Ch. 3-Researching the Social World I. Research and Science of Sociology a. Scientific Method-a systematic procedure for acquiring knowledge based on empirical evidence. Data is gathered from both experience and observation. b. It is important to understand how sociology deals with the gap between common sense and social scientific knowledge, especially when analyzing the perceptions that are widely held, such as the association between the rich and the poor in the United States. Common sense and media culture gives Americans the impression that wealth is evenly distributed; scientific data reveals that the wealthy (the top 20% of US population) actually controls 84% of the total wealth in the US. While common sense is essential to our understanding of social phenomena, it is important for us to use systematic scientific principles to understand the social world as well. Weber: research should be “value-free,” free of personal bias. c. A long-standing debate within sociology is whether the discipline is best described using scientific principles. Comte believed that society was governed by laws and it was sociology’s task to uncover these laws (positivism). He also believed it was sociology’s task to instigate social reform. Herbert Spencer believed in Social Darwinism. Is sociology’s purpose science or social reform? “What is” vs “what ought to be” d. Research Terms: Concept: abstract idea that must be defined Variable: concepts that vary Independent variable: cause Dependent variable: effect Hypothesis: theoretical statement linking the independent variable with the dependent variable; educated guess Operationalizing a variable: defining a variable in order to measure it Validity-measures what it is supposed to measure Reliability-consistency in measurement Ch. 3-Researching the Social World 2 Correlation-relationship between two variables: change in one is accompanied by a change in another. First step to prove a cause and effect relationship Cause and effect-three conditions must be met: Correlation, time-order, rule out alternative explanations II. Steps in the Research Process a. Formulating the problem Identify problem Review literature Specify research question Develop a hypothesis b. Measurement Translate abstract concepts into concrete variables Specify the variables in the hypothesis Operationally define variable-how are concepts and variables measured c. Choosing a research design-some involves testing of hypotheses, some is exploratory; consider time, money Determine the population and sample Population: entire group from which samples may be drawn; if you collect information on the entire population, it’s called a census Sample: subset of the population from which you are actually collecting data Choose the method: a. Survey: an ordered series of questions intended to elicit information from respondents. It is the most common type of research design includes questionnaires and interviews, Advantages: least expensive, least time-consuming Disadvantages: low rate of response; biased questions b. Field observation, includes participant observation Advantage: qualitative research, rich data Disadvantage: time-consuming, expensive c. Experiment-directly observe effect of independent variable on dependent variable Advantage: accurate data Disadvantage: Hawthorne effect, ethical problems d. Secondary Analysis-existing sources such as census data; content analysis (mass media) Ch. 3-Researching the Social World Advantage: makes historical research possible Disadvantage: no control on how data was collected e. Analyzing and interpreting data Quantitative/qualitative Accept or reject hypothesis Measures of central tendency: mean, median and mode f. Evaluating the results-developing the conclusion Identify problems, new questions Prepare formal report III. The Ethics of Research a. Safety: “Do no harm.” b. Confidentiality c. Informed Consent d. Voluntary Participation 3