Reading Comprehension 1
Comprehension is the Key
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in the Primary Classroom
Capstone Project
Kellie N. Kostrubala
March 1, 2009
Department of Teaching and Learning
Peabody College of Vanderbilt University
Reading Comprehension 2
Table of Contents
Abstract
p. 3
Literature Review
p. 4
Reference List
p. 22
Capstone Project
Workshop Overview
p. 25
Workshop Agendas
p. 26
Presentation Slides
p. 29
Workshop Notebook
p. 54
Workshop Feedback
p. 98
Instructional Implementation Feedback
p. 99
Reading Comprehension 3
Abstract
Teaching reading comprehension is vitally important to students understanding
that reading is a meaning making process. Unfortunately, a review of many teachers’
reading comprehension instruction shows that no instruction actually occurs. Instead, a
continual assessment of student reading comprehension is always evident. Durkin’s
seminal study in 1978-1979 first brought this concern to light. In the past three
decades, some has changed in the instruction of comprehension, but not enough.
Although multiple theorists, academics, and educational researchers have published a
vast array of research supporting the use of strategy instruction, not all teachers or
schools have embraced the concept.
In an attempt to further expand the implementation of effective comprehension
strategy instruction, quality teacher inservices must be provided with direct application
to teacher instruction. This professional development must provide teachers with
information on why comprehension strategy instruction is important, on the learning
environments that best promote comprehension strategy instruction, on how learners
best learn reading comprehension, on how teachers best teach reading comprehension,
and on how to best assess students’ use of reading comprehension strategies.
Teachers who teach for meaning using explicit reading comprehension instruction are
teaching a concept which the National Reading Panel found to be “highly effective,”
(Report of the National Reading Panel, 2000). Additionally the National Reading Panel
determined that reading comprehension is the “essence of reading,” (Report of the
National Reading Panel, 2000). If reading comprehension is the essence of reading
and instruction in reading comprehension has proven to be highly effective then it must
become a standard part of every reading teacher’s instruction.
Reading Comprehension 4
Comprehension is the Key
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in the Primary Classroom
If you were to enter two different classrooms during their respective literacy
blocks, would you see a focus on reading comprehension strategies in both, neither, or
just one? My experiences in public schools, lead me to believe some primary teachers
are either not as concerned about developing deep comprehension or are unfamiliar
with the theory and research associated with comprehension development in early
literacy. In either case, if teachers are to begin developing deep comprehension within
their classrooms, they will need to know the theory and research supporting the
instructional decisions and effective practices for implementing deeper comprehension
instruction. I developed a teacher inservice program, consisting of three separate
components, which focus on answering the question: How and why should teachers
develop depth of comprehension in the primary grades?
Curriculum and Strategies
In recent years, it is not uncommon to hear principals and reading specialist
discussing their staffs reading of Mosaic of Thought, Reading with Meaning, Strategies
that Work, and other comprehension strategy based instruction text. Although these
texts are quite popular in many school settings, there remains to question whether this
push for strategy instruction is founded in any reading process theories and backed by
research.
In 1978-1979, Dorles Durkin published an article in Reading Research Quarterly
which seemed to catapult researchers and educators to begin thinking about how
comprehension instruction should be implemented in a classroom. Her observations
Reading Comprehension 5
noted that of the classrooms she observed several reoccurring and troubling teaching
practices were in place. First, teachers were mentioning concepts, assigning work,
checking it, and asking questions as their method of teaching for not just reading
comprehension but also all other subjects. Second, teachers were using basal
curriculums much like scripts to follow in order to teach reading comprehension. If
teachers were not using a basal curriculum like a script, they were using workbooks as
the primary means for teaching lessons (Durkin, 1978-1979).
In addition, Durkin noted several findings related directly to her research goal,
whether or not elementary classrooms were providing comprehension instruction. Her
first finding was that almost no comprehension instruction was observed although
comprehension assessment was observed. Her second finding was that other forms of
reading instruction such as phonics, vocabulary, etc. were not observed, which led her
to the conclusion that these teachers could not say that they were sacrificing reading
comprehension instruction in order to provide other reading instruction. Her third finding
was that teachers spent the majority of their reading instructional block giving and
checking assignments. Overall, Durkin’s research showed that comprehension
instruction was not taught or encouraged but was continually assessed (Durkin, 19781979).
From Durkin’s seminal research, came other researchers and theorists with ideas
for how comprehension appears in children, adolescents and adults as well as how to
instruct children to be comprehenders of text. Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) were two
such researchers. They conducted a "verbal protocol analysis" also referred to as a
“think aloud” analysis in order to learn what readers are thinking while reading. Their
Reading Comprehension 6
biggest finding was that readers are extremely driven to construct meaning. From this
finding, they made the conclusion that readers are active while reading and this activity
is focused around comprehension (Pressley and Afflerbach, 1995). Pressley (2000)
later defines active reading by a very specific set of criteria including, but not limited to
the reader: being cognizant of what s/he is reading, sampling the text before reading,
making predictions about the text, making connections to previous ideas and
experiences while reading, adjusting previously made predictions or making new
predictions based on text read, accommodating existing knowledge based on new
information, identifying meanings to new words based on textual clues, and using
multiple methods for remembering valuable information from the text in the future
(Pressley, 2000).
If active comprehension is the goal for teachers to achieve with their young
readers, how should they format or design lessons to teach for active comprehension.
Pearson and Dole (1987) recommend teachers use explicit comprehension instruction.
Following their model, teachers model a specific comprehension skill or strategy. They
also provide an explanation of what the skill or strategy is and when to use it. Next,
teachers should engage students in guided practice. During this guided practice, the
teacher and the students are working together to use the comprehension skill or
strategy. The teacher provides feedback and helps students when they feel stuck or
unable to use the comprehension skill or strategy. Most importantly, this is a time for
the teacher and students to join together as a community of readers as they “share
publicly their cognitive secrets” (p.159). During the third step, teachers begin asking
students questions about how and when to use the skill or strategy. Then they move to
Reading Comprehension 7
the fourth step, independent practice. During independent practice students begin
using the skill or strategy when completing workbook pages. However, as
misconceptions of when or how to use the skill or strategy arise, the teacher steps in to
“reconsolidate” the when and how associated with the skill or strategy. Finally, students
get the opportunity to apply the skill or strategy on their own as they read text
independently (Pearson and Dole, 1987).
More recently Walker (2005) proposed that readers need “more than a model.”
She urges teachers to move beyond teaching instruction such as that presented by
Pearson and Dole (1987). Her advice to teachers is to begin using think alouds as a
way for teachers to explicitly model “self-statements” as they read text aloud to
students. Through thinking aloud, students first hear how the teacher is internalizing the
comprehension strategy when reading. Later when the students have an opportunity to
do their own thinking aloud, they too will begin to internalize the strategy and its use for
understanding the text (Walker, 2005).
Reading comprehension skills and strategies are said to be interactive in that a
reader is always shifting between the two. Does this idea carry over to just
comprehension strategies? Should comprehension strategies be taught in isolation or
as an interwoven act? Researchers recommend the latter. In Pressley and his
colleague’s (1992) study of transactional strategies instruction, the researchers point to
the word ‘strategies’ in the name as an important indicator of the multiple aspects of
comprehension taking place during reading. Essentially students who are taught using
transactional strategies instruction are instructed in how to coordinate each of the
reading comprehension strategies they’ve learned in order to make meaning from a
Reading Comprehension 8
text. In the classes observed by Pressley and his colleagues (1992), the teachers
provided instruction on one or two strategies, but reminded and/or linked the current
strategy to previously taught strategies. Therefore, students were being encouraged to
use multiple strategies at one time (Pressley et. al, 1992).
More importantly than teaching the use of multiple strategies while reading, is the
idea that readers are constantly interacting with the text and their fellow readers while
reading a text. What is described as the “heart” of transactional strategies instruction in
the interactions that students are having with the texts and with one another about the
texts. The researchers describe how students individually bring unique sets of prior
knowledge and experiences to the texts which they read which in turn contributes to the
students individual interpretations and/or interactions with the text. However, if students
are given the opportunity to interact not only with the text, but also with their peers about
a common text, multiple backgrounds and experiences are joined together to create
“community-generated” meanings of the text (Pressley et. al, 1992). Thus, the learning
environment is another evident influencer of effective comprehension strategy
instruction.
Learning Environment
Having a language-rich or literacy-rich classroom has become a standard
request or requirement in many school districts. Although it is such a prevalent
requirement in many public schools, is there really any research based evidence to
support it? Taylor, Blum, and Logston (1996) say yes. In 1996 they completed a
project studying the effects of teachers implementing a theory-based pre-reading
curriculum. The results from the study show two important factors supporting the
Reading Comprehension 9
concept of a literacy-rich classroom environment. First, the researchers found that
young children, regardless of their home environments, learned pre-literacy skills when
placed in classrooms with the “right” environment. From their opportunities to observe,
explore and practice literacy skills, these students began to create their own
understandings of both the reading and writing process. Their second finding showed
that, in general, children in language-rich environments learn best. Students learn best
in these language-rich environments when teachers make text purposes explicit. In an
attempt to make language-rich classrooms, like these, available for a large number of
students, many teachers in this study participated in professional development on
implementation. However, teachers showed varying degrees of success with actual
implementation of these language-rich environments. The reason for these varying
degrees is largely unknown (Taylor, Blum, Logston, 1996).
The definition of a language, literacy, or print rich environment often changes
based on the theorist, researcher, or general educator spoken to. Taylor, Blum, and
Logston (1996) described a language-rich environment as one in which students have
many opportunities to observe, explore, and practice literacy skills in “genuine,
communicative situations” (p.132). Neuman (2004) described print-rich environments
in the early child care centers from her study as having meaningful signs, cozy libraries,
literacy related centers, and multiple opportunities to interact with one another and
teachers. McGill-Frazen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks (1999) described similar
classrooms as having not just a lot of high-quality literature, but also having teachers
adequately trained to teach students using this literature.
Reading Comprehension 10
McGill-Frazen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks’ (1999) study gives insight into
literacy-rich classrooms consisting of more than just a lot of print. In their study, there
were two types of classroom environments. The first had a well stocked classroom
library filled with high-quality children’s literature. However, the teachers of these
classrooms received no special professional development as to how to use this library.
The second group of classrooms had the same well stocked classroom library filled with
high-quality children’s literature. However, the teachers of these classrooms received
special professional development indicating how to display and use the books in their
libraries. The results of the study showed that the students who were in classrooms
with both well-stocked libraries and teachers with special professional development
earned higher scores on the literacy assessments administered than the students in the
other classrooms (McGill-Frazen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks, 1999).
The study by McGill-Frazen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks (1999) begins the
thought process that literacy-rich classrooms consist of more than just large amounts of
print. Dunn, Beach, and Kontos (1994) decided to look at print-rich classrooms with
this question in mind: “Is the presence of print enough?” Childcare programs
participating in their project were given specific tasks with which to engage students
using the print materials in the classroom. Dunn, Beach, and Kontos (1994) wanted to
see what changes this direct exposure to purposes of print would elicit in the child care
centers. They found that after the literacy activities were introduced the children began
self initiating reading and writing tasks. Children were reading books they had created
themselves and tradebooks located in the classroom. They spent time creating more
original written work and in turn sharing their authored pieces with stuffed animals,
Reading Comprehension 11
teachers, and peers. More peer interaction with books and reading was occurring as
opposed to what was observed prior to the implementation of direct literacy activities.
Before the literacy activities were introduced, the children had very little opportunities to
interact with print in meaningful ways. Although materials were available, they were
arranged in such a way as to elicit creative expression instead of literacy activities.
Literacy activities were seen most prevalently in whole group settings (Dunn, Beach,
and Kontos, 1994).
The changes in the children’s interactions with materials were not only prompted
by materials being situated in more meaningful ways, but also by the interactions
occurring between the teacher and the child. Now when the children were asked to
read or write they typically replied with an affirmation or just acting on the request
immediately. In addition, the interactions between children increased as they began to
read to one another, talk about the books they were making, and talking while creating
literate pieces. Dunn, Beach, and Kontos (1994) viewed these interactions as further
evidence to the benefit of increasing opportunities for meaningful interactions with print.
The research on literate environments shows that having large amounts of
quality literature is important; however, it is not enough. In addition to the quality
literature and other print resources, teachers must know how to engage their students in
literacy activities and provide many opportunities for their students to interact with one
another in meaningful ways as they explore print. Debbie Miller, a former first grade
teacher for thirty years for Denver Public Schools, thinks that literacy teachers must
consider what they themselves look for when choosing opportunities with print. She
proposes that the same characteristics that teachers use to make choices about literacy
Reading Comprehension 12
should be applied to creating a literate environment for their students. Some examples
of adult literacy choices that are also applicable for students are: opportunities to read
for long periods of time, opportunities to read for different purposes, opportunities to
choose their own text, and opportunities to respond to text through reflection,
conversations, and collaboration with other readers (Miller, 2002). Miller’s description of
a literate environment that is meaningful for both students and adults provides the basis
for her comprehension strategy based instruction. She explains that providing students
with large amounts of time to read, respond, and confer about meaningful pieces of
literature gives students an opportunity to practice and use comprehension strategies
“to make sense of the text” (Miller, 2002, p. 7).
Linda Dorn and Carla Soffos also take into consideration the activities provided
by the teacher when describing a literate environment. They first state that a literate
environment is one in which all students can feel and become successful readers. To
accomplish this, they believe teachers should differentiate instruction in order to provide
all students with success. The classroom environments Dorn and Soffos (2005)
describe allow students to read, respond, and confer about literature in a variety of
groupings: whole group, small group, individually, one on one with the teacher. These
different settings are what will promote students’ “deeper comprehension.” When
students are reading, responding, and conferring in these settings, they “must be given
opportunities to apply their knowledge, skills, and strategies in different contexts and for
different purposes” (Dorn and Soffos, 2005, p. 66). Dorn and Soffos along with Miller
focus their attention on how productive literate environments allow multiple opportunities
to apply and practice reading comprehension strategies in meaningful ways with text.
Reading Comprehension 13
They all also agree that the best environment for strategy instruction is a reading
workshop (Dorn and Soffos, 2005 and Miller, 2002). The reading workshop format
allows time for short, directed instruction and/or modeling of comprehension strategies,
followed by an extended time for reading, responding, and conferring, followed by a
brief share time for students to articulate how they applied and practiced the
comprehension strategies (Miller, 2002). For students to be able to develop themselves
into deep readers they must become self-extending learners.
Learners and Learning
Students as Learners
Marie Clay first used the term self-extending systems in 1991. She defined selfextending systems as a means for young children to understand and use the reading
process (Chandler-Olcott, 2002). Gay Su Pinnell and Irene Fountas also discussed this
idea of self-extending learners in their book Guided Reading. Much like Clay, they
talked of self-extending learners in the terms of children becoming independent, selfengaging readers. These self-extending readers would continue to learn more about
the reading process as they independently choose to read and choose to extend their
own learning (Fountas and Pinnell, 1996).
Fountas and Pinnell also identified eight descriptors of a self-extending reader:
user of multiple sources of information, independent problem solver, fluent reader,
reader who read for multiple purposes to extend their own learning, reader who read
independently for meaning, reader who learn from reading, reader of long, complex text,
and reader of different genres. The key component of each of these descriptors is that
the self-extending reader works independently to extend his/her own learning. Fountas
Reading Comprehension 14
and Pinnell clearly indicate that becoming a self-extending reader is not a role that
learners take on over night. Instead learners must move from emergent readers to
early readers to transitional readers to finally become a self-extending reader (Fountas
and Pinnell, 1996). Essential in learners making the transition from being emergent
readers to becoming self-extending readers is the development of their ability to
problem solve while reading.
Kenneth Goodman believes that as readers read they are using several different
cueing systems to guide their problem solving. The cueing systems are phonographic,
syntactic, and semantic. Goodman observed readers using these cues as they made
predictions about the text or guesses about how the text was developing. These
predictions or guesses based on the three cueing systems could be viewed as a means
of problem solving the text. His observations eventually led him to determine that
readers use these cues in combination in order to construct meaning and, thus,
comprehend a text (Goodman, 1994).
Diane Deford and colleagues looked at Goodman’s research over time in
conjunction with Marie Clay and others to better understand how learners learn to read
and develop comprehension strategies. They found that as learners grow in their use
the cueing systems, their knowledge about how language works grows (Clay calls this
“a working system). Once learners have a strong foundation for problem solving using
the three cueing systems, the information they gain from the cues will guide their
comprehension strategy development. As the team of researcher continued with their
own project, they compared the use of the cueing systems with the learners’ abilities to
become strategic readers. The found that when learners were given text to read on
Reading Comprehension 15
their instructional or independent reading level and had a balanced use of all three
cueing systems, then the learners were more likely to read strategically (National
Council of English Teachers, 2003).
Teachers as Learners
In addition to thinking of learners as students, educators such a reading
specialists or literacy coaches who take on the task of providing professional
development to teachers must see teachers as learners as well. One of the primary
roles of a literacy coach is to develop teachers into self-extending learners (Dozier,
2006). Fountas and Pinnell’s descriptors of a self-extending reader can apply to more
than just students. Three of their descriptors can cross over to become descriptors of
self-extending teachers: use all sources of information flexibly, solve problems in an
independent way, and continue to learn from teaching (substituted for reading). When
transferring these ideas of self-extending readers from Clay’s and Fountas and Pinnell’s
work, the word teaching can often replace reading. Look for example at a quote from
Becoming Literate by Clay:
Once a teacher (reader) is using a set of strategies which enable him to monitor
his own teaching (reading) and check one source with other sources in a
sequential problem solving process, then engaging in these activities serves to
extend the potential of the teacher (reader) to engage in more difficult activities
and he assumes the major responsibility for learning to teach (read) by teaching
(reading) (1991, p. 317; substitutions are in italics, the original text in
parentheses) (Chandler-Olcott, 2002).
Reading Comprehension 16
Clay begins this quote by talking about the reader, or in this case teacher, using
strategies to monitor his or her own reading, or in this case teaching. Thinking of
teachers in this way is a reminder that teachers must use strategies to monitor their
teaching for effective practice, meeting student needs, and achieving grade-level, state,
or district goals. As teaching continues to evolve, teachers’ practices can not remain
the same, they must continue to change to reflect the new theories and research they
learn and meet the ever changing needs each new class of students presents
(Chandler-Olcott, 2002).
Clay, Fountas, and Pinnell also write about the need for readers to use multiple
forms of information or to use information flexibly when reading. Likewise, teachers
must not use just one piece of information when making classroom decisions, but
instead examine a comprehensive set of resources representing theory, research, and
practice to make the most informed and appropriate instructional decisions for their
unique group of students each year. In addition, Clay encourages discussion with
students in order to develop strategies and better understand the thinking of the
students while reading. For teacher growth, focused conversations are also needed.
These conversations may center around problems the teachers have solved. Clay
states that through problems solving, readers are then better able to solve future
problems that arise while reading. Literacy Coaches also should consider how helping
teachers become independent problem solvers, they are preparing these teachers to
solve future problems that arise while teaching (Chandler-Olcott, 2002).
Cheryl Dozier stated in an interview with EDnews, that coaches should purposely
help teachers create these self-extending systems. She suggests using both
Reading Comprehension 17
collaborative inquiry and conversations to foster self-extending teaching. Dozier also
speaks to the generative nature of self-extending systems in helping teachers develop
multiple solutions to problems and, thus, make “powerful teaching decisions” within a
variety of different contexts (Shaughnessy, 2007).
The key word from Dozier’s approach to developing self-extending
teachers is collaborative. Allison Niedzwiecki and Cathy Toll both write about the
problems that occur when a coach becomes “the resident expert” (Niedzwiecki, 2007,
pg. 61). When the coach acts as the expert, he or she is taking the power away from the
teachers. For real change to occur, teachers must retain the power to make positive
decisions based on student assessment data, conversations with colleagues, and their
own professional judgment (Niedwiecki, 2007).
Assessment
If the goal is for students to become self-extending learners or readers, how will
teachers know how to help their students become self-extending readers? One key
attribute of the self-extending reader is problem solving with text. Goodman gave the
example of his three cueing systems as a means to problem solve with text. However,
as DeFord and her colleagues discovered. For students to be strategic readers, they
must balance their use of the three cueing systems. Thus, teachers need a means to
determine if students over-relying on one or two systems and not relying on the other.
Goodman created an assessment with this end in mind, the miscue analysis (Goodman,
1994).
The miscue analysis or analyzing errors during a running record proves valuable
to reading comprehension instruction as it provides some information as to whether
Reading Comprehension 18
students are using comprehension strategies (making meaning) in their error making. It
also gives the teacher a chance to analyze how students are problem solving with text.
If the student is using very little problem solving to read and make meaning of a text
than he or she is not be a strategic reader. Therefore, miscue analysis becomes a
valuable assessment tool for teachers of reading and reading comprehension.
To perform a miscue analysis, the Goodmans (1994) describe several conditions
which must be in place. First, the assessment administrator must choose an
appropriate text for the purpose of analyzing misuces. This means that the text must be
new to the student, have a clear beginning, middle, and end, and must be long and
challenging enough for the student to make a significant number of miscues. The
reason for forcing students to make miscues is so that the assessment administrator
can analyze the miscues to discover a pattern in cues the student is or is not using.
Additionally, the administration of a miscue analysis requires that the administrator offer
no help to the student while reading outside of prompting the student to guess or keep
reading when pauses exceed 30 seconds. Finally, the ideal miscue analysis will be
given in as normal and comfortable an environment as possible (Goodman and
Goodman, 1994).
Outside of the basic considerations for administering a miscue analysis are the
general directions. Students are first given a text, selected based on the previously
mentioned criteria. The administrator has a copy of the text which was provided to the
student. The student reads the text aloud orally. The administrator marks miscues or
“departures from the printed text” (p. 47). Often the student is asked to retell the text
once s/he has finished reading. Both the marked text and the record of the retell are
Reading Comprehension 19
analyzed for information about the student. The administrator then looks at each of the
miscues from the oral reading. S/he questions whether the student used graphophonic,
syntactic, or semantic cues when making this miscue. For graphophonic cues, the
administrator looks to see if the substitution was similar at the beginning, middle, or end
of the word to the text word. For syntactic cues, the administrator looks to see if the
substitution was the same part of speech as the text word. For the semantic cues, the
administrator looks to see if the substitution had a similar meaning text word. Finally, it
is important to note if the miscue was self-corrected (McKenna and Stahl, 2009). The
analysis of the substitution which occurred during the oral reading should show a
pattern of which cueing systems the student is most heavily relying on. This will provide
the teacher with information as to whether or not the student is balancing his/her use of
cues, which is necessary to become a strategic reader.
Analyzing miscues is only one means of gathering data on a student which will
inform instruction. As with the oral miscue analysis, students are often asked to retell a
story in order to give the teacher more information about how much the student
comprehends. A less commonly used method of assessing for comprehension is the
“think-aloud assessment.” Ellin Keene and Susan Zimmermann’s book, Mosaic of
Thought, provides a text-based assessment and think-aloud used by the Public
Education & Business Coalition Reading Project. For this assessment the assessment
administrator has a student read several pages of a book aloud. Then the administrator
stops the student in logical stopping spots throughout the text. When stopped, the
student is asked to tell the administrator what s/he was thinking while s/he was reading
that portion of the text. The student is made aware of all of these directions prior to
Reading Comprehension 20
beginning the activity. After the student has finished reading the book or a selection of
text with a beginning, middle, and end (possibly a chapter), then the administrator asks
the student a series of questions from based on a “Strategy Use Interview.” This
strategy use interview asks questions about the student’s use of schema, inferencing,
questions, and ability to determine importance. Then the think-aloud portion of the
assessment is administered again with a subsequent text. This time the strategy use
interview asks the student questions about how s/he monitored and clarified while
reading, visualized, and synthesized information. Once the assessment is over, the
administrator scores each category using a pre-established rubric ranging from 0- no
response to 4 – reader explains thinking and how the strategy helped him/her. Based
on the recorded data and the rubric, the teacher can determine which strategies the
student is most proficient with using and which the strategies need reinforcement
(Keene and Zimmermann, 1997). This is one method which can be used to determine a
student’s level of proficiency with comprehension strategies. As with all lengthier
assessments, this one can be modified to be used more regularly within reading
conferences and small group instruction by focusing on shorter passages and just one
or two comprehension strategies.
Conclusion
From my research of current theorists’ and researchers’ thoughts and findings
about student reading comprehension focused around the areas of learners and
learning, curriculum and strategies, learning environments, and assessments, I created
a comprehensive framework for capturing student knowledge to inform instruction,
instructing for students’ self-regulated use of reading comprehension strategies, and
Reading Comprehension 21
assessing student learning as it applies to reading comprehension and changes student
schema. This framework of practical teaching strategies based on educational theory
and research is the foundation for the inservice, which I created for my capstone
project.
Reading Comprehension 22
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growth. The Reading Teacher, 58(1), 89-91.
Pearson, P.D., & Dole, J.A. (1987). Explicit comprehension instruction: A review of
research and a new conceptualization of instruction. Elementary School Journal,
88, 151-165.
Pressley, M. (2000). Comprehension instruction: What Makes Sense Now, What Might
Make Sense Soon.
In Kamil, Mosenthal, Pearson, & Barr, Handbook of Reading
Research: Volume III. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of
constructively responsive
reading. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.
Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P.B., Gaskins, I., Schuder, T., Bergman, J., Almasi, L., &
Brown, R. (1992). Beyond
direct explanation: Transactional instruction of reading
comprehension strategies. Elementary
School Journal, 92, 513-555.
Reading Comprehension 24
Taylor, N. E., Blum, I., & Logsdon, D. M. (1986). The development of written language
awareness:
Environmental aspects and program characteristics. Reading
Research Quarterly, 21, 132-149.
Walker, B.J. (2005). Thinking aloud: Struggling readers often require more than a
model. The Reading Teacher, 58(7), 688-692.
Reading Comprehension 25
Workshop Overview
The inservice consists of three separate sessions which may be conducted in
one day long workshop or over three two-hour workshops. The latter would provide
teachers with ample time to implement, question, and discuss the ideas and strategies
presented during previous sessions. However, the first scenario may be more practical
for use during teacher paid in-house inservice days. Session one provides a rationale
for reading comprehension instruction. This session also provides information on
creating literate learning environments and the how doing so supports reading
comprehension instruction. Session two establishes the need for assessing students
and walks through two different assessment tools. One tool is for assessing student
problem solving; and the other is for assessing students’ ability to orally relay their use
of comprehension strategies. Finally, session three establishes a framework for
instructional planning to support student acquisition and application of reading
comprehension strategies. I provide teachers with tools multiple tools for implementing
the instructional strategies presented during this three part inservice through the
frequent interactive activities, a video clip, and an extensive workshop resource packet.
Reading Comprehension 26
Workshop Agenda
Session #1
Session #1: Rationale and Establishing Environment (2 hours)
 Introduction to topic
 Workshop Objectives
 Why are we here?
20 minutes
 Self-assess current practice
25 minutes
 Debrief Evaluation of Current Practice
15 minutes
 Literature Review Literate Learning Environments
20 minutes
 Create Protocols for Learning Environments
25 minutes
 Debrief Evaluating Learning Environment Activity
15 minutes
Reading Comprehension 27
Workshop Agenda
Session #2
Session #2: Assessment (2 hours)
 Literature Review and Procedural Explanation of
Running Records
 How to Analyze Miscues from a Running Record
20 minutes
 Practice administering running Record
 Practice analyzing Results
25 minutes
 Debrief Running Record Activity
15 minutes
 Literature Review and Procedural Explanation of
Think Alouds
20 minutes
 Practice Administering Think Aloud Assessment
 Practice analyzing results
25 minutes
 Debrief Think Aloud Activity
15 minutes
Reading Comprehension 28
Workshop Agenda
Session #3
Session #3: Instructional Strategies (2 hours)
 Literature Review Instructional Strategies:
Teaching One or Multiple Reading Comprehension
Strategies
 Curriculum Planning
20 minutes
 Watch video lesson of kindergarten teacher
providing explicit strategy instruction
 Record observations about video lesson
25 minutes
 Develop Lesson Plan/Lesson Outline for
Comprehension Strategy Instruction – Present
Plans
20 minutes
 Debrief Instructional Ideas
10 minutes
 Rationale for Creating Graphic Organizers
5 minutes
 Create Graphic Organizers and Rubrics
25 minutes
 Debrief Graphic Organizer Activity
15 minutes
Reading Comprehension 29
Workshop Presentation Slide
Comprehension is the Key:
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in
the Primary Classroom
Kellie Kostrubala
Vanderbilt University, Peabody College
Introduction
Our Topic: Reading Comprehension Strategies
Reading Comprehension: Reading comprehension is understanding a
text that is read, or the process of "constructing meaning" from a text.
Comprehension is a "construction process" because it involves all of the
elements of the reading process working together as a text is read to
create a representation of the text in the reader's mind (Partnership of
Reading, 2005).
Strategic Reading: Research indicates that effective or expert readers
are strategic (Baker & Brown, 1984a, 1984b). This means that they have
purposes for their reading and adjust their reading to each purpose and
for each reading task. Strategic readers use a variety of strategies and
skills as they construct meaning (Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991).
Reading Comprehension Strategies: Strategic readers use a variety of
strategies to construct meaning. Extensive research over the pas t two
decades has shown that some of these strategies seem to be more
significant than others (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, & Pearson, 1991). Research
indicates that the following strategies are important in helping readers
construct meaning: Inferencing, Monitoring, Summarizing, and
Questioning.
Definitions quoted directly from: http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/literacy/st_read0.html,
http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Reading_comprehension
Reading Comprehension 30
Workshop Objectives
By the end of session one, participants will establish a rationale
for reading comprehension strategy instruction in order to
evaluate their current comprehension instruction.
By the end of session two, participants will learn how to analyze
data from running records and think alouds in order to guide
their instructional planning for reading comprehension.
By the end of session three, participants will develop curriculum
plans for reading comprehension strategy instruction that
include opportunities for informal assessment in order to be
equipped to implement strategy instruction upon returning to
their classrooms.
Comprehension is the Key:
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in
the Primary Classroom
Session #1
Reading Comprehension 31
Why are we here?
Why should we learn about reading comprehension strategy
instruction?
Dolores Durkin (1978-1979) found that:
1. Teachers were mentioning concepts, assigning work, checking it, and
asking questions as their method of teaching for not just reading
comprehension but also all other subjects.
2. Teachers were using basal curriculums much like scripts to follow in
order to teach reading comprehension. If teachers were not using a basal
curriculum like a script, they were using workbooks as the primary means
for teaching lessons.
3. Overall, Durkin’s research showed that comprehension instruction was
not taught or encouraged but was continually assessed.
Why are we here?
Why should we learn about reading comprehension strategy
instruction?
Pressley and Afflerbach (1995) found that:
1. Readers are extremely driven to construct meaning.
2. From this finding, they made the conclusion that readers are active while reading
and this activity is focused around comprehension (Pressley and Afflerbach, 1995).
3. Pressley later defines active reading by a very specific set of criteria including, but
not limited to the reader: being cognizant of what s/he is reading, sampling the text
before reading, making predictions about the text, making connections to previous
ideas and experiences while reading, adjusting previously made predictions or
making new predictions based on text read, accommodating existing knowledge
based on new information, identifying meanings to new words based on textual
clues, and using multiple methods for remembering valuable information from the
text in the future (Pressley, 2000).
Reading Comprehension 32
Why are we here?
Do you see a need for Comprehension
Strategy Instruction in your classroom?
Discuss with your tablemates for 3
minutes. Be prepared to share three big
ideas from your discussion with the whole
group.
Activity
Self Assess Current Practice
At your table you should find chart paper and
markers.
As a table make a chart indicating each of your
reading block time allotments, 1-3 (as a whole
table choose 1-3) brief comprehension lessons
recently taught, why you choose the
instructional strategies you used to teach this
lesson.
Then compare your instructional strategies with
the definitions and research presented.
Reading Comprehension 33
What is a literate learning
environment?
•
•
Taylor, Blum, and Logston (1996)
Their Research: In 1996 they completed a project studying
the effects of teachers implementing a theory-based prereading curriculum.
Their Findings: The results from the study show two
important factors supporting the concept of a literacy-rich
classroom environment.
1. The researchers found that young children, regardless of their
home environments, learned pre-literacy skills when placed in
classrooms with the “right” environment. From their opportunities to
observe, explore and practice literacy skills, these students began
to create their own understandings of both the reading and writing
process.
2. Their second finding showed that, in general, children in
language-rich environments learn best. Students learn best in these
language-rich environments when teachers make text purposes
explicit. In an attempt to make language-rich classrooms, like
these, available for a large number of students, many teachers in
this study participated in professional development on
implementation.
What is a literate learning
environment?
Neuman (2004)
•
Neuman described print-rich environments in the early child care centers
from her study as having meaningful signs, cozy libraries, literacy related
centers, and multiple opportunities to interact with one another and teachers.
McGill-Frazen, Allington, Yokoi, and Brooks’ (1999)
•
•
Their Study: In their study, there were two types of classroom
environments.
1. The first had a well stocked classroom library filled with high-quality
children’s literature. However, the teachers of these classrooms received no
special professional development as to how to use this library.
2. The second group of classrooms had the same well stocked classroom
library filled with high-quality children’s literature. However, the teachers of
these classrooms received special professional development indic ating how
to display and use the books in their libraries.
Their Results: The results of the study showed that the students who were
in classrooms with both well-stocked libraries and teachers with special
professional development earned higher scores on the literacy assessments
administered than the students in the other classrooms.
Reading Comprehension 34
What is a literate learning
environment?
Dunn, Beach, and Kontos (1994)
•
•
•
Their Research: They wanted to see what changes this direct
exposure to purposes of print would elicit in the child care centers.
Their Findings: They found that after the literacy activities were
introduced the children began self initiating reading and writing tasks.
 Children were reading books they had created themselves and
tradebooks located in the classroom.
 They spent time creating more original written work and in turn sharing
their authored pieces with stuffed animals, teachers, and peers.
 More peer interaction with books and reading was occurring as opposed to
what was observed prior to the implementation of direct literacy activities.
What Caused Change: The changes in the children’s interactions with
materials were not only prompted by materials being situated in more
meaningful ways, but also by the interactions occurring between the
teacher and the child. Now when the children were asked to read or
write they typically replied with an affirmation or just acting on the
request immediately. In addition, the interactions between children
increased as they began to read to one another, talk about the books
they were making, and talking while creating literate pieces.
What is a literate learning
environment?
The research on literate environments shows
that having large amounts of quality literature is
important; however, it is not enough. In addition
to the quality literature and other print resources,
teachers must know how to engage their
students in literacy activities and provide many
opportunities for their students to interact with
one another in meaningful ways as they explore
print.
Reading Comprehension 35
Activity
Create a Protocol for Evaluating Your Learning
Environment
At your table you should find chart paper and
markers.
As a table create a protocol that you could use
to evaluate your learning environment. Be sure
to consider the research when choosing criteria.
Then sketch a literate learning environment that
would meet your expectations.
Comprehension is the Key:
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in
the Primary Classroom
Session #2
Reading Comprehension 36
Assessments
How do you currently assess your students comprehension (informally
and formally)? How effective are these assessments? Why?
Discuss the ideas with your tablemates.
Be prepared to share your table’s big ideas with the group.
What assessments do you use to give you information for planning for
comprehension instruction? Why?
Discuss the ideas with your tablemates.
Be prepared to share your table’s big ideas with the group.
Why are assessments important when considering comprehension
strategy instruction?
Discuss the ideas with your tablemates.
Be prepared to share your table’s big ideas with the group.
Running Records
Running Records are easy ways to take and analyzed
records of students’ reading frequently throughout the
year.
Running Records provide flexibility and multiple
opportunities for assessment since they are taken “on the
fly” using any text the student is reading.
Running Records are a tool for teaching as well as an
evaluative tool to document student progress over the
year.
The frequent use of running records, allows teachers to
discover patterns in student reading errors and to analyze
these errors.
The more running records a teacher collects, the more the
teacher learns about the student’s reading.
Reading Comprehension 37
Running Records:
A Brief Review of Administration Procedures
Preparing to Administer a Running Record: You
should gather a blank sheet of paper or blank
running record sheet, a pencil, and a carefully
selected text.
Next, you record a check on the blank paper for
each word read as expected (as written in the
text), recording the same number of tracking
symbols per line as the text has words.
During the running record, the student will likely
make errors. There are standard ways for
recording these errors.
Running Records:
A Brief Review of Administration Procedures
Reading Comprehension 38
Running Records:
A Brief Review of Administration Procedures
Running Records:
Analyzing Errors
We use running records as one way to learn
about the cueing systems children use.
Running Records provide access to students’
thinking about reading.
Errors or miscues convey students’
understanding of what it means to read.
It is important for teachers to not just count
errors, but to analyze them. The goal is to look
for patterns. An individual error is much less
informative than a pattern of errors.
Reading Comprehension 39
Running Records:
Analyzing Errors
•
•
•
For every error ask
yourself at least three
questions:
M - Did the meaning or
the message of the text
influence the error?
Perhaps the reader
brought a different
meaning to the author’s
text.
S - Did the structure
(syntax) of the sentence
up to the error influence
the response?
V - Did the visual
information from the
print influence any part
of the error?
Running Records:
Analyzing Errors
Use the grid next to
the text to record …
M for Meaning
based errors
S for Structure
based errors
V for Visual based
errors
Reading Comprehension 40
Running Records:
Analyzing Errors
In addition to marking MSV, you can further
analyze the errors on a chart like this
The Goal of Analyzing Errors in
Running Records
Remember the goal in analyzing errors in
running records is to get a better idea of how
students are thinking about reading.
Understanding how our students are thinking
about reading will give us additional information
necessary to lead them to become strategic
readers.
Reading Comprehension 41
Activity
Analyzing a Running Record
At your table you should
find chart paper and
markers.
As a table review the
following running record
sample.
Then record a list of
what you learned about
Matt by analyzing his
running record.
What is a Think Aloud?
Traditional Definition:
A process in which the teacher models the
recognition of language cues and the
application of reading and writing strategies
by expressing his or her thought processes
out loud while reading or writing a text with
students.
www.uwindsor.ca/users/t/toussai/main.nsf/SubCategoryFlyOut/14C9A380E8ED7E4485257382004CA772
Reading Comprehension 42
Rethinking Think Alouds
Definition:
Think-alouds are a way of making public the
thinking that goes on inside your head as you
read.
Think-alouds can be conducted by teachers
OR students.
Think-alouds should be conducted by both
teachers and students.
http://www.wresa.org/ERR/Module%202.pdf
Rethinking Think Alouds
Although teachers are commonly using think
alouds as a form of modeling, thinking aloud
should be extended.
Several studies have shown that students
who verbalize their reading strategies and
thoughts while reading score significantly
higher on comprehension tests.
Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55, 6469.
Reading Comprehension 43
Why Students Should Think Aloud
The intent behind the thinking-aloud is to help students develop the
ability to monitor their reading comprehension and employ strategies
to guide or facilitate understanding.
Think-alouds require a reader to stop periodically, reflect on how a
text is being processed and understood, and relate orally what
reading strategies are being employed.
The think-aloud is a technique in which students verbalize their
thoughts as they read and thus bring into the open the strategies
they are using to understand a text.
This metacognitive awareness (being able to think about one's own
thinking) is a crucial component of learning, because it enables
learners to assess their level of comprehension and adjust their
strategies for greater success.
Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55, 64-69.
Baumann, J.F., Jones, L.A., & Seifert-Kessell, N. (1993). Using think alouds to enhance children's
comprehension monitoring abilities. The Reading Teacher, 47, 184-193.
Think Alouds:
Just an Activity or also an Assessment?
Although teachers can and should ask students to
actively participate in thinking aloud with their
peers, they should additionally consider using this
classroom activity as both an informal and a more
formal assessment.
Think aloud assessment has been shown to
provide valuable information about learners’
cognitive and metacognitive strategies that can lead
to better intervention in strategy training.
Gettinger, M. & Seibert, J. K. (2000) Analogue assessment: research and practice in evaluating
academic skills problems. In Shapiro, E. S. & Kratochwill, T. R., Behavioral assessment in
schools: theory, research, and clinical foundations. New York: Guliford Press.
Reading Comprehension 44
How to Administer a Think Aloud
Assessment
Step #1: Conducting the Think Aloud Task Inquiry
Prior to beginning a think aloud assessment, teachers should
inquire about the student’s level of knowledge about the think
aloud process, as well as his or her comfort level with verbal
reporting.
Teachers could ask:
How familiar are you with think aloud procedures?
How comfortable do you feel with the task of verbal reporting?
Do you enjoy reading?
What type of books do you enjoy reading?
If a student is not comfortable with the think aloud procedures
or with the task of verbal reporting, you will need to address this
concern prior to having the student perform a think aloud.
Israel, S. (2007). Using Metacognitive Assessments. International Reading Association.
How to Administer a Think Aloud
Assessment
Step #2: Holding an Introductory Training Session
The purpose: to introduce the student to the process of
thinking aloud
Follows the initial interview and occurs when the student is
comfortable with verbal reporting.
Consists of three components:
1. Introduce the student to the think aloud procedures
2. Model for the student how one might think aloud while reading
3. Give the student an opportunity to practice thinking aloud while
reading (possible provide prompts for thinking)
Reading Comprehension 45
How to Administer a Think Aloud
Assessment
Step #3: Selecting Materials for the Think Aloud
Assessment
Choose a text the student can read independently or instructionally
(if conducting with Kindergarten or First Grade students, choose a
text to be read aloud) and which s/he has not read previously
Select a passage of approximately 250 words
Predetermine stopping points – For Kindergarten through Third
Grade, students will stop reading or the read aloud will be interrupted
to stop and ask students to share what they are thinking about the
section read, For Fourth Grade and older it may be more appropriate
to allow students to read silently for an extended period of time and
then asking the students questions after they have read the
designated section
Stahl, K. A. D., & McKenna, M. C. (2006). Reading Research at Work. New York: The Guliford Press.
How to Administer a Think Aloud
Assessment
Step #4: Administer the Think Aloud Assessment
For Kindergarten and First Grade, read aloud a text. Stop periodically to ask
students specific questions about his or her strategy use. Or ask the student to
share what s/he was thinking while listening to the text read aloud.
For Second Grade through Third Grade, the student will read a text independently.
S/he will stop reading at predetermined locations (possibly marked with sticky
notes). Teacher then asks the student to share what they are thinking about the
section read or asks more specific questions concerning strategy use.
For Fourth Grade and older it may be more appropriate to allow the student to read
silently for an extended period of time and then ask the student to tell about his/her
thoughts while reading and/or ask questions about specific strategy use after s/he
has read the designated section
Reading Comprehension 46
How to Administer a Think Aloud
Assessment
Step #5: Analyze Results
There are a variety of ways to analyze the results of the Think
Aloud Assessment.
If you use an interview format such as the one suggested by
Keene and Zimmerman in Mosaic of Thought, you will want to
use a rubric such as the ones they provide in order to score
responses.
However, if you are conducting a much more informal
assessment, using a simple checklist to mark strategy use and
recording additional notes will probably be sufficient for your
purposes.
Examples of Think Aloud Assessments
Let’s look at a real sample of a Think Aloud Assessment
that was performed.
Now let’s practice with a partner! At your table you will
find several children’s books, sticky notes, blank paper for
recording notes, and a think aloud rubric. One of you will
play the role of the student and one will play the role of the
teacher. The “teacher” should look through the text and
determine stopping points for the “student” to stop and
think aloud. Mark these pages with a sticky note.
Then, let the role play begin!
As a table record on chart paper the pros and cons to
implementing the think aloud procedure.
Reading Comprehension 47
Comprehension is the Key:
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in
the Primary Classroom
Session #3
Comprehension Strategies
•
“ As I read, I consciously and subconsciously
synthesize. I question, I infer, I create vivid sensory
images. I relate the piece to my own experience. I
tease out what I think is most important. I draw
conclusions about what I think the key points of the
passage are. Sometimes I use the strategies
purposefully, other times they surface randomly.
They are tools I use, sometimes effortlessly,
sometimes purposefully to construct meaning. They
intertwine and merge and I switch quickly among
them, frequently using them simultaneously. They
are the instruments which, as I become more
familiar with them, give me the ability to read more
quickly. They are the means to an end. For
proficient readers, they are second nature.”
Keene and Zimmerman, 1997
Reading Comprehension 48
Comprehension is...
A process of simultaneously
Extracting
Constructing
Meaning Through
Reader
Interaction
And Involvement
Text
Activity
(Purpose for
Reading)
With Written Language
Excerpts from the Florida Reading Initiative Rev. 2008
North East Florida Educational Consortium
Comprehension Strategy Instruction
How do we design instruction for active comprehension?
Walker (2005) recommends teachers use think alouds to
model comprehension strategies.
•
•
•
Her advice to teachers is to begin using think alouds as a
way for teachers to explicitly model “self-statements” as they
read text aloud to students.
Through thinking aloud, students first hear how the teacher is
internalizing the comprehension strategy when reading.
Later when the students have an opportunity to do their own
thinking aloud, they too will begin to internalize the strategy
and its use for understanding the text.
Pearson and Dole (1987) recommend teachers use
explicit comprehension instruction.
Reading Comprehension 49
Pearson and Dole’s
Instructional Model
Step #1 Teacher Modeling. Teachers model a specific
comprehension skill or strategy.
Step #2 Explanation of Strategy. They also provide an
explanation of what the skill or strategy is and when to
use it.
Step #3: Guided Practice. During this guided practice,
the teacher and the students are working together use
the comprehension skill or strategy. The teacher
provides feedback and helps students when they feel
stuck or unable to use the comprehension skill or
strategy. Most importantly, this is a time for the teacher
and students to join together as a community of readers
as they “share publicly their cognitive secrets” (p.159).
Teachers begin asking students questions about how
and when to use the skill or strategy.
Pearson and Dole’s
Instructional Model
Step #4: Independent Practice. During
independent practice students begin using the
skill or strategy when completing workbook
pages. However, as misconceptions of when or
how to use the skill or strategy arise, the teacher
steps in to “reconsolidate” the when and how
associated with the skill or strategy.
Step #5: Independent Strategy Use. Students
get the opportunity to apply the skill or strategy
on their own as they read text independently.
Reading Comprehension 50
Curriculum Planning for
Strategy Instruction
When planning for strategy instruction the key
elements to always include are:
•
•
•
•
direct explanation of strategy or review of
explanation
teacher modeling
guided practice
independent application
Activity
Let’s watch a video of strategy instruction at
work with a group of kindergarten students.
This video was recorded in October of the
students kindergarten school year.
The class is learning about the strategy of
evaluating a text.
After watching the video we are going to record
what the teacher did to provide a direct
explanation of the strategy, to model the
strategy, to provide an opportunity for guided
practice, and to provide time for independent
application.
Reading Comprehension 51
Video
Activity
Now let’s create a lesson plan!
With your tablemates, create a lesson plan
using each of the four necessary components of
explicit strategy instruction. Record the plan on
chart paper. Pick a children’s book from the
selection on your table to assist you. Be sure to
use some specific language when describing
the direct explanation of the strategy and the
teacher think aloud.
Be prepared to share these lesson plans as a
group and to give and receive feedback.
Reading Comprehension 52
Using Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are an effective way to improve students
meaning construction and overall comprehension.
Graphic organizers show information gained from a text in a visual
format.
The process of deciding what information is important and how to
construct the graphic organizer is the active involvement students
must have to ensure comprehension.
Graphic organizers provide an simple format for differentiating
instruction.
Sample Graphic Organizers
Reading Comprehension 53
Sample Graphic Organizers
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
.
Activity
Now let’s create graphic organizers!
Each table has been assigned a specific comprehension
strategy to focus on.
Please choose a grade level for your instruction.
Next, create at least three graphic organizers for
students to use as a tool for recording thoughts about
their comprehension use. The three different graphic
organizers should be appropriate for a below grade level
reader/writer, an on-grade level reader/writer, and an
above grade level reader/writer.
Draw your graphic organizers on the chart paper
provided.
Be prepared to share your graphic organizers and the
rationale for use of each with students with the group.
Reading Comprehension 54
Workshop Notebook
(See pages 55-96)
Reading Comprehension 55
Comprehension is the Key:
Unlocking Deep Comprehension in
the Primary Classroom
Written and Compiled by
Kellie Kostrubala
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
Reading Comprehension 56
Comprehension is the Key
Kellie Kostrubala
Table of Contents
1. Sample Lesson Plans
2. Graphic Organizers
3. Rubrics
4. Student Work Samples
5. Suggested Texts
6. Electronic Resources
7. Appendix
Reading Comprehension 57
Sample
Lesson Plans
Reading Comprehension 58
Lesson # 1
Unit Title: __Comprehension is the Key: Making Inferences________________
STANDARD
E.4. Demonstrate understanding of text
(after reading)
E.4.c. Respond to text by drawing,
speaking, dramatizing, or writing
S.M.A.R.T. OBJECTIVES
SMART Objective: By the end of the day,
students will listen to a text read aloud in order
to use the text and their schema to record an
inference with pictures and words.
Kid Friendly: By the end of the day, we will
read a text to make inferences.
Essential Question: Can kindergarten kids,
like you, make inferences?
ACTIVITIES
Text: Happy Birthday, Martin Luther King by Jean Marzollo
Procedure:
1. Students come to the carpet for our morning opening/mini-lesson. Students will sit in a
group facing the front easel and rocking chair. (approx 20 min)
2. Introduce today’s objective in kid-friendly format. Then ask, “Can kindergarten kids, like
you, make inferences?” Remind the students that we have been talking about making
inferences for the past three days. Ask if anyone remembers what an inference is. I will be
looking for an answer like “when we figure out what the story is about” or “when we figure
out a part all by ourselves.”
3. Today kindergarteners, you guys, will be making inferences. We will figure out a part of the
story today by ourselves. As I read the story, I will let you listen to me make an inference
and I may ask you to make an inference with a partner as well.
4. Read Aloud Happy Birthday, Martin Luther King by Jean Marzollo.
5. Stop reading on page 6. Think Aloud about the phrase “there were peaceful ways to solve
problems.”
Think Aloud: I will put the book down on my legs to indicate that I am not reading from
the text. “Hmmm…. That sounds interesting. The story said that Dr. King talked about
peaceful ways to solve problems. I wonder what he means by that. Let me look at the
picture and reread the words. The words say, ‘He asked people not to fight with each
other.’ The picture shows two boys shaking hands. I infer that Dr. King thinks people
Date:
January 28, 2008
ASSESSMENT
Graphic Organizer- Each student will be given a graphic organizer asking
students to make inferences about their reading or visualize the text. The
students will record their inferences or visualizations in writing or drawing.
Students will explain their inferences or visualization to the teacher during small
group or a one on one conference.
Checklist - Students will get a chance to share orally how to use each of the
strategies to help them understand the story before we read a story as a class.
Students may also share predictions they make about the text before reading.
Evidence of their ability to communicate the use of a strategy will be record on a
checklist based on sharing during whole class time, small groups, or one on one
conferences.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the course of the unit.
Checklist – Students will share one of their graphic organizers during one of our
class share times through the course of the unit. The teacher will track
competence of the share on a checklist.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the unit.
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation based on
 Interest
 Readiness
 Language
 Learning Style
Students are grouped in small groups by either readiness,
pairing a stronger student with a progressing student, or by
learning style. Sometimes students are grouped by both
readiness and learning style.
Reading Comprehension 59
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
showed be nice and talk about their problems. I think he wants people to say their
sorry and shake hands instead of hitting each other. So my inference is that finding
peaceful ways means finding nice ways like using your words to fix problems. Let’s
keep reading.”
I will pick up the book and continue reading.
At the end of the story, I will ask the students to make an inference. I will turn back to page
3. “You know I was wondering about something while we were reading. The part that
made me wonder was on page 3. When I turn to page 3 I read that “He was a good
student.” I wonder what Dr. King did that made him a good student. There aren’t many
clues from the text. The pictures might give me some clues, but mostly we will have to
figure it out using our schema. Think for a second about what you think he did to be a good
student. When you have an inference, give me a thumbs up.”
When I see most of the students have a thumb up, I will say, “Yeah, I see so many of you
have an inference about what made Dr. King a good student. Now I want you to turn eyeto-eye, knee-to-knee and share your inference with a partner. Please start your inference
with, ‘I infer Dr. King was a good student because …’ I will come around and listen to your
great inferences.” I will walk around and listen to the inferences, redirecting as needed.
“1, 2, 3 eyes on me!” The students will turn back to their regular spots on the carpet. I will
share some insightful inferences I overheard.
“Now, we will be splitting up and working with partners to record our inferences on a graphic
organizer.” I will explain the graphic organizer. Then I will call partners to get their papers
and go to their assigned location on the floor to work.
During the work time, I will circulate among the partner groups to read what they are writing,
look at their pictures, and generally make sure they are on the right track. (approx 20 min)
Share Time – When the timer goes off, the students will join me in a circle on the floor for
share time. They will bring their graphic organizers, sit by their partners ready to share the
record of their learning from today.
Lesson # _2
Unit: __ Comprehension is the Key: Making Inferences______________
STANDARD
E.4. Demonstrate understanding of text
(after reading
E.4.c. Respond to text by drawing,
speaking, dramatizing, or writing
S.M.A.R.T. OBJECTIVES
SMART Objective: By the end of the day,
students will listen to a text read aloud in order to
use the text and their schema to record an
inference with pictures and words.
Kid Friendly: By the end of the day, we will read
a text to make inferences.
Essential Question: Are you an expert at making
inferences or still learning? How do you know?
ACTIVITIES
Text: Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman
Procedure:
1. Students come to the carpet for our morning opening/mini-lesson. Students will sit in a group
facing the front easel and rocking chair. (approx min)
2. Introduce today’s objective in kid-friendly format. Then ask, “Are you an expert at making
inferences or still learning? How do you know?” Remind the students that we have been talking
about making inferences for the past four days. Ask if anyone remembers what an inference is.
I will be looking for an answer like “when we figure out what the story is about” or “when we
figure out a part all by ourselves.”
3. Today kindergarteners, you guys, will be making inferences again. We will figure out a part of
the story today by ourselves. As I read the story, I will let you listen to me make an inference
and I may ask you to make an inference with a partner as well.
4. Read Aloud Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman.
5. Stop reading on page 19. Think Aloud about the sentences, “There was no doubt who would be
Peter Pan. Everyone voted for Grace.”
Think Aloud: I will put the book down on my legs to indicate that I am not reading from the
text. “Wow. I am so excited for Grace, but I have a question. It says that there was no
doubt who would be Peter Pan and that everyone voted for Grace. I wonder why everyone
voted for Grace. Maybe I should reread and look at the pictures to help me make my
inference.” As I reread I will point out things like Grace knew exactly what to do and all the
words to say. “Based on what I read and the picture, I infer that everyone voted for Grace
Reading Comprehension 60
Date:
January 29, 2008
ASSESSMENT
Graphic Organizer- Each student will be given a graphic organizer asking
students to make inferences about their reading or visualize the text. The
students will record their inferences or visualizations in writing or drawing.
Students will explain their inferences or visualization to the teacher during
small group or a one on one conference.
Checklist - Students will get a chance to share orally how to use each of
the strategies to help them understand the story before we read a story as
a class. Students may also share predictions they make about the text
before reading. Evidence of their ability to communicate the use of a
strategy will be record on a checklist based on sharing during whole class
time, small groups, or one on one conferences.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the course of the unit.
Checklist – Students will share one of their graphic organizers during one
of our class share times through the course of the unit. The teacher will
track competence of the share on a checklist.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the unit.
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation based on
 Interest
 Readiness
 Language
 Learning Style
Students are grouped in small reading groups by
readiness. They are given differentiated independent
work by their reading level.
When meeting with small groups or in reading
conferences, I can help repeat directions, use picture
cues, etc. to help students who are still developing the
ability to use English Language. In addition, the
graphic organizer includes space for the students to
draw if they can’t develop the words to express their
opinions.
The lesson is also differentiated by interest. The
students get to pick the book to read and record notes
on.
Reading Comprehension 61
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
because she was so prepared. Let’s keep reading.”
I will pick up the book and continue reading.
At the end of the story, I will ask the students to make an inference. I will turn back to the last
page. “You know I was wondering about something we just read. The part that made me
wonder was when the author wrote Grace said ‘I feel like I could fly all the way home.’ I wonder
why Grace said that. Did she think that she could really fly like a bird? Or I wonder if she felt
really happy? There are many clues from the text. The pictures might give me some clues, too.
We will also have to figure it out using our schema. Think for a second about why you think she
said she could fly all the way home.”
“Now I want you to turn eye-to-eye, knee-to-knee and share your inference with a partner.
Please start your inference with, ‘I infer Grace said she could fly all the way home because …’ I
will come around and listen to your great inferences.” I will walk around and listen to the
inferences, redirecting as needed.
“1,2,3 eyes on me!” The students will turn back to their regular spots on the carpet. I will share
some insightful inferences I overheard.
Today we will be completing our graphic organizers by ourselves when you go to ILA. I will
explain the graphic organizer. There is one for each reading group. I will show the class where
I am putting the GOs. They will come get one whenever they are at ILA.
During the work time, I will first meet with my lowest group for a guided reading group. Then for
the second half I will circulate among the students working independently to read what they are
writing, look at their pictures, and generally make sure they are on the right track. (approx 30
min)
Share Time – When the timer goes off, the students will join me in a circle on the floor for share
time. They will bring their graphic organizers; ready to share the record of their learning from
today.
Lesson # 3
Unit: ____ Comprehension is the Key: Making Predictions_______________
STANDARD
E.2. Use strategies to prepare for reading
(before reading)
E.2.b. Make predictions by examining the title,
cover, illustrations/photographs/text, and
familiar author or topic
E.3. Use strategies to make meaning from
text (during reading)
E.3.b. Make, confirm, or adjust predictions
E.4.c. Respond to text by drawing, speaking,
dramatizing, or writing
S.M.A.R.T. OBJECTIVES
SMART Objective: By the end of the day,
students will preview a text in order to use the
picture clues and their schema to record a
prediction with pictures and words.
Kid Friendly: By the end of the day, we will
preview a text to make a prediction.
Essential Question: Can you see the future?
What about the future in a book?
ACTIVITIES
Text: It Looked Like Spilt Milk by Charles G. Shaw
Procedure:
1. Students come to the carpet for our morning opening/mini-lesson. Students will sit in a group facing
the front easel and rocking chair. (approx 20 min)
2. Introduce today’s objective in kid-friendly format. Then ask, “Can you see the future? What
about the future in a book?” Remind the students that we have been talking about making
predictions for the past three days. Ask if anyone remembers what it means to make a prediction. I
will be looking for an answer like “when we make a guess about what will happen in the story” or
“when we use the title and pictures to figure out what will happen in the story.”
3. Today kindergarteners, you guys, will be making predictions. We will use the title and the pictures to
help us make a prediction of what will happen. First, I want you to watch as I make a prediction
about a book.
4. I will show the students the book, Owen, by Kevin Henkes. I will think aloud about a prediction.
- Think Aloud: “Hmmm… I wonder what this story will be about. Let me look at the title. The title
is Owen. Well, the only Owens I know are boys. The title doesn’t help me too much. Let me
look at the pictures. In all the pictures, I see a little boy mouse. I wonder if he is Owen. He is
also holding a yellow blanket in all of the pictures. That reminds me of when my brother was
little. He once carried a blanket with him everywhere he went. He loved his blanket. I think that
my prediction will be, ‘I predict this story will be about a boy mouse named Owen who loves his
blanket.”
5. After making my prediction I will ask the students what they noticed me doing. I will guide them to
Date:
Reading Comprehension 62
February 4, 2008
ASSESSMENT
Graphic Organizer- Each student will be given a graphic organizer
asking what they think will happen in the story. The students will
record their predictions in writing or drawing. Students will explain
their predictions to the teacher during small group or a one on one
conference.
Checklist - Students will get a chance to share orally how to use each
of the strategies to help them understand the story before we read a
story as a class. Students may also share predictions they make
about the text before reading. Evidence of their ability to communicate
the use of a strategy will be record on a checklist based on sharing
during whole class time, small groups, or one on one conferences.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the course of the unit.
Checklist – Students will share one of their graphic organizers during
one of our class share times through the course of the unit. The
teacher will track competence of the share on a checklist.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the unit.
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation based on
 Interest
 Readiness
 Language
 Learning Style
Students are grouped in small groups by either
readiness, pairing a stronger student with a
progressing student, or by learning style.
Sometimes students are grouped by both
readiness and learning style.
Reading Comprehension 63
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
the conclusion that I used the title, the pictures, and my schema to help me develop a prediction.
Now, it is your turn! I will show you a book, and you will get to make a prediction. The book is called
It Looked like Spilt Milk. Let’s look at the pictures. Now eye-to-eye knee-to-knee turn to your
partner, 1, 2, 3. I want you to share your prediction with your partner. You might use words like “I
predict” or “I think this story will be about”.
I will call the students back together. I will have some students who were making plausible
predictions based on the title, pictures, and their schema share (I will determine who shares while
listening when they are with their partner). I will ask the students why they made the prediction they
made.
Read Aloud It Looked Like Spilt Milk by Charles Shaw.
“Now, we will be splitting up and working with partners to record predictions on a graphic organizer.”
I will explain the graphic organizer. Then I will call partners to get their papers, a new book, and go
to their assigned location on the floor to work.
During the work time, I will circulate among the partner groups to read what they are writing, look at
their pictures, and generally make sure they are on the right track. (approx 20 min)
Share Time – When the timer goes off, the students will join me in a circle on the floor for share time.
They will bring their graphic organizers; sit by their partners ready to share the record of their
learning from today.
Reading Comprehension 64
Lesson # 4
Unit: ____ Comprehension is the Key: Predicting Outcomes______________
STANDARD
S.M.A.R.T. OBJECTIVES
E.2. Use strategies to prepare for reading
(before reading)
E.2.b. Make predictions by examining the
title, cover, illustrations/photographs/text,
and familiar author or topic
E.3. Use strategies to make meaning from
text (during reading)
E.3.b. Make, confirm, or adjust predictions
E.4.c. Respond to text by drawing,
speaking, dramatizing, or writing
SMART Objective: By the end of the day,
students will listen to a text in order to use the
text and their schema to record a prediction of
what will happen with pictures and words.
Kid Friendly: By the end of the day, we will
begin reading a text to make a prediction.
Essential Question: Can you solve a
mystery? How about the mystery of how this
story will end?
ACTIVITIES
Text: Stellaluna by Jannell Cannon
Procedure:
1. Students come to the carpet for our morning opening/mini-lesson. Students will sit in a group
facing the front easel and rocking chair. (approx min)
2. Introduce today’s objective in kid-friendly format. Then ask, “Can you solve a mystery?
How about the mystery of how this story will end?” Remind the students that we have
been talking about making predictions for the past four days. Ask if anyone remembers what
it means to make a prediction. I will be looking for an answer like “when we make a guess
about what will happen in the story” or “when we use the title and pictures to figure out what
will happen in the story.”
3. Today kindergarteners, you guys, will be predicting outcomes. We will figure out what will
happen in a story after reading part of the story. As I read the story, I will let you listen to me
predict an outcome and I may ask you to predict an outcome with a partner as well.
4. Read Aloud Stellaluna by Jannell Cannon.
5. Stop reading on the page with Stellaluna falling into the birds nest. Think Aloud about what
will happen next. Focus on the fact that we already have information from the text to help
guide our prediction.
Date:
February 5, 2008
ASSESSMENT
Graphic Organizer- Each student will be given a graphic organizer asking
students to evaluate and adjust their predictions. The students will record their
evaluation and adjustments to their predictions in writing or drawing. Students
will explain their evaluations or adjustments to the teacher during small group or
a one on one conference.
Checklist - Students will get a chance to share orally how to use each of the
strategies to help them understand the story before we read a story as a class.
Students may also share predictions they make about the text before reading.
Evidence of their ability to communicate the use of a strategy will be record on a
checklist based on sharing during whole class time, small groups, or one on one
conferences.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the course of the unit.
Checklist – Students will share one of their graphic organizers during one of our
class share times through the course of the unit. The teacher will track
competence of the share on a checklist.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the unit.
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation based on
 Interest
 Readiness
 Language
 Learning Style
Students are grouped in small reading groups by
readiness. They are given differentiated independent work
by their reading level.
When meeting with small groups or in reading
conferences, I can help repeat directions, use picture
cues, etc. to help students who are still developing the
ability to use English Language. The students who are
struggling the most with written English language will be
meeting with me to receive reinforcement to be able to
successfully complete the graphic organizer.
Reading Comprehension 65
The lesson is also differentiated by interest. The students
Think Aloud: I will put the book down on my legs to indicate that I am not reading from
get to pick the book to read and record notes on.
the text. “I wonder what will happen now. Stellaluna just went through some really
horrible things. First an owl attacked her and her mom. Now she is separated from her
mom. I want to make a prediction of what will happen now that Stellaluna is in the birds
nest. I predict that Mama Bird will take care of Stellaluna. Let’s keep reading to see if my
prediction is the same or different from what happens in the story.”
I will pick up the book and continue reading.
Before we reach the end of the story, I will ask the students to predict the outcome. On the
page where a bat is asking why Stellaluna is upside down, I will stop to give the students a
chance to predict the outcome. “I wonder how the story will end. I want you to think of
everything that has happened in the story so far. Now combine that with your schema.”
“I want you to turn eye-to-eye, knee-to-knee and share your prediction with a partner. Please
start your prediction with, ‘I predict.’ I will walk around and listen to the inferences,
redirecting as needed.
“1,2,3 eyes on me!” The students will turn back to their regular spots on the carpet. I will
share some insightful predictions I overheard. Then we will finish reading the story.
Today we will be completing our graphic organizers by ourselves when you go to ILA. I will
explain the graphic organizer. There is one for each reading group. I will show the class
where I am putting the GOs. They will come get one whenever they are at ILA.
During the work time, I will first meet with my lowest group for a guided reading group. Then
for the second half I will circulate among the students working independently to read what
they are writing, look at their pictures, and generally make sure they are on the right track.
(approx 30 min)
Share Time – When the timer goes off, the students will join me in a circle on the floor for
share time. They will bring their graphic organizers; ready to share the record of their
learning from today.
-
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Reading Comprehension 66
Lesson # 5
Unit: ___ Comprehension is the Key: Visualizing _____________________
STANDARD
E.4. Demonstrate understanding of text (after reading
E.4.c. Respond to text by drawing, speaking, dramatizing,
or writing
S.M.A.R.T. OBJECTIVES
SMART Objective: By the end of the day, students will
listen to a text in order to use the text and their schema to
record a visualization of what happened with pictures and
words.
Kid Friendly: By the end of the day, we will read a text to
make visualization.
Essential Question: Does your brain have a movie theater
inside? Can you read a book and watch a movie in your
brain at the same time?
Date: February 11, 2008
ASSESSMENT
Graphic Organizer- Each student will be given a graphic organizer
asking students to make inferences about their reading or visualize the
text. The students will record their inferences or visualizations in
writing or drawing. Students will explain their inferences or
visualization to the teacher during small group or a one on one
conference.
Checklist - Students will get a chance to share orally how to use each
of the strategies to help them understand the story before we read a
story as a class. Students may also share predictions they make
about the text before reading. Evidence of their ability to communicate
the use of a strategy will be record on a checklist based on sharing
during whole class time, small groups, or one on one conferences.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the course of the unit.
Checklist – Students will share one of their graphic organizers during
one of our class share times through the course of the unit. The
teacher will track competence of the share on a checklist.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the unit.
ACTIVITIES
Text: “The Dirtiest Man in the World,” Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein
Procedure:
1. Students come to the carpet for our morning opening/mini-lesson. Students will sit in a group facing the
front easel and rocking chair. (approx 20 min)
2. Introduce today’s objective in kid-friendly format. Then ask, “Does your brain have a movie theater
inside? Can you read a book and watch a movie in your brain at the same time? ” Remind the
students that we have been talking about visualizing for the past three days. Ask if anyone remembers
what a visualization is. I will be looking for an answer like “when we picture the story in our minds” or
“when we see a movie in our brains.”
3. Today kindergarteners, you guys, will be visualizing a text. We will see a picture in our minds. First, I
will read the poem, I will let you listen as I describe the picture in my brain. Then I will draw a quick
picture of what I saw in my brain.
4. I will read the poem, “The Crocodile’s Toothache”, by Shel Silverstein. Then I will share aloud the
picture I see in my brain.
- Think Aloud: “After reading the poem, I see a picture in my brain. I am imagining a dentist office.
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation based on
 Interest
 Readiness
 Language
 Learning Style
Students are grouped in small groups by either
readiness, pairing a stronger student with a
progressing student, or by learning style.
Sometimes students are grouped by both
readiness and learning style.
Reading Comprehension 67
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
In my dentist office you sit in a chair and there is a light above you. I imagine the dentist sitting
inside of the crocodile’s mouth because it’s so big and that’s how the crocodile eats him.”
After sharing my visualization, I will draw a quick picture on chart paper.
Now, it is your turn! I will read you a poem, and you will get to visualize it in your brain. The poem is
called “The Dirtiest Man in the World”. I want you to listen while I read. Be sure to see a picture of it in
your brain.
After we finish reading the story, I will have the students turn eye-to-eye, knee-to-knee to share the
picture they saw in their heads.
I will call the students back together. “Now, we will be splitting up and working with partners to record
predictions on a graphic organizer.” I will explain the graphic organizer. Then I will call partners to get
their papers and go to their assigned location on the floor to work.
During the work time, I will circulate among the partner groups to read look at their pictures and
generally make sure they are on the right track. (approx 20 min)
Share Time – When the timer goes off, the students will join me in a circle on the floor for share time.
They will bring their graphic organizers; sit by their partners ready to share the record of their learning
from today.
Reading Comprehension 68
Lesson # 6
Unit: ___ Comprehension is the Key: Visualizing _____________________
STANDARD
E.4. Demonstrate understanding of text (after reading
E.4.c. Respond to text by drawing, speaking, dramatizing,
or writing
S.M.A.R.T. OBJECTIVES
SMART Objective: By the end of the day, students will
listen to a text in order to use the text and their schema to
record a visualization of what happened with pictures and
words.
Kid Friendly: By the end of the day, we will read a text to
make visualization.
Essential Question: Pretend a book is a painter. What
picture do the words paint in your brain?
Date: February 12, 2008
ASSESSMENT
Graphic Organizer- Each student will be given a graphic organizer
asking students to make inferences about their reading or visualize the
text. The students will record their inferences or visualizations in
writing or drawing. Students will explain their inferences or
visualization to the teacher during small group or a one on one
conference.
Checklist - Students will get a chance to share orally how to use each
of the strategies to help them understand the story before we read a
story as a class. Students may also share predictions they make
about the text before reading. Evidence of their ability to communicate
the use of a strategy will be record on a checklist based on sharing
during whole class time, small groups, or one on one conferences.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the course of the unit.
Checklist – Students will share one of their graphic organizers during
one of our class share times through the course of the unit. The
teacher will track competence of the share on a checklist.
This is an ongoing assessment throughout the unit.
ACTIVITIES
Text: “Hippopotamus Sandwich,” Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein
Procedure:
1. Students come to the carpet for our morning opening/mini-lesson. Students will sit in a group facing the
front easel and rocking chair. (approx 20 min)
2. Introduce today’s objective in kid-friendly format. Then ask, “Pretend a book is a painter. What
picture do the words paint in your brain? ” Remind the students that we have been talking about
visualizing for the past four days. Ask if anyone remembers what a visualization is. I will be looking for
an answer like “when we picture the story in our minds” or “when we see a movie in our brains.”
3. Today kindergarteners, you guys, will be visualizing a text. We will see a picture in our minds. First, I
will read the poem, I will let you listen as I describe the picture in my brain. Then I will draw a quick
picture of what I saw in my brain.
4. I will read the poem, “Band-Aids”, by Shel Silverstein. Then I will share aloud the picture I see in my
brain.
- Think Aloud: “After reading the poem, I see a picture in my brain. I am imagining a little girl
covered in band-aids from head to toe. This reminds me of a picture I saw of my husband’s sister.
DIFFERENTIATION
Differentiation based on
 Interest
 Readiness
 Language
 Learning Style
Students are grouped in small reading groups by
readiness. They are given differentiated
independent work by their reading level.
When meeting with small groups or in reading
conferences, I can help repeat directions, use
picture cues, etc. to help students who are still
developing the ability to use English Language. In
addition, the graphic organizer includes space for
the students to draw so there is no pressure for
Reading Comprehension 69
When she was little she loved to cover her legs and arms with baid-aids.”
5. After sharing my visualization, I will draw a quick picture on chart paper.
6. Now, it is your turn! I will read you a poem, and you will get to visualize it in your brain. The poem is
called “Hippopotamus Sandwich”. I want you to listen while I read. Be sure to see a picture of it in your
brain.
7. After we finish reading the story, I will have the students turn eye-to-eye, knee-to-knee to share the
picture they saw in their heads.
8. I will call the students back together. “Today we will be completing our graphic organizers by ourselves
when you go to ILA.” I will explain the graphic organizer. There is one for each reading group. I will
show the class where I am putting the GOs. They will come get one whenever they are at ILA.
9. During the work time, I will first meet with my lowest group for a guided reading group. Then for the
second half I will circulate among the students working independently to read what they are writing, look
at their pictures, and generally make sure they are on the right track. (approx 30 min)
10. Share Time – When the timer goes off, the students will join me in a circle on the floor for share time.
They will bring their graphic organizers; ready to share the record of their learning from today.
them to develop words to express their opinions.
The lesson is also differentiated by interest. The
students get to pick the book to read and record
notes on.
Reading Comprehension 70
Graphic
Organizers
Reading Comprehension 71
Making Inferences
Making Inferences
Name: __________________________
Text:________________________
Write.
Draw.
I infer _______________________
____________________________
Reading Comprehension 72
Making Predictions
and
Predicting Outcomes
Making Predictions
Name: __________________
Text: __________________
Write.
Draw.
I predict _____________________
____________________________
Reading Comprehension 73
Visualizing
Visualizing
Name: ______________________ Text: ________________________
This is the picture I saw when I visualized the poem.
Reading Comprehension 74
Questioning
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
.
Reading Comprehension 75
Monitor and Clarify
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
Reading Comprehension 76
Rubrics
Reading Comprehension 77
Visualization Rubric
Emerging √Progressing √
 No Name
 Name
 Illegible picture
 Legible picture
 Few to no parts of the  Most parts of the
picture accurately
picture accurately
reflect text
reflect text
 Picture includes no to  Picture includes
little details from the
several specific
text
details from the text
 Student not able to
 Student able to
accurately articulate
somewhat accurately
why he/she drew what
articulate why he/she
he/she drew
drew what he/she
drew
Making Inferences Rubric
Emerging √Progressing √
 No Name
 Name
 No Text Title
 No Text Title
 No attempt to record a  Used inventive
written inference
spelling to attempt to
write an inference
 Did not draw a
detailed picture that
 Drew a picture that
reflects a plausible
reflects a plausible
inference of what will
inference
happen in the story
 Attempted to explain
their inference
 Unable to explain their
inference
Secure √+
 Name
 Legible picture
 All parts of the picture
accurately reflect text
 Picture includes
multiple specific
details from the text
 Student able to
accurately articulate
why he/she drew what
he/she drew
Secure √+
 Name
 Legible picture
 Used inventive
spelling to write an
inference
 Drew a picture that
reflects a plausible
inference supported
by details from the
text
 Attempted to explain
their inference
Reading Comprehension 78





Emerging √No Name
No Text Title
No attempt to record a
written prediction
Did not draw a detailed
picture that reflects a
plausible prediction of
what will happen in the
story
Unable to explain their
prediction
Making Predictions Rubric
Progressing √
 Name

 No Text Title

 Used inventive spelling 
to attempt to write a
prediction

 Drew a picture that
reflects a prediction of
what will happen in the
story

 Attempted to explain
their prediction
Secure √+
Name
Text Title
Used inventive spelling
to write a prediction
Drew a detailed picture
that reflects a plausible
prediction of what will
happen in the story
Able to accurately
explain their prediction
Adjusting Predictions and Predicting Outcomes







Emerging √No Name
No Text Title
No attempt to record a
written prediction before
reading
Shows little to no
evidence of using
details from text to
adjust
Unable to identify a
problem
Shows little to no
evidence of using the
story problem to predict
the outcome of the story
Unable to explain their
predictions







Progressing √
Name
No Text Title
Used inventive spelling
to attempt to write a
prediction before
reading
Shows some evidence
of using details from text
to adjust prediction
Identifies a problem
Shows some evidence
of using a story problem
to predict the outcome
of the story
Attempted to explain
their predictions







Secure √+
Name
Text Title
Used inventive spelling
to write a prediction
before reading
Shows evidence of
using details from text to
adjust prediction
Accurately identifies the
problem in the story
Shows evidence of
using the story problem
to predict the outcome
of the story
Able to accurately
explain their predictions
Reading Comprehension 79
Monitor/Clarify Rubric
1 () —Met Objective
 Student work is
properly identified
according to taught
methods (name,
date, etc.)
 Student is able to
consistently
identify points
where text does
not make sense
 Student is able to
consistently
identify method(s)
to assist with
understanding
 Student is
consistently able
to determine
whether chosen
method(s) were
instrumental
2 (√) —Making
Progress Towards
Objective
 Student work has
some identification
 Student is mostly
able to identify
points where text
does not make
sense
 Student is
sometimes able to
identify method(s)
to assist with
understanding
 Student is
somewhat able to
determine whether
chosen method(s)
were instrumental
3 (√-)—Did Not Meet
Objective/Needs More
Instruction
 Student work is not
properly
identified/incomplet
e
 Student is
unable/not
consistently able to
consistently
identify points in
the text that do not
make sense
 Student is
unable/not
consistently able to
identify method(s)
to assist with
understanding
 Student is
unable/not
consistently able to
determine if
chosen methods
were instrumental
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
Reading Comprehension 80
Questioning Rubric
1 ()—Met Objective
 Student work is
properly identified
according to taught
methods (name,
date, etc.)
 Student is mostly
able to selfquestion/answer
questions before,
after, and during
reading
 Student is able to
consistently
determine how an
answer to
questions was
determined
 Student is
consistently able
to determine
whether
question(s) is/were
answered
2 (√)—Making Progress
Towards Objective
 Student work has
some identification
 Student is
sometimes able to
selfquestion/answer
questions before,
after, and during
reading
 Student is
sometimes able to
determine how an
answer to a
question was
determined
 Student is
somewhat able to
determine whether
question(s) is/were
answered
3 (√-)—Did Not Meet
Objective/Needs More
Instruction
 Student work is not
properly
identified/incomplet
e
 Student is
unable/not
consistently able to
selfquestion/answer
questions before,
after, and during
reading
 Student is
unable/not
consistently able to
determine how an
answer to a
question was
determined
 Student is
unable/not
consistently able to
determine whether
question(s) is/were
answered
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
Reading Comprehension 81
Student
Work
Samples
Reading Comprehension 82
Visualizing (K)
Emerging
Strengths –

EA wrote his name.

EA drew a picture

EA attempted to draw a man.

EA used color in his picture.

EA talked about his picture to the class.
Weakness –

EA did not write name neatly.

EA did not draw a legible picture, besides the top half
of a stick person.

EA’s picture shows little to no connection to the text.
Progressing
Strengths –

KM wrote her name.

KM drew a legible picture.

KM drew some details from the text in her picture.

KM used color in her picture.
Weaknesses –

KM did not share her picture with the class.

KM needs to improve on her handwriting.

KM needs to focus her drawing to reflect only the
text she is visualizing.
Secure
Strengths –
 JA wrote his name.
 JA drew a legible picture.
 JA used many details from the text in his
picture.
 JA used color in his picture.
 JA shared his picture with the class.
Weaknesses –
 JA could make his pictures clearer and add text
features to help clarify the purpose of different
parts of the picture.
Reading Comprehension 83
Predicting (K)
Emerging
Strengths –

KC wrote his name.

KC drew a picture (picture vaguely relates to predictions)

KC made a prediction, wrote his prediction, and orally
explained his prediction.

KC changed his prediction based on the problem in the
story.
Weakness –

KC did not write name neatly.

KC had some misinterpretation of the picture on the cover of
the book. “I predict he will get out of the rectangle and climb
out of the square.” He interpreted the bed as a
rectangle/square from the cover.

KC did not write the title of the text.
Progressing
Strengths –

KA wrote his name.

KA drew a legible picture.

KA drew some details from the text in his picture (the
button).

KA made a logical prediction and clearly identified the
problem.
Weaknesses –

KA did not draw a picture of his prediction.

KA needs to add details to prediction, for example:
where the button will be found.
“the bear lost his
button”
“the bear is gonna
find his button”
Secure
Strengths –
 IP wrote his name.
 IP used many details from the text to make her
prediction.
 IP correctly identified the problem.
 IP made a logical prediction for the end of the
story.
 IP shared her prediction with the class.
Weaknesses –
 IP needs to consider adjusting her prediction
after reading part of the text.
“I predict the bear is going to lose a
button and the bear is going to look for
the button. And the bear is going to
look for the button. ”
“Do not change.”
“that the bear lost a button and the bear is
going to look for the button.”
“the bear is going to find the button in an
escalator”
Reading Comprehension 84
Making Inferences (K)
Emerging
Strengths –

JA wrote her name.

JA drew a picture that relates to the text.

JA wrote about the text to make an inference.
Weakness –

JA needs to share her inference in the future.

JA needs to use beginning letter sounds in writing to
make inference clear.

JA needs to create more plausible inferences.
“Jamaica is
happy.”
Progressing
Strengths –

ZD wrote her name.

ZD drew a legible picture.

ZD drew some details from the text in her picture.

ZD used color in her picture.

ZD wrote an inference that makes sense based on the
story.

ZD shared her inference with the class.
Weaknesses –

ZD needs to identify what details from the text helped
her make an inference.
“Jamaica was happy because she knows
how to take the bear to lost and found.”
Secure
Strengths –

JA wrote his name.

JA drew a legible picture.

JA used many details from the text in his picture.

JA used color in his picture.

JA wrote a plausible inference and explination of where the
details came from.

JA shared his inference with the class.
Weaknesses –

JA could make his pictures clearer and add text features to
help clarify the purpose of different parts of the picture.

JA needs to work on making inferences without the
prompting of a question from the teacher.
“Jamaica was happy because she was glad the
girl found the dog.”
“I used the text. It helped me figure out that
Jamaica was going to find the dog and return it.”
Reading Comprehension 85
Monitor and Clarify (1st)
Met Objective 
+ (strengths)
 Proper identification (e.g., name)
 Consistent/appropriate strategy use
 Determination of strategy’s effectiveness
-- (weaknesses)
 Did not identify text
 Could have elaborated on reason for tomorrow’s plan
Did Not Meet Objective √+ (strengths)

Information in correct
columns

Made decisions
-- (weaknesses)

No name

Did not attempt
to do work; just
wrote down
words

Did not
understand
strategy
Progress Towards Objective √
+ (strengths)

Proper identification (e.g.,
name/text)

Somewhat
consistent/appropriate
strategy use

Some determination of
strategy’s effectiveness
-- (weaknesses)
Could not explain rationale for
some of the decisions made in
organizer; somewhat random use
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
Reading Comprehension 86
Questioning (1st)
Met Objective 
+ (strengths)
 Proper identification (e.g., name)
 Consistent/appropriate strategy use
 Determination of strategy’s effectiveness
-- (weaknesses)
 Did not clearly state areas with lingering
questions
Did Not Meet
Objective √+ (strengths)

Proper
identification
(e.g., name/text)

Made decisions
-- (weaknesses)

Did not
understand
strategy
Progress Towards Objective
√+ (strengths)

Proper identification (e.g.,
name/text)

Able to identify need for
strategy
-- (weaknesses)

Did not properly
determine source of
answers to questions
(e.g., source not
consistent w/actual
text)
Created by Cheryl Danzy of Prince George’s County Public
Schools, Maryland (2007)
Reading Comprehension 87
Suggested
Texts:
Getting Started with
Strategy Based
Instruction
Reading Comprehension 88
Suggested Texts:
Getting Started with Strategy Based Instruction
Children’s Book for Teaching Comprehension Strategies:
Visualizing:
Tuesday. by Wiesner, David.
The Stray Dog by Simont, Marc.
Abuela by Arthur Dorros
Fireflies! by Julie Brinkloe
Hurricane by Jonathan London
Meteor! by Patricia Polacco
Mouse's Birthday by Jane Yolen
Owl Moon by Jane Yolen
The Sailor Dog by Margaret Wise Brown
Scarecrow by Cynthia Rylant
The Seashore Book by Charlotte Zolotow
Twilight Comes Twice by Ralph Fletcher
Two Bad Ants by Chris Van Allsburg uses five senses
When I Was Young In the Mountains by Cynthia Rylant uses five senses
Drawing Inferences:
Alexander Who Used to Be Rich Last Sunday by Judith Viorst
Corduroy by Don Freeman
Dandelion by Eve Bunting
Dear Mrs. LaRue: Letters from Obedience School by Mark Teque
Fables by Arnold Lobel
George and Martha (series) by James Marshall
Fables Arnold Lobel
Garden of Abdul Gasazi by Chris Van Allsburg
Hattie and the Fox by Mem Fox
How Many Days to America by Eve Bunting
In a Small, Small Pond by Denise Fleming
In the Tall, Tall Grass by Denise Fleming
Jumanji by Chris Van Allsburg
The Noisy Book by Margaret Wise Brown
Noisy Nora by Rosemary Wells
Owen by Kevin Henkes
Polar Express by Chris Van Allsburg
Rainbow Fish by Marcus Pfister
Seven Blind Mice by Ed Young
The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats
Story of Ruby Bridges by Robert Coles
The Stranger by Chris Van Allsburg
Swimmy by Leo Leonni
Reading Comprehension 89
Thank You, Mr. Falker by Patricia Polacco
Time for Bed by Mem Fox
June 29, 1999 by David Wiesner
Predicting:
It Looked Like Spilt Milk by Charles Shaw
Just a Dream by Chris van Allsburg
Mouse's Birthday by Jane Yolen
Tuesday by David Wiesner last page introduces pigs..what will happen when the pigs fly
Reading Comprehension 90
Professional Resources for StrategyBased Reading Instruction
The texts and resources listed below are suggested tools for implementing strategy-based reading
instruction in primary classrooms. While the list is far from comprehensive, it serves as a suggested starting
point for those new to strategy-based reading instruction and as a supplement to those with some
familiarity.
Books:

Literature and the Child by Lee Galda and Bernice E. Cullinan

Reading with Meaning by Debbie Miller

Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding by Stephanie Harvey
and Anne Goudvis

Strategies for Reading Assessment and Instruction: Helping Every Child Succeed by D. Ray
Reutzel and Robert B. Cooter, Jr.

Teaching Reading & Writing: Combining Skills, Strategies, & Literature by John F. Savage

What Works in Classroom Instruction by Robert J. Marzano, Barbara B. Gaddy, and Cerri Dean

Please Don’t Sit on the Kids: Alternatives to Punitive Discipline by Clare Cherry

Revisiting the Reading Workshop: Management, Mini-Lessons & Strategies by Barbara Orehovec
and Marybeth Alley
Reading Comprehension 91
Electronic
Resources
Reading Comprehension 92
Electronic Resources

Instructional Strategies Online
http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/readmeaning/index.html

Reader’s Workshop
http://www.readersworkshop.org/

Busy Teacher’s Café: Reader’s Workshop
http://www.readersworkshop.org/

Reading Strategy Posters and Sample Comprehension Lesson Plans: ReadingLady.com
http://www.readinglady.com/index.php?module=documents&JAS_DocumentManager_op=viewDocum
ent&JAS_Document_id=3

Springfield Public Schools—Communication Art s
http://sps.k12.mo.us/curriculum/commarts/dist%20init/reader's%20workshop.htm

Living the Life of a Reader and Writer (Jennifer Myers’s Website)
http://quest.carnegiefoundation.org/~dpointer/jennifermyers/workshopapproach.htm

Mrs. Meachum’s Reading Workshop
http://www.jmeacham.com/reading.workshop.htm

Harry K. Wong Publications
http://www.harrywong.com/

A Closer Look At Reading Mini-Lessons
http://www.arliteracymodel.com/pdf/development/Reading%20Mini%20Lessons/Donnie.pdf

Comprehension Reading Strategy
The Wisconsin Literacy Education and Reading Network Source offers background information and
lesson plans on comprehension strategies.
http://wilearns.state.wi.us/apps/default.asp

Teaching Tips: Inference
This Web site from the eMints National Center for professional development programs offers links to
activity ideas, lesson plans, and graphic organizers designed to help teach inferencing skills.
http://www.emints.org/ethemes/resources/S00001679.shtml

Inferring Handout
This link leads to a handout on inferring written by a teacher, from the Mosaic Listserve Web site.
http://www.readinglady.com/mosaic/tools/Inferences%20handout%20by%20Deb%20Smith.pdf
Reading Comprehension 93

Comprehension Lesson Plan: Guess the Covered Word
This decoding lesson teaches students how to look for clues in text to decode words and make
inferences about word meaning.
From Lafayette Elementary School
http://www.k111.k12.il.us/lafayette/FourBlocks/guess_covered_word.htm

The New Literacies section of the International Reading Association Web site features discussions of
media literacy, critical literacy, and visual literacy.
http://www.readingonline.org/index/index_index.aspReading Online: New Literacies

“Into the Book” webpage has videos, research, and websites for teachers and students.
http://reading.ecb.org/Teacher/visualizing/visual_links.html

Ed Helper – Worksheets
http://edhelper.com/language/Reading_Skills.htm

Thomas Harrison Middle School, Comprehension Graphic Organizers
http://staff.harrisonburg.k12.va.us/~cfoster/reading/ReadingTemplates.html

Designed Instruction – Overview of Comprehension with Oral Reading
http://www.designedinstruction.com/leaningleads/oral-readingcomprehension.html
Reading Comprehension 94
Appendix
Reading Comprehension 95
Bulletin Boards:
Reading Comprehension 96
Reading Comprehension 97
Workshop Feedback
Workshop Title: _______________________________
Presenter: ___________________________________
Date(s) of Presentation: ________________________
Directions: Please answer the following questions with honest, specific, detailed
responses. Your responses will guide future presentations.
Why did you attend this workshop?
What did you hope to learn from this workshop before attending?
What ideas and/or instructional strategies were you able to take away from this workshop?
Please rate each of the following on a scale from 1-4. Then provide a brief
explanation of your rating.
1= Not Effective
2= Somewhat effective
3 = Effective
4 = Extremely Effective
Session #1 Overall
1
2
3
4
Rating Explanation:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session #2 Overall
1
Rating Explanation:
2
3
4
Reading Comprehension 98
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Session #3 Overall
1
2
3
4
Rating Explanation:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Technology
1
2
3
4
Rating Explanation:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Professional Literature Review
1
2
3
4
Rating Explanation:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Group Discussions
1
2
3
4
Rating Explanation:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Activities (ex. creating a evaluation tool for literate learning environments)
1
Rating Explanation:
2
3
4
Reading Comprehension 99
Implementation Feedback Format
Workshop Title: _______________________________
Presenter: ___________________________________
Date(s) of Presentation: ________________________
Directions: Please answer the following questions with honest, specific, detailed
responses. Your responses will guide future presentations.
1. How will you use the instructional strategies and ideas presented in your
classroom instruction?
2. Which instructional strategies and ideas are you most likely to implement? Why?
3. Which instructional strategies and ideas are you least likely to implement? Why?
4. How will the information presented support your instruction in your specific grade
level? Please list grade level with explanation.
5. How was the information presented most similar to your current reading
comprehension instruction?
6. How was the information presented most different from your current reading
comprehension instruction?