An Examination of Paternal Contributions to Child Behavior Among a Low-Income and Ethnically Diverse Sample
Michael P. Flores, Kyle W. Murdock, & Laura D. Pittman
Northern Illinois University
Purpose:
Analysis Plan:
 Prior research indicates that an increase in paternal involvement is associated with
improved child behavior among low-income and ethnically diverse populations
(e.g., Pruett, Cowan, Cowan, & Pruett, 2009).
 Hierarchical regressions were run testing the proposed mediation of the relationship
between paternal internalizing symptoms and child behavior problems by negative
father-child interactions. (See Table 1.)
 As a result, a variety of interventions designed to increase paternal involvement
among low-income and ethnically diverse individuals have been proposed (e.g.,
Rienks, Wadsworth, Markman, Einhorn, & Etter, 2011).
 Additionally, a larger model testing the hypothesized mediation model with child
gender included as a moderator of the association between paternal
psychopathology and negative paternal parenting behavior, was assessed using the
MODMED macro provided by Preacher and Hayes (2007; see Figure’s 1 & 2) for use
in SPSS. The MODMED macro also provides an estimate of the indirect effect via
bootstrap analyses, a preferred method for examining mediation models (e.g.,
Hayes, 2009).
 In addition, although the effects of the quantity of paternal involvement among lowincome and ethnically diverse samples on child outcomes has been evaluated, less
attention has been given to the quality of paternal involvement in the literature.
 There is also a lack of research examining paternal psychopathology as a predictor
of child outcomes despite evidence suggesting that increased paternal
psychopathology may be negatively associated with the quality of father-child
relationships (e.g., Wilson & Durbin, 2010). Maternal psychopathology, however,
has been linked to negative child behaviors (e.g., Downey & Coyne, 1990)
 The present study aimed to evaluate negative paternal parenting behavior as a
mediator of the associations between paternal psychopathology and child behavior
problems. It was hypothesized that negative paternal parenting behavior would
partially mediate the association between paternal psychopathology and child
behavior problems.
 In addition, given evidence suggesting that child gender is associated with
parenting behavior and child behavior among at-risk samples (e.g., Parent et al.,
2011), child gender was also incorporated as a moderator in a larger model.
Participants:
 Mothers and fathers of 2-4 year old children who participated in the first wave of
both the Main and Embedded Developmental Study of the Three-City Study
(Winston et al., 1999) were included in present study analyses (N = 229).
 The majority of parents identified their marital status as never married (62%; intact
marital relationship, 29%; divorce, 7%), with 50% of fathers reporting currently living
with their children’s mother. All children lived with their mothers.
 Fathers ranged from 18 – 63 years of age (Mage = 30.14, SD = 7.50). Forty-five
percent of fathers self-identified their ethnicity as African-American, 45% as
Hispanic, 8% as Caucasian, and 2% as other.
Method & Measures:
 Fathers reported on:
 Their own psychopathology was measured through the Brief Symptom
Inventory (BSI; Derogatis, 1993).
 The quality of father-child interactions via the harsh and disengaged scales of
the Raising Children Checklist questionnaire (Shumow, Vandell, & Posner,
1998).
 Their child’s behavior through the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL;
Achenbach, 1992).
 Their own level of educational attainment.
 Mothers reported on paternal involvement and provided information regarding
marital status, education, household income (which was used to create an
income-to-needs ratio), and child’s ethnicity.
 More information regarding the methodology utilized in the Three City Study can
be found at: http://web.jhu.edu/threecitystudy
Results Continued:
Figure 2. Child gender as a moderator of the association between paternal psychopathology and
negative paternal parenting behavior
 Child ethnicity, paternal involvement and education, and maternal household income
to needs, education, and marital status, were entered as covariates in all analyses.
Results:
Table 1. Regressions testing mediation of the association between paternal psychopathology and
child behavior problems through negative paternal parenting behavior
Model 1
Model 2
Variable
B
SE B
β
B
SE B
β
Paternal Psychopathology
.27
.08
.44**
.46
.09
.35**
Negative Paternal Parenting
.30
.10
.21**
Behavior
Constant
- .40
.24
- .42
.24
R2
.21
.24
Adjusted R2
.18
.20
F – Ratio
7.09**
7.51**
R2∆
.21
F∆
30.08**
Note. * p < .05. ** p < .01.
 Results indicated a significant positive association between paternal
psychopathology and child behavior problems.
 Additionally, results suggest a significant positive association between negative
paternal parenting behavior and child behavior problems. When parenting was
included in Model 2, the association between paternal psychopathology and child
behavior problems was less strong, but remained significant, suggesting partial
mediation
Figure 1. A moderated-mediation model of the relationship between paternal psychopathology
and child behavior problems
 As shown in Figure 2, the link between paternal psychopathology and
negative paternal parenting behavior was stronger for fathers of female
children as compared to male children.
 Also, the MODMED macro found, that in addition to a significant direct effect,
there was a significant indirect effect between paternal psychopathology and
child behavior problems, through negative paternal parenting behavior.
Discussion:
 The results suggest that when fathers are more psychologically distressed their
children exhibit more behavior problems, and this can be partially explained through
increased negative paternal parenting behaviors. As such, increased paternal
involvement may be ill-advised when fathers are struggling with mental health
issues, at least among low-income and diverse samples.
 In addition, child gender was identified as a moderator of the association between
paternal psychopathology and negative paternal parenting behavior.
 These results may be associated with previously identified “spillover effects” among
parents of young children. As an example, coparenting hostility has been found to
spill over into parenting behaviors for parents of girls but not boys (Stroud et al.,
2011). Such spillover may be associated with the risks that daughters pose to lowincome families as compared to sons when of child bearing age. As such, fathers
may aim to control their child through harsh parenting behavior in order to minimize
this future risk.
 Given the findings identified in the present study, it may be beneficial for clinicians to
address paternal psychopathology, and incorporate aspects of parent training to
decrease negative paternal parenting behavior, prior to increasing paternal
involvement among distressed fathers. Such a strategy has been identified by BenPorath (2010) in which aspects of Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) are
incorporated into parent training programs to reduce parent distress. Stress
reduction among low-income and diverse fathers may be especially important given
the number of stressors they may encounter in everyday life.
Corresponding Author:
Please contact Michael Flores at mflores@niu.edu with any comments, questions, or
suggestions.