriched in clay that formed in the upper layers and then
washed down
IV.
Soil profile
A. O, A, B, and C horizons
1.
O = organic matter lying on top
2.
A = organics mixed with minerals
3.
B = weathered products and dissolved materials from O and A are deposited in this horizon
4.
C = largely unweathered parent material
5.
other horizons
i.
some soils have horizons unique to that soil type such as:
a.
Bk horizons – a layer of cement-like calcite seen in desert soils
b.
E horizon- a layer of highly leached lower A horizon- appears white
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c.
V.
VI.
Soil development
A. Hans Jenny and the state factor equation
1.
Soil = f(CLORPT)
i.
Cl- climate
ii.
O- organisms
iii. R- relief
iv. P- parent material
v.
T- time
2.
soils should be predictable based on these variables
Soil taxonomy- the great Soil Orders
A. classifies soils according their profile attributes (which in turn relate to the clorpt variables)
1.
1) Alfisols, 2) Andisols, 3) Aridosols, 4) Entisols, 5) Histosols, 6) Inceptisols, 7) Mollisols, 8)
Oxisols, 9) Spodosols, 10) Ultisols, 11) Vertisols
VII.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
VIII.
IX.
Duripan horizon- a layer of dense silica found in some desert soils
Physical properties (optional topic)
Texture
Structure
Density
Porosity
Color
Soil maps (optional topic)
A. National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
1.
generates soil maps that depict soil types in a region
i.
local soil types are identified and described with respect to texture of the soil and its
agricultural and engineering qualities
Select issues in soil science (optional topic)
A. Soil erosion
1.
sheetwash erosion
2.
rills and gullies
3.
desertification
i.
exposure dries soil
ii.
plants reduced, soil hardens
iii. hardening reduces infiltration so surface runoff increases
B. Soil as a carbon reservoir
1.
CO2 is a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere causing it to retain heat
2.
the cycling of CO2 is part of the carbon cycle, the movement of carbon from the atmosphere to the
oceans and lithosphere and back to the atmosphere
3.
CO2 is stored in soil - as we add more CO2 to the atmosphere through consumption of fossil fuels
some CO2 is trapped in soil lessening the impact of global warming
i.
the growth of plant tissue adds CO2 soils
a.
6CO2+6H2O+sunlight = C6H12O6+6O2
4.
how much CO2 do the worlds soils hold?- only loosely estimated
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Soil science lecture slides
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90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Soil science required reading
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102
Terrain Modeling lecture slides
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
GIS modeling ancillary reading sources
Books on hold at the TCC library:
1) Delaney, Julie. 1999. Geographical Information Systems, An Introduction. Oxford University
Press, South Melbourne.
Chapter 13
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LAND USE PLANNING
Land use planning lecture topic outline
Land use planning lecture slides
Land use planning required reading
Documents for Land Use Planning Project
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Lecture Topic Outline: Land Use Planning
I.
II.
Definition
A. “Development in relation to the community’s current and future well being” (Honachefsky, 2000)
B. Modern land use planning is a component of growth management and attempts to balance many
parameters associated with growth
C. We will study this topic by examining county level planning actions
D. Basic strategy
1.
formulate planning strategies at the government level
2.
implement plans by legislation and zoning
i.
zoning describes the permissible use of land for specific purposes at the present time
Growth
A. The growth of any community is a complex process and difficult to control
B. Uncontrolled growth (and lack of land use planning) results in decrease in quality of life
1.
sprawl
i.
unsightly
ii.
expensive for taxpayers because high level services are expected
2.
property values lowered
3.
inefficient transit
4.
loss of business and industry
5.
impacts from environmental hazards
6.
environmental degradation
i.
watershed impacts, lack of open space
C. Growth Management Act of State of Washington 1990
1.
required all counties to design and implement a growth management plan
i.
identified 13 goals for county to address/meet (see handout)
a.
many of these are directly land use related
II.C.1.i.a.1. open space and recreation
II.C.1.i.a.2. historic preservation
II.C.1.i.a.3. environmental quality
II.C.1.i.a.4. natural resource industries
II.C.1.i.a.5. urban growth/reducing sprawl
II.C.1.i.a.6. housing
2.
Pierce County Comprehensive Plan adopted in 1994
i.
plan addresses two decades of growth
ii.
goals
a.
expand economic development
b.
cheap government
c.
contain sprawl
d.
allow public voice
e.
increase housing choices
f.
preserve resource lands, rural lands, ecologically fragile lands
g.
balance growth and environmental protection
iii. identifies nine “elements” to guide all planning
a.
Land Use
b.
Rural Lands
c.
Housing
d.
Utilities
e.
Capital Facilities
f.
Transportation
g.
Economic Development
h.
Environment (including Historic preservation issues)
i.
Community Plans
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III.
Land Use related elements in the Pierce County Comprehensive Plan
A. Land Use Element
1.
recognition of basic land use practices
i.
urban growth areas
a.
dense housing
b.
significant development already in place
c.
expensive urban services already in place
ii.
urban growth boundaries
a.
legislated boundaries to contain urban growth
iii. rural areas
a.
agricultural areas
b.
low density housing
iv. resource lands
a.
lands that yield economic benefits (e.g. working forests)
v.
open space
a.
wildlife habitat/recreational areas
B. Environmental and Critical Areas Element
1.
management of sensitive areas, recognition of hazards, aesthetic preservation, human health
i.
wetlands
ii.
aquifer recharge
iii. habitat preservation
iv. geologic hazards (slope stability, flooding, volcanoes, seismicity)
v.
watersheds
C. Rural Lands Element
1.
maintenance of the rural landscape and economy
i.
avoid high level urban services
ii.
preserve the rural economy
iii. restrictions on residential density
iv. encourage rural centers instead of sprawl
IV.
Ecologically Based Land Use Planning
A. Emphasis on ecosystem health in planning
1.
many planning goals are directly related to ecosystem health
i.
air and water quality (human health)
ii.
preservation of aesthetic elements
iii. recreation related to wildlife and open spaces
iv. containment of urban growth
2.
by maintaining ecosystem health many planning goals are met
3.
examples of strategies
i.
watersheds as a unit of management rather than political entities
ii.
priorities placed on open spaces and maintenance of wildlife habitat
iii. minimizing pollution related to infrastructure (e.g. runoff from impervious surfaces)
V.
Regulations driven planning
A. There are many environmental regulations that restrict or otherwise impact development/land use
1.
wetlands regulations
2.
endangered species habitat
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Land use planning lecture slides
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120
Land use planning required reading
1) Environmental Geology (Keller, 1999)
2) Ecologically Based Municipal Land Use Planning (Honachefsky, 2000)
3) Synopsis: Pierce County’s Comprehensive Plan (Citizen’s Advisory Group, 1994)
4) Pierce County’s Comprehensive Plan (1994)
“Introduction”
“Why Plan?”
“Legislation”
“Pierce County Land and People”
“Pierce County Goals”
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122
Documents for Land Use Planning Project
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124
BIOGEOGRAPHY, CONSERVATION, WETLANDS
Biogeography, conservation, wetlands lecture topic outline
Biogeography, conservation, wetlands lecture slides
Biogeography, conservation, wetlands required reading
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126
Biogeography, conservation, wetlands lecture topic outline
I.
Biogeography
A. Definition
1.
Study of the distribution of plants and animals in space and time
B. Basic concepts
1.
habitat (also see microhabitat)
i.
environmental conditions present where a specific organism thrives
2.
biogeographic range (aka distribution)
i.
space over which a population is spread
ii.
a distribution is determined by barriers
a.
either physical barriers or areas where the environment becomes detrimental to the
organism
iii. corridors allow for communication between two different parts of a biogeographic range
II.
Biodiversity
Number of species in a given area
1.
will scale with size of a region (holding environment constant)
Biodiversity has declined as civilization has expanded due to loss of habitat
1.
one of the raw ingredients of modern society is land
In assessing global biodiversity habitat is used as a proxy for biodiversity
Island biogeography
1.
on any island, biodiversity is achieved by a balance between colonizing species and species
extinction
2.
certain parameters will control the total amount of biodiversity, including:
i.
size of island
ii.
distance from source of immigration
A.
B.
C.
D.
III.
Conservation
A. Preservation of biodiversity
B. Relevance of island biogeography theory
1.
areas can be considered islands with populations immigrating and becoming extinct
2.
size of area is related to the biodiversity that it can support
i.
S = cAz
a.
c and z are constants
ii.
fragmentation
a.
breaking of areas into smaller parts that results in a negative impact on biodiversity
3.
connections between areas can serve as immigration pathways
4.
note that not all field work supports the wholesale application of island biogeography to
conservation
i.
some studies show fragmentation doesn’t decrease biodiversity and that corridors don’t
increase immigration
C. Main strategy of conservation is to preserve habitat and minimize fragmentation
1.
habitat is preserved by preventing disturbance and development
IV.
Wetlands
A. Definition
B. Environmental characteristics
1.
areas of groundwater infiltration
2.
increase lagtime during precipitation events, reducing flood hazards
3.
high in biodiversity
C. Targets of land conservation
1.
to preserve habitat high in biodiversity
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2.
as bodies of water they are regulated under federal and state legislation
related to preserving water quality
a.
see WA State wetlands goals
ii.
specific legislation
a.
State
1.
State Water Pollution Control Act 1945
2.
Shoreline Management Act 1971
b.
Federal
1.
Clean Water Act
2.
Coastal Zone Management Act
iii. regulated by the Department of Ecology
D. Strategies to reduce impacts to wetlands
1.
mitigation
i.
avoid impacts
a.
generally achieved by placing buffers
ii.
compensate by constructing or restoring wetlands
a.
subject to mitigation ratios
b.
mitigation banking
2.
all strategies are site specific
3.
all wetlands are not equal (categories 1-4)
E. Recognition of wetlands
1.
based on the presence of three attributes
i.
standing water for a portion of the year
ii.
hydric soils
iii. hydrophytic vegetation
2.
identifying a wetland is called wetland delineation
i.
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Biogeography, conservation, wetlands lecture slides
129
130
131
132
133
134
Biogeography, conservation, wetlands required reading
Biogeography:
Cox, B.C., and Moore, P.D. 1985. Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford. Selected pages.
Wetlands:
Washington State Wetlands Identification and Delineation Manual. March 1997. Washington State
Department of Ecology, Publication #96-94. Selected pages.
How Ecology Regulates Wetlands. April 1998. Washington State Department of Ecology, Publication
#97-112. Selected pages.
Wetlands Mitigation Banking: General Information. Washington State Department of Ecology,
www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/wetmitig/general.html.
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