Inquiry in the classroom
Running head: Inquiry-oriented instruction in the classroom
Inquiry-oriented instruction throughout the elementary classroom
Kaneil Keaty
Vanderbilt University
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Abstract
Inquiry-oriented instruction is an instructional model that can be implemented in almost any
classroom. The following will discuss learners and learning, learners and the environment,
curriculum and instructional strategies, and assessment in regards to inquiry-oriented instruction
in the elementary classroom. Although inquiry is most commonly associated with science
instruction, this paper will highlight the use of inquiry in mathematics classrooms.
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Inquiry-oriented instruction throughout the elementary classroom
Two common goals of education are transmission of knowledge and allowance for
individuality. Schools and teachers often consider these goals to be separate. Educators may
lean towards one goal or the other, rather than finding a way to meet both goals. Wells (1995)
supports the thought that these two goals are not in competition with one another. Rather, he
describes reasons why they are interdependent. Wells states that through the use of inquirybased instruction across the curriculum both goals may be met simultaneously (Wells, 1995).
Learners and learning
Inquiry is typically associated with science instruction, although inquiry-oriented
instruction may be implemented in any curricular area. "Inquiry refers to a learning process in
which students are engaged. It is said to be an active learning process—'something that students
do, not something that is done to them'" (Anderson, 2002). Similar to Piaget's theory of
constructivism, inquiry instruction requires learners to create their own understanding. Through
this process, students' learning may be more meaningful than situations where teachers explicitly
transmit information to the class. (Borasi & Siegel, 2000)
Inquiry-oriented instruction is not the most common form of instruction in classrooms
today. Most teachers are given textbooks and learning programs to use for instructional
purposes. Some teachers may choose to alter the content of the materials to suit their individual
teaching styles, but many adhere to the textbook for guidance in all instructional areas.
Traditionally, textbooks have a reputation of being boring, confusing, and/or developmentally
inappropriate for a given age group. The content tends to focus on lower level thinking skills
such as recalling facts, rather than higher order thought processes such as evaluating or creating
ideas. Rarely do math textbooks or basal readers include challenging materials that are also of
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interest to the students. Typical math textbooks require students to follow a given process,
practice several problems, and retain formulas for future use. (Raphael & Au, 2005)
A research study found that teachers choose more traditional instructional methods due to
the following: time, materials, student ability and interest, and teacher expertise and motivation.
(Flick, 1995) The incorporation of inquiry-based instruction in the classroom may take
additional time for thinking and planning, but unlike many other educational tools it is free.
Once educators are aware of the benefits that inquiry instruction can have on students, they may
be more inclined to try it out. "In general, research shows that inquiry teaching produces positive
results" (Anderson, 2002). The method is effective, but there is a lack of resources for teachers
to learn how to incorporate inquiry instruction in their classrooms. (Anderson, 2002)
John Dewey’s theories regarding the education of young children are well known
throughout the world of educators. Stuckart and Glanz (2007) refer to Dewey's thoughts
regarding acquisition of intelligence. "He asserted that "problems are the stimulus to thinking"
and that teachers are responsible for organizing content so that instruction "arouses in the learner
an active quest for information and the production of new ideas" (Stuckart & Glanz, 2007).
Dewey states that it is the teacher’s responsibility to create learning activities that spark an
interest in students. Inquiry-oriented instruction involves constructing situations where students
recognize a problem and are eager to figure out a solution.
Learners and the environment
In order for inquiry-oriented instruction to be effective in the classroom, a number of
environmental factors must be in place. Classroom norms may be established at the beginning of
the school year and altered throughout the year to suit the needs of a particular group of students.
Norms in an elementary classroom include daily routines, procedures, and expected behaviors.
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For example, first graders may be expected to raise their hand if they have something to say
during instructional periods. If the teacher only calls on children whose hands are raised, those
who choose not to raise their hand may never have to participate in class discussions. This
specific classroom norm is not ideal for an inquiry-oriented classroom.
Campbell and Rowan (1997) express guidelines for inquiry instruction in the classroom.
They mention that all students are required to participate in the inquiry process. In addition to
being expected to participate, students must respect their peers and allow one another to voice
their understanding. (Campell & Rowan, 1997) Teachers may be intimidated by the thought of
allowing students to talk openly about their learning. A quiet classroom filled with students
working independently is often considered an ideal situation in the early grades. Transitioning
from this type of environment to one where students are allowed to share ideas takes time,
consistency, and practice. Teachers need to set the expectations from the beginning and hold the
class accountable in order for this form of instruction to take place. This may take students time
to adjust, but the end result of positive classroom discussions will benefit the learners’ current
academic needs as well as teach them essential communication skills that will last a life time.
(Ball, 1991)
Once appropriate classroom norms are in place, inquiry may become the base of
instruction through discourse involving the students and teacher. Naturally, certain students will
feel more inclined to communicate their thinking with the entire class, while others have no
desire to share their thoughts. Teachers must be sure that the environment is safe for all learners
to share and that all students are given equal opportunities. When children take risks by
speaking out, they need to be assured that everyone involved values their input. One way to
prepare students for collaborative discussions is to practice how to handle mistakes, wrong
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answers, and disagreements. These situations are unavoidable in the inquiry-oriented classroom,
therefore students need to learn how to handle themselves during such times. Children often
associate wrong answers with failure. This is a concept that may be ingrained at a young age,
but teachers should still do their best to encourage students to take risks with their learning. The
idea is not simple, but if the class works together to support one another during discussions,
students may be more inclined to continue sharing after answering incorrectly. “The classroom
must be a place where thoughts are accepted, ideas are investigated, and meaningful problems
are solved. The result is an equitable environment for learning." (Campbell & Rowan, 1997)
Deep inquiry may involve students challenging one another’s thinking. Again, this is
often something that teachers try to avoid in the classroom. Fortunately, challenging peers and
sorting through disagreements can lead to greater understanding in the classroom. Certainly,
rules and expectations must be in place before students are encouraged to disagree with one
another during instruction. The teacher works as a facilitator throughout the discussion and at
times may need to intervene if the discussion becomes uncontrolled. (Ball, 1991)
In addition to creating appropriate classroom norms and coordinating the discourse,
teachers need to plan enough time for inquiry. The elementary schedule usually includes
designated time periods for language arts, physical education, lunch, recess, etc. Depending on
the content and the task at hand, students need plenty of time to identify the problem, work
through possible solutions, and draw conclusions. Students who feel rushed, or know that they
only have a few minutes to complete a task, may be careless with their work. A shortage in time
allowed for inquiry can be detrimental to the students’ depth of understanding.
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Flick describes research of mathematics education where “teaching methods which
utilized at least 50% of the time for development activities were more effective in generating
long-term retention than those where development was less” (Flick, 1995). Therefore, the time
allotted to conduct and resolve an investigation is equally as important as the rest of the
instruction. Teachers who are new to the inquiry-oriented method of instruction may take a
considerable amount of time to figure out effective planning for various activities and subject
areas.
Curriculum and instructional strategies
"Although many people think of instruction as what teachers do, it consists of
interactions involving teachers, students, and content" (Cohen & Ball, 2001). In order for
inquiry instruction to occur, teachers and students must collaborate to discover and reveal
learning. The roles of both teacher and student shift from those commonly found in the
traditional textbook-based mode of instruction. Teachers move away from explicitly
transmitting knowledge and move towards guiding understanding amongst students through
communication. (Borasi & Siegel, 2000)
The aim of inquiry-oriented instruction is for teachers to gear their students towards
recognizing problems. Once students are able to notice disequilibrium on their own, they
naturally move towards finding solutions. Rather than giving solutions to students, teachers
encourage them to use their state of confusion as a starting point for inquiry. (Borasi & Siegel,
2000) One of the main ways that teachers guide their students’ thinking is through questioning.
The types of questions asked by teachers varies depending on grade level and subject area.
Inquiry can play a strong role in the elementary mathematics classroom. When discussing
problems and outcomes, teachers have the ability to listen to student responses and ask
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appropriate questions in order to guide their thinking. For example, if a student is in front of the
class explaining a two-digit subtraction problem, the teacher should allow him/her to draw, write,
and/or say whatever they need in order to communicate their findings. Rather than correcting a
misunderstanding or praising a correct answer, it is necessary to explore how a student arrives at
an answer, whether it is right or wrong. It may be right because of chance, or if a student gives a
wrong answer, they may be really close to arriving at a solution and just need a little help. The
student’s defense of his/her answer is equally important as the written answer. (Ball, 1991)
"The way we frame questions, search for answers to them, and then connect the emerging
knowledge to what we already know, is scientific inquiry" (Windschitl & Buttemer, 2000).
According to Windschitl and Buttemer, inquiry requires a large amount of independent learning
time. The process begins with students identifying a question, solving the problem, and then
debating the answer with the class. As mentioned earlier, it is necessary for teachers to be
consistent and to plan enough time for students to complete the process in order to improve their
inquiry skills. (Windschitl & Buttemer, 2000) After allowing plenty of time for independent
inquiry, teachers may proceed with a series of open-ended questions for the students. The
questions should be well thought out and meaningful. The purpose of questioning is to urge
students to seek relationships among concepts and create challenging predictions about their
findings. Once students reach a high level of understanding, they will be prepared to present
evidence to the teacher and/or class. Evidence may be in the form of verbal or written
explanation, pictorial representation, or any other form of assessment that would push the student
to evaluate his/her own understanding. (Windschitl & Buttemer, 2000)
There is a fine line that should not be crossed when teaching in an inquiry-oriented
classroom. Teachers are present in order to facilitate, question, and encourage, while
Inquiry in the classroom
simultaneously making sure that the students are leading their own inquiries. If teachers try to
lead or probe students to wonder about a concept without the student having a certain amount of
investment in the issue, the instruction can quickly turn into explicit teaching. (Windschitl &
Buttemer, 2000)
Inquiry can be the base of instruction in nearly every subject, including: math, science,
and English. "Language has the power to help children organize and link their partial
understandings as they integrate and develop mathematical concepts."(Campbell, 1997)
Supporters of inquiry-oriented instruction in mathematics believe that the discussion may help
form students understanding of new concepts. In many mathematics classes, the ultimate
objective is to unlock the mystery of the textbook. Teachers and students spend time digging
through information to reveal the purpose. (Borasi & Siegel, 2000) American mathematics
classrooms are notorious for revolving around the memorization and application of rules.
(Stipek, 2000) Teachers spend endless amounts of time trying to teach students the numerous
steps involved in algorithms. Students are expected to remember the algorithms, know when to
apply them, and figure out their meaning.
Unfortunately, it is rarely the case that students are urged to think about the purpose of
formulas and procedures in mathematics. These common practices lead students to believe that
mathematics is strictly independent work. Acquisition of understanding is left up to the
individual. Students think that there is only one way to discover an answer and once that
happens, any similar problem may be solved. Their mathematical mindset is overtaken by
mystery and stress regarding numbers. Few students realize that math is all around and can
easily be related to everyday life. (Borasi & Siegel, 2000)
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Incorporating literature in the math class is one way to get students interested and ready
to question the subject. Borasi and Siegel discuss reasons why the mathematics curriculum can
benefit from the inclusion of literature. Studying mathematical concepts within a particular
context increases the reality of a problem. Real world problems in all curricular areas,
especially mathematics, often lead to deep long-lasting understanding. Borasi and Siegel even
suggest reading texts about real mathematicians' journeys towards creating theories. Students
may come to a deeper understanding of a concept if they find out how it was originally
discovered. (Borasi & Siegel, 2000)
Shih (2004) suggests a number of guidelines when using literature in mathematics
instruction. Whether reading aloud, or assigning independent reading, he encourages teachers to
allow for open discussion of the text. He mentions the importance of leaving the mathematical
concept to be revealed by the students, rather than explicitly explained by the teacher. When
reading aloud, teachers often feel the need to stop and think aloud or comprehend the text for the
class. In order for the inclusion of literature to be effective, teachers have to refrain from
translating the text. Shih mentions that it is often useful to revisit the concept and the book after
students have explored the concept on their own as a form of review. Rereading sometimes
leads students to ask deeper questions. (Shih, 2004) A main reason for including literature in
mathematics instruction is to increase students’ thinking about math and to create an
environment where students are constantly looking to connect real world with math. Once
students begin to realize that math is an integral part of daily life, they may begin to question
concepts and recognize a need for learning about math.
In addition to introducing literature, teachers can plan meaningful extensions to stories,
such as writing tasks that involve the specified concept. When beginning to integrate literature
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and math, teachers may refer to Shih’s lists of recommended texts. The lists include texts in
which mathematics is the basis for the story, texts where knowing a math concept is integral to
understanding the story, and texts where math naturally emerges depending on students’
background knowledge. (Shih, 2004)
Ideally, the exposure to texts involving mathematical issues will help students build their
own understanding of a given concept. Each reader brings his or her own connections to a given
text. When students are able to connect a math concept with literature, the learning becomes
more meaningful and therefore deeper learning occurs. In order to guide students thinking,
teachers ask students about math in regards to the text and also allow plenty of opportunities for
students to ask questions. Through discussions surrounding the text, students will be more
inclined to understand the mathematical knowledge. (Shih, 2004) Students are usually capable
of identifying math in texts, but it is crucial that they are given the opportunity to respond in a
mathematical way during the discussion. Through text discussions and collaborative work,
teachers and students will create a community in which math is recognized in daily life. "When
a teacher develops, encourages, and is aware of developing a mathematical perspective toward
literature, children begin to make mathematical connections with all types of literature." (Shih,
2004)
Assessment
"When we modify the questions that we ask students, our assessment of students'
thinking refines our instructional practice and indicates to students that we value their ability to
communicate about mathematics" (Chappell & Thompson, 1999). Inquiry-oriented instruction
provides teachers with many options when it comes to assessing student understanding. The
format of the instruction involves discussion, deep personal investigation and communication of
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thoughts. Each of these products may be used as a mode of informal assessment. Traditional
assessment methods, such as multiple choice, true false, and fill in the blanks are not always the
best ways to assess student understanding.
Since inquiry instruction urges students to think about their learning in more than one
way, they may be more inclined to produce in-depth pieces of work to be used for evaluation.
For example, higher order thought processes call for students to evaluate, argue, and create their
own representation of their understanding. The inquiry that is done during instruction time
should prepare students to apply their new knowledge in more complex ways. "Written
assessment items in the form of open-ended questions enlighten teachers about the extent to
which students understand underlying mathematical concepts" (Chappell & Thompson, 1999).
Implications for future practice
Teacher education plays a profound role in the effectiveness of inquiry-based instruction,
especially in mathematics. In 2003, Even and Ball found that Chinese mathematics teachers
were better prepared to explain concepts to their students in comparison to teachers in the U. S.
Chinese teachers possess language that helps learners understand the fundamentals of
mathematical concepts. (Even & Ball, 2003) How can educators bridge this gap? Teacher
education programs profess the importance of encouraging inquiry in the classroom, but do they
follow through within the college courses? Do teacher education programs implement inquiryoriented instruction? If so, are their teachers leaving the programs and repeating those practices
in the elementary classrooms? “Inquiry-oriented mathematics teaching requires considerable
knowledge of mathematics because teachers need to diagnose the concepts that underlie
students’ responses or problem-solving strategies and respond with appropriate scaffolding”
(Stipek, 2000). To be effective instructors, teachers should possess a high level of self-
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confidence in their ability to teach without being dependent upon explicit instructions from a
textbook.
In addition to having an adequate education, teachers’ beliefs regarding instructional
models plays a key role in their practice. Stipek, et al. (2001) found that a number of teachers
learned about inquiry-oriented instruction and the positive impact that it can have on learners,
but still failed to incorporate it into their daily practices. Teachers attended professional
development conferences about inquiry in the classroom and left with a plethora of tools and
ideas. Upon returning to the classroom, teachers who attended conferences began to implement
portions of inquiry-based instruction, but did not adopt all areas of the instructional model. They
simply added small amounts of new methods to their pre-existing practices. Stipek, et al.
stressed the importance of believing in inquiry-oriented instruction in order for the effectiveness
to be optimal. (Stipek, et al., 2001)
Inquiry-oriented instruction may take place in any classroom environment, as long as the
teacher is willing to create appropriate activities and consistently provide support for students.
"Research on inquiry-oriented instruction has produced mixed results with the clearest effects
occurring with more capable students, who have well trained teachers, and a supportive
classroom environment" (Flick, 1995). When teachers continue to grow as learners and
educators, they are capable of implementing original tools in their classroom, even if their class
consists of a variety of ability levels. Following the traditional textbook-based model of explicit
teaching may appear easier even though educators know that all students do not possess identical
learning styles. Inquiry-oriented instruction is flexible and allows teachers to create educational
experiences that are unique to a particular group of students.
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References
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