Chapter 1: Connecting Process and Principles
I. Making Connections
a. Every day you take on numerous roles (i.e. student, employee, friend)
b. These roles require you to connect with others around you
i. We connect through Internet, video games, cell phones, etc.
c. Communication competence is the ability to take part in effective
communication that is characterized by skills and understandings that enable
communicators to exchange messages successfully.
II. What is communication?
a. The simultaneous sharing and creating of meaning through human symbolic
interaction.
i. Communication is complex
ii. Communication as a discipline has existed for thousands of years
1. Ancient Greece and Rome used as means of influence
2. Middle Ages in Western Europe religious writings and preaching
3. Western World used for public speaking, storytelling, and debating
b. Communications is the delivery systems for mediated and mass communication
i. Ways of disseminating information
III. Why should we study communication?
a. Communication and career development
i. Top quality (Table 1.1)
ii. Employers want someone who can speak, think, listen
1. People can be trained in specific job responsibilities
b. Communication and Ethical behavior
i. Ethics refers to an individual’s system of moral principles.
1. Plagiarism is the use of another person’s information, language, or
ideas without citing the originator and making it appear that the
user is the originator.
a. Give credit to sources
2. Unethical communication may, constitute effective
communication
c. Communication and our Multicultural society
d. Communication and our Technological society
IV. Principles of Communication
a. Communication is a process (series of actions that has no beginning or end and is
constantly changing).
i. Like the weather
ii. Can never be duplicated
b. Communication is a system (combination of parts interdependently acting to
form a whole).
i. Like the human body
1. One part affects the whole
c. Communication is both interactional and transactional
i. Interaction- exchange of communication in which communicators take
turns sending and receiving messages
ii. Transaction- exchange of communication in which the communicators
act simultaneously, encoding and decoding at the same time
d. Communication can be intentional or unintentional
i. Intentional communication- message that is purposely sent to a specific
receiver
ii. Unintentional communication- message that is not intended to be sent or
is not intended for the person who receives it
V. Essential Components of Communication
a. Source- creator of the message
i. Encoding- source translates thoughts or feelings into words, sounds, and
physical expressions which together make up the actual message that is to
be sent
b. Message- communication that is produced by the source
c. Interference/noise- anything that changes the meaning of an intended message
i. External/physical: slamming doors, stereo
ii. Internal/psychological: daydreaming, hunger
d. Channel- the route by which messages flow between sources and receivers
e. Receiver- individual who analyzes and interprets the message
i. Decoding- process of translating a message into the thoughts or feelings
that were communicated
f. Feedback- response to a message that the receiver sends to a source
g. Environment/atmosphere- psychological (attitudes, feelings) and physical
surroundings (temperature, room size)in which communication occurs (example
page 23)
h. Context- circumstances or situation in which communication occurs
VI. Types of communication
a. Intrapersonal- process of understanding information within oneself
b. Interpersonal- creating and sharing meaning between people who are in a
relationship
i. Dyadic communication- exchange of information between two people
ii. Interview- carefully planned and executed question and answer session
designed to exchange desired information between two parties
iii. Small-group communication- exchange of information among a
relatively small number of people, ideally 5-7, who share a common
purpose
c.
VII.
VIII.
Public- transmission of a message from one person who speaks to a number of
individuals who listen
d. Mediated- communication transmitted by some kind of mechanistic means (i.e.
radio, TV)
e. Mass- communicating with or to a large number of people
f. Electronic-mediated- communication transmitted by an electronic device such as
a computer, cell phone, or PDA (i.e. email, text)
Communication Misconceptions
a. Communication is a Cure-All
b. Quantity Means Quality
c. Meaning is in the words we use
d. We have a natural ability to communicate
e. Communication is reversible
Improving communication competence
a. Develop a repertoire- wide range of communication behaviors from which
effective communicators make choices
Chapter 2: Connecting Perceptions and Communication
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Perception and Communication
A. Perception involves selecting, organizing, and interpreting information in order
to give personal meaning to the communication we receive.
a) Meaning we give to our experiences originate in us.
1) We must use at least one of our five senses (hearing, touching,
smelling, seeing, and tasting) to form perceptions.
b) Perception is at the heart of communication.
Understanding Perception-perception is a complex cognitive process
A. To perceive our surroundings, must first be aware; second, must mentally form
our perceptions; lastly must be able to communicate them
a) Awareness
b) Perception Formation- differ in how we organize and interpret
experiences
1) Cognitive complexity- explains how our minds process and store
simple to complex information.
1. Children process at simple level; adults more complex
i. Children (pretty/ugly)
ii. Adult (contact honesty and sincerity)
B. Verbal Communication (voice, grammar, and word choices)
a) “People judge us by the words we use” (example page 37)
1) More sophisticated words, more perceived intelligence
The Nature of Perception (camera —info enters through eyes—lens and stored in the
brain)
A. Selection- brain sorts one stimulus from another
a) Stimulus-incites or quickens action, feeling, or thought
1) Selective exposure- deliberate choices we make to experience or
to avoid experiencing particular stimuli
2) Selective attention- focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring or
downplaying other stimuli
1. Paying attention to teacher, ignoring surrounding sounds
3) Selective retention- process, store, and retrieve information that
we already selected, organized, and interpreted.
B. Organization—categorize in order to make sense of stimuli
a) Closure-fill in missing pieces (Figure 2.1)
b) Proximity- grouping of two or more stimuli that are close to one
another,
c) Similarity- grouping of stimuli that resemble one another in size, shape,
color, and other traits.
C. Interpretation- assigning of meaning of stimuli
1) Based on past experience (Figure 2.2)
2) Based on new situations
3) Based on other’s opinions-magazines, TV, Internet
Perceptual Differences - factors that influence our perceptions
A. Perceptual set-a fixed, previously determined view of events, objects and people
(perpetuate inaccuracies)
V.
a) Ignore information and rely on past experiences; past experiences
control perceptions
B. Stereotyping- categorizing of events, objects, and people without regard to
unique individual characteristics and qualities
a) Stereotypes are exaggerations, dispositions, false premises
b) Use in intercultural situations
c) Difference between a perceptual set and stereotype is a stereotype uses
categories (Figure 2.3)
C. Attribution
a) Attribution is the complex process through which we attempt to
understand the reasons behind others’ behaviors
1) Factors that influence behaviors
1. Situation (environment)
2. Disposition (person’s traits)
2) Attribution error- occurs when we perceive others as acting as
they do because “they are that kind of person” rather than because
of any external factors that may have influenced their behavior
(example page 47)
D. Physical Characteristics
a) Weight, height, body shape, health, strength, and ability to use his/her
five senses account for the way he/she takes in perceptual differences.
E. Psychological state- state of mind alters our perceptions of events, people, and
things
a) When things are well, view positively (vice versa)
F. Cultural background
a) Culture- learned behaviors that are communicated from one generation
to another to promote individual and social survival pg. 45—perceptions
of groups
1) Ethnocentrism- learned belief that our own culture is superior to
all others
2) Cultural myopia- perceiving one’s own culture as superior and
having a very narrow or shortsighted view of cultures other than
your own
3) Cultural relativism- taking on a broader worldview and opening
our minds to different cultures as merely being different and not
judging as inferior because they are different.
G. Gender- social construct related to masculine and feminine behaviors that are
learned.
H. Media- advertisers, government, leaders, and Internet shape our worldview
Improving perception competencies and perception checking
A. Become an active receiver
a) Seek out as much information as possible
B. Recognize that each person’s frame of reference is unique
a) Each of us sees the world through a different window
C. Distinguish facts-something put forth as objectively real that can be verified, from
inference)
a) Fact—Jennifer is late today; inference—Jennifer is always running late,
she must be having problems in her personal life
D. Become aware of the role perceptions play in communication
E. Keep an open mind
a) Perceptions may not be accurate
F. Perception checking—being a better communicator—will help prevent jumping to
the wrong conclusions about others’ thoughts, feeling, and motives
Chapter 3: Connecting Self and Communication
I.
II.
III.
Understanding self-concept
A. Self- concept- a person’s perceived self, which consists of an organized collection
of beliefs and attitudes about self
1. Self-image- a person’s mental picture of him/herself
a) Example, female student
2. Self-esteem- a person’s feelings and attitudes toward him/herself
a) Hard worker
B. Self-concept as a process
1. communication and self concept are inseparable and both involve a
process-continuous change with no beginning or end
a) Self-concept development is a complex process
C. Development of self-concept (Table 3.1)
1. Values- a general, relatively long lasting idea that guides behavior
a) If value material objects, judge by what we have
b) Can be categorized into broad categories
a. Religion, material, intellectual
2. Attitude- an evaluative feeling or way of thinking about oneself, others,
events, ideas, and objects
a) more narrowly defined
3. Belief- a conviction or confidence in the truth of something that is not
based on actual proof
a) Some beliefs, like attitudes, are more important to us
a. Most important, don’t change easily
Communication and Self-concept
A. Perceptions of how others respond to us affect our self-concept (Figure 3.2)
B. Communication apprehension- anxiety associated with real or anticipated
communication with other person(s)—anxiety syndrome
1. 95% of Americans fear some type of communication situation (public
speaking, talking with one person)
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Impression Management
A. Self-fulfilling prophecy- expectations we have of ourselves or that others have of
us that help to create the conditions that lead us to act in predictable ways
1. Ex. predict nervousness in speech, likely to be nervous in speech
2. Friend tells you a teacher is good, she is.
B. Impression management- creating a positive image of oneself in order to
influence the perceptions of others
1. We all strive to make a good first impression—self-presentation—want
to look good when meeting someone for the first time
a) self enhancement- efforts to boost your own image
b) other enhancement- efforts to make a target person feel good in
your presence
2. Perceived self
a) the person we believe ourselves to be at any given moment of selfexamination (see yourself as fat/skinny)
IV.
V.
VI.
3. Presenting self- public image—way we want to appear to others (nice
person, articulate)
C. Facework- term to describe the verbal and nonverbal ways we act to maintain our
own presenting image and the images of others
1. create various roles/characters we want others to believe about us
Culture and Self Concept
A. Self-concept develops in a cultural context; differences across cultures
1. Individualistic orientation- tendency to stress self or personal goals
and achievements over group goals and achievements
2. Collectivistic orientation- tendency to put aside your individual goals
for the well being of the group
Gender and Self Concept
A. Sex and gender
1. Terms are often used interchangeably
a) Gender- social construct related to learned and masculine and
feminine behaviors
b) Sex- anatomical and physiological differences between males and
females that are genetically determined (biological)
B. Gender stereotypes
1. Female stereotypes often more negative
C. Gender expectations
Enhancing self-concept
A. Decide what you would like to change or improve about yourself.
B. Describe why you feel the way you do about yourself.
C. Make a commitment to improve or change.
D. Set reasonable goals for yourself.
E. Decide on the specific actions you are going to take
F. Associate with positive people whenever possible
Chapter 4: Connecting through Verbal Communication
I.
II.
The Importance of Language
a. Language is a structured system of signs, sounds, gestures, or marks that is used
and understood to express ideas and feelings among people within a community,
nation, geographic area, or cultural tradition.
i. Without language there would be little or no communication as we know
it.
b. Language is powerful.
i. Our names define who we are. (name calling also affects us—“Weirdo”)
ii. Language can create biases for men and women.
1. Example of New Kid on the Block by Jack Prelutsky
2. Speakers tend to use “he” or “she” when speaking.
c. Language affects thought.
i. Thoughts and language are inseparable.
1. How many times have you found yourself struggling to find “the
word” and without it you could not express what you really
wanted?
2. We consider language choices before we speak.
ii. Muted Group Theory—Suggests that status and power are clearly linked
and that women, ethnic minorities, and outgroups have little voice and
people do not pay attention to them because they lack the appropriate
power of language.
iii. Style Switch—the process of moving between the language of one’s own
culture and the language of the dominant culture to successfully operate in
both. (African American women)
The Elements of Language
a. Everyday talk—the ordinary kind of communicating people do in their lives.
b. Four key elements of language:
i. Sounds—learn sounds before we learn how to speak
1. Dialects and speech patterns can complicate communication
between people who speak the same language.
ii. Words—symbols that stands for the object or concept that names it
1. Word desk represents an actual piece of furniture
2. Word love represents a whole range of emotions associated with
our feelings for those closest to us.
3. Idioms are words whose meanings cannot be understood by
ordinary language
iii. Grammar—rules that govern how words are put together to form phrases
and sentences.
iv. Meaning
1. The study of meaning or the association of words with feelings,
ideas, and contexts is semantics.
a. If language did not have meaning, it would serve little
purpose.
III.
b. Words are symbols that represent objects, concepts, or
events. Example, word computer is only a word, not the
entity it symbolizes
c. Read Humpty Dumpty example on page 89
2. Words have denotative and connotative meaning.
a. Connotation is the subjective meaning of a word; what a
word suggests because of feelings or associations it evokes.
i. Based on the context in which the word is used, how the meaning is
expressed nonverbally (tone, facial expression).
ii. Connotative meanings may be accepted by most of the people who use the
language within a particular group.
b. Denotation is the objective meaning of the word; the
standard dictionary definition.
3. Words can be concrete or abstract.
a. Concrete word is a symbol for a specific thing that can be
pointed to or physically experienced.
i. Car, book, dog—all concrete; represent tangible objects and meanings are
clear.
b. Abstract words are symbols for ideas, qualities, and
relationships.
i. Represent things that cannot be experienced through senses; meaning
depends on the experiences and intentions of the person using them.
ii. Freedom, faith, justice—mean different things to different people.
iii. Example on page 91
4. Meaning depends on commonalities.
a. Background, experiences, attitudes (example page 92)
5. Language can obscure meanings
a. Words mean different things to different people
b. Co-cultures within a language community sometimes use
words or phrases in ways that are unique to their group.
i. Jargon—language used by certain groups or specific disciplines that may
be technical or too specialized to be understood by the general population.
ii. Slang—language used by groups to keep the meaning of the communication
between the group. Slang words change frequently and are specific to
regions or groups (Review college slang on page 94).
iii. Euphemism—the use of an inoffensive or mild expression in place of one
that might offend, cause embarrassment or suggest something unpleasant.
1. Ex. Person dies—“passed away”
2. Garbage man—sanitation engineer
c. Doublespeak—the deliberate misuse of language to distort
meaning ex. “dehired”
Language-Based Barriers to communication
a. Meanings can be misunderstood.
i. Bypassing-a misunderstanding that occurs between a sender and a
receiver because of the symbolic nature of language (Example page 95).
b. Language can shape our attitudes
IV.
i. Indiscrimination is the neglect of individual differences and
overemphasis of similarities.
1. Indiscrimination is a form of a perceptual set; person chooses to
ignore differences and changes in events, things, and people.
ii. Ways to reduce indiscrimination
1. Indexing is a technique to reduce indiscrimination by identifying
the specific persons, ideas, events, or objects a statement refers to.
2. Dating—a form of indexing that sorts people, events, ideas, and
objects according to time.
c. Language can cause polarization
i. Polarization is the tendency to view things in terms of extremes.
1. Rich or poor; pretty or ugly; large or small; good or bad
ii. Polarization can be destructive, escalating conflict to the point at which
parties simply cannot communicate.
1. Pendulum effect—escalating conflict between two individuals or
groups that results from their use of polar terms to describe and
defend their perceptions of reality (example page 99).
d. Language can be sexist
i. Sexist language creates sexual stereotypes or implies that one gender is
superior to another.
ii. Gender inclusive language is language that does not discriminate against
males or females.
iii. Metaphors used in our culture are often sexist.
1. Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase relates
one object or idea to another object or idea that are not commonly
linked together.
a. Men—aggressive (wolf, tomcat, stud)
b. Women—harmless pets (kitten, lamb, chick) or unattractive
barn animals (cow, pig, dog)
e. Culture affects language use
i. High-context culture- culture in which the meaning of the
communication act is inferred from the situation or location (Japan)
ii. Low-context culture- culture in which the meaning of the communication
act is inferred from the messages being sent and not the location where the
communication occurs (United States)
How to Use Language Effectively
a. Use accurate language
b. Use vivid language
c. Use immediate language.
i. Verbal immediacy identifies and projects the speaker’s feelings ad makes
the message more relevant to the listener.
d. Use appropriate language
e. Use metaphorical language
Chapter 5: Connecting through Nonverbal Communication
I.
Nonverbal communication includes all behaviors, attributes, objects (except words)
that communicate messages that have social meaning.
a. Includes tone of voice, facial expressions, posture, gestures, and appearance.
II.
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication.
a. Nonverbal communication occurs constantly.
i. Another person is present, have to communicate.
ii. Sometimes what is said, is less important that what is not said.
b. Nonverbal communication depends on context.
c. Nonverbal communication is more believable than verbal communication
d. Nonverbal communication is a primary means of expression.
i. Detect peoples feeling without their actually saying anything.
e. Nonverbal communication is related to culture.
i. Middle finger—in some culture represents “a-OK”
f. Nonverbal communication is ambiguous.
i. Cannot assume that nonverbal communication only has one meaning
III.
Functions of nonverbal communication
a. Table 5.1
IV.
Types of Nonverbal Communication
a. Kinesics—sometimes referred to as “body language” any movement of the face
or body that communicates a message.
i. Two categories of kinesics: eye behavior & facial expressions
1. Eye behavior—subcategory of facial expressions that includes any movement or
behavior of the eyes
a. Also referred to as oculesics—study of eye movement
b. During interaction, use 45% of time looking in each other’s eyes
c. Eye behavior, one of six features
i. Influence attitude change and persuasion
ii. Indicate degree of attentiveness, interest, and arousal
iii. Express emotions
iv. Regulate interaction
v. Indicate power and status
vi. Form impression of others
d. Eye gaze indicates sincerity, trustworthiness, and friendliness
i. Romantic partners are more likely to gaze into each other’s eyes for prolonged
periods of time.
2. Facial expressions—configuration of the face that can reflect, augment, contradict, or
be unrelated to a speaker’s vocal delivery.
a. Facial expressions are windows to emotions—Cicero—“Face is the image of the
soul”
b. Six different basic emotions
i. Anger, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise, and disgust
c. Facial expressions convey the most information of all body gestures
d. Facial management techniques—control of facial muscles to conceal inappropriate
or unacceptable responses
i. Table 5.2
3. Body movements
a. Five categories of body movements
i. Table 5.3
4. Physical characteristics
a. Body type, attractiveness, height/weight, and skin tone.
b. Physical appearance places a significant role in communication
i. Males and women influenced by attractiveness Attractive people perceived to
be more popular, successful, and sociable
ii. Attractiveness can be a disadvantage
5. Touch
a. Haptics—tactile or touch communication; one of the most basic forms of
communication.
b. Table 5.4
6. Space
a. Proxemics—the study of the use of space and of distance between individuals
when they are communicating.
i. Intimate Space—no space to one and a half feet (well acquainted or forced)
ii. Personal Space—one and a half feet to four feet (carry on conversations with
close friends and relatives)
iii. Social space—four to twelve feet (most professional interactions occur)
iv. Public space—twelve feet or more (formal presentations)
b. Territoriality—the need to identify certain areas of space as one’s own.
7. Time
a. Chronemics—the study of how people perceive, structure, and use time as
communication.
8. Paralanguage/vocalics—the way we vocalize or say the words we speak
a. Speech sounds, rate, accents, articulation, pronunciation, and silence.
b. Example page 133
9. Silence—an extended period of time without sound
a. Vocal pauses- a hesitation, usually short in duration
i. Used to emphasize a word (MLK)
ii. Gather a thought
iii. Capture attention
b. Silence can be awkward in conversation
c. Expected in certain situations
10. Olfactics—study of smell or odors
a. Smell communicates powerful messages
b. Cosmetics used to eliminate body odor.
i. More attracted to people with pleasant smells.
c. Food smells good, assume it will taste good.
11. Artifacts—a personal ornament or possession that communicates information about a
person.
a. Piercings and tattoos.; automobiles, eyeglasses, clothing, hair
12. Environment
a. Psychological and physical surroundings in which communication occurs
V.
VI.
i. Furniture, architectural design, lighting condition, temperature, smells
Interpreting and Improving Nonverbal Communication
a. Nonverbal cues have multiple meanings
b. Nonverbal cures are interdependent
c. Nonverbal cues are subtle
Improving our interpretation of Nonverbal Communication
a. Be observant and sensitive to nonverbal messages
b. Verify nonverbal messages that you are not sure of
i. Descriptive feedback—describing to the sender what you perceived the
message to mean to you.
ii. Self-monitoring—the willingness to change behavior to fit situations,
awareness of effects on others, and the ability to regulate nonverbal cues
and other factors to influence others’ perceptions.
Chapter 6: The Importance of Effective Listening
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to
spoken or nonverbal messages.
a. As students expected to listen 50% of the time; our course only about 7% is
devoted to listening.
The Importance of Effective Listening
a. Most misunderstandings that arise in our daily lives occur because of poor
listening. Create personal, professional, and financial problems.
i. Ex. Missed appointments, misunderstood directions, incorrect or
incomplete assignments; lower grades; lost jobs.
b. Each day we are constantly listening (from start to finish)
Listening and Hearing: Is there a difference?
a. Hearing and listening are not the same: can hear, but not listen; can’t listen, but
not hear.
i. Listening is active and complex; requires energy and desire.
The Stages of Listening
a. HURIER model (Judi Brownell)—a six stage model of the listening process
involving hearing, understanding, remembering, interpreting, evaluating, and
responding.
b. Stages of Listening
i. Hearing is the passive physiological process in which sound is received
by the ear.
1. When play music while studying, hearing or listening?
ii. Understanding is assigning meaning to the stimuli that have been
selected and attended to. (Comprehension)
1. Ability to follow directions can measure if we understand what we
hear.
iii. Remembering is recalling something from stored memory; thinking of
something again.
1. Remember more if the topic seems relevant.
iv. Interpreting is the process of understanding the meaning of the message
from the speaker’s point of view and letting the speaker know that you
understand.
1. Eye contact, posture, facial expressions
v. Evaluating is when the listener analyzes evidence, sorts facts from
opinion, determines the intent of the speaker, judges the accuracy of the
speaker’s statements and conclusions, and judges the accuracy of his or
her own decisions.
vi. Responding is sending feedback is overt verbal and nonverbal behavior
by the listener indicating to the speaker what has and has not been
received.
1. Total silence; smiling/frowning; asking for clarification
2. Feedback is an important part of being an effective listener.
Five techniques for storing things in memory
a. Association- connect with something you already know)
b. Categorization- organize into categories)
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
c. Mediation-make meaningful
i. Form a meaningful word out of foreign words or meaningless syllables
ii. Words can be made out of the initial letters of the items presented
iii. Create a word that links two or more ideas or words
d. Imagery—creating visual or mental images from the information presented
e. Mnemonics—make sense of the information and use visual imagery to make the
impression vivid
Functions of Listening
a. Listening for information—listening is gain information
b. Listening to evaluate—listening to judge or analyze information
c. Listening with empathy—listening to understand what another person is
thinking and feeling
d. Listening for enjoyment—listening for pleasure, personal satisfaction, or
appreciation.
Barriers to Effective Listening
a. Considering the topic or speaker uninteresting
b. Criticizing the speaker instead of the message
c. Concentrating on details, not main ideas (focusing too much on details, miss
main point)
d. Avoiding difficult listening situations
e. Tolerating or failing to adjust to distractions
f. Faking attention
Critical listening and critical thinking: Analyzing and Evaluating Messages
a. Critical listening judges the accuracy of the information presented, determines
the reasonableness of its conclusions, and evaluates its presenter.
b. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze and access information.
i. Assessing the speaker’s motivation
ii. Judging the accuracy of the speaker’s conclusions
Improving Listening Competence
a. Recognize the importance of listening effectively
b. Think of listening as an active behavior that requires conscious participation
c. Recognize that a willingness to work and a desire to improve are essential to
increasing listening effectiveness.
Listening and technology (computers, email, and the Internet)
Intercultural listening
a. Cultures value listening differently
i. Students in Mexico and Asia are taught to listen first and ask questions
later
ii. In places like Hong Kong, China, and Venezuela, if you interrupt, you will
be branded as a discourteous person, and the local residents will avoid
speaking with you.
Chapter 7: Selecting a Topic and Connecting to the Audience
I.
II.
Selecting a speech topic. (1st step in preparing a speech)
a. Selecting an appropriate topic
i. Topic, interest, and motivation in developing and presenting are vital to
your success.
ii. Beginning speakers think they may not have a topic
1. watch TV, read newspaper, look within
b. Techniques for finding a topic
i. Self-inventory- a list of subjects that you know about and find interesting
ii. Brainstorming- a technique used to generate as many ideas as possible
within a limited amount of time, which can be used during any phase of
the group discussion process to produce topics, information, or solutions
to problems.
1. Set aside five minutes—list all ideas that come to mind as topics—
write key words/phrases—don’t think about if ideas are good or
bad.
2. After listing, select those that appeal to you—brainstorm more
ideas related to those topics.
iii. Reviewing current media: magazines, newspapers, TV programs,
conduct internet searches
1. Technique for developing a list of possible topics by looking at
current publications, television, movies, and other forms of public
communication.
2. Internet—world is at your finger tips
c. Assessing the appropriateness of a topic
i. Once identified a topic, determine if it is appropriate for you (page 171)
d. Narrowing the topic
i. Once topic is chosen, decide if it is narrow enough to fit the allotted time
limit and accomplish the goal of the assignment
1. Narrowing is a skill critical to your success as a communicator, not
only in class, but also in workplace/organizations
Determining the General Purpose, Specific Purpose, and Thesis of a speech.
a. The General Purpose
i. The overall goal of the speech, usually one of three overlapping functions:
to inform, to persuade, or to entertain.
1. Informative speech- enhances an audience’s knowledge and
understanding by explaining what something means, how
something works, or how something is done.
a. Do not ask listeners to believe or do anything.
b. Assume that all audience does not already know the
information.
c. If controversial topic (ex. Stem Cell Research) do not take
sides.
2. Persuasive Speech
III.
a. A speech that attempts to change listeners’ attitudes or
behaviors by advocating or trying to gain acceptance of the
speaker’s point of view. (ex. Eat breakfast, endorse
political candidate)
b. Must present evidence and arguments to justify your
position.
c. Persuasive purpose is to inform and take action (providing
information is a necessary part of speech, but its ultimate
goal is the action)
d. Goal is to change beliefs or motivate listeners to act in a
specific manner
3. Entertainment Speech
a. A speech that provides enjoyment and amusement (after
dinner speech, roast)
b. Three qualities: 1) light, 2) original, 3) appropriate to the
situation
c. Use humor, but does not offend audience (Audience is
captive, cannot click off)
b. The Specific Purpose
i. Single Phrase that defines precisely what is to be accomplished in a
speech.
1. Effective statement: 1) identifies general purpose; 2) identifies the
audience; 3) identifies exact topic to be covered.(See guidelines on
page 176)
c. Thesis
i. A sentence that states specifically what is going to be discussed in a
speech.
1. Example page 178
Connecting with the Listeners
a. Audience Analysis- the collection and interpretation of data about characteristics,
attitudes, values, and beliefs of an audience.
b. Understanding the Audience’s point of view
i. Audience is the collection of individuals who have come together to
watch or listen to someone or something, such as to listen to a speech.
ii. Speaker should consider why individuals have come together. “What’s in
it for me?”
c. Captive versus voluntary participants
i. Captive participant is a person who is required to hear a particular
speech (no choice but to attend—school, employer: if leave, will be
penalized)
ii. Voluntary participant- a person who chooses to listen to a particular
speech because of interest or need (True volunteers attend only because if
what they expect to hear; no other motivation).
d. Key audience information
I.
i. Demographic Analysis: collection and interpretation of characteristics
(age, gender, religion, occupation, and so on) of individuals, excluding
values, attitudes, and beliefs)
ii. Psychological Analysis: collection and interpretation of data about
audience member’s values, attitudes, and beliefs.
1. Seek to determine how audience will react to speaker, the
speaker’s topic, and the surroundings in which the speech is
presented.
iii. Size of Audience
1. Larger—more difficult to use an informal, conversational speaking
style.
2. Affects use of language, gestures, and visual aids.
iv. Physical setting
1. Room size, ventilation, seating arrangement, lighting, speaker’s
platform, potential for visual aids.
v. Knowledge level
1. extent of an audience’s knowledge about a topic
2. Adjust to reach a knowledgeable audience
vi. Connecting with listeners
1. Class—don’t know each other extremely well
2. Character, logic, and emotional appeals affect way audience views
speech and the speaker
vii. Attitudes and Values related to the topic
viii. Attitudes related to the situation—why is audience gathered
e. Ways to learn the audience
i. Observation: method of collecting information about an audience in
which the speaker watches audience members and notes their behaviors
and characteristics.
ii. Survey Interviews: carefully planned and executed person-to-person,
question and answer session during which the speaker tries to discover
specific information that will help in preparation of a speech
iii. Questionnaire: a set of written questions distributed to respondents to
gather desired information. (Example page 186)
Chapter 8: Gathering and Using Information
Gathering Information
a. Using yourself as a source of information
i. Begin research with yourself; one of the most valuable sources of
information
b. The interview as a source of information
i. Valuable tool for gathering expert opinion—ideas, testimony,
conclusions, or judgments of witnesses or recognized authorities.
ii. An interview is a carefully planned, person-to-person, question and
answer session aimed at gathering information.
1. Constant exchange of information; both people speak and listen
c. Steps in the interview process (Review steps on page 193)
d. The library as a source (Requires effort, but useful and beneficial.)
II.
III.
i. Library computer search
1. College and university networks
ii. Reference Department—sources for specific subject areas: dictionaries,
almanacs, biographical aids, encyclopedias, yearbooks, atlases,
bibliographies, indexes, and guides to periodical literature.
1. Specialized indexes for particular subjects
2. Magazines, newspapers, research journals have most recently
available info. (current)
3. (Lexis-Nexis—electronic database)
e. Electronic information sources
i. World Wide Web- a global information system that allows users to
access information from the Internet.
1. Great wealth of information quickly and easily
2. Search engine: ex. Google; Meta-search engine—all the best
search engines piled into one; ex. Dogpile
f. Surfing the web
i. Some sources are reliable and credible; others are not—not subject to
same evaluation and review as print sources; important to access
information and people/organizations responsible for the sites.
ii. Review guides on page 198.
Suggestions for doing research
a. State a clear purpose before starting your research.
b. Begin your research early.
c. Use computer searches when possible.
d. Maintain a bibliography of sources
e. Take notes.
Using research to support and clarify ideas (Aristotle—two parts to every speech: a
statement and proof).
i. Testimony-Opinions or conclusion of witnesses or recognized authorities
1. Adds trustworthiness to what speaker says
2. Can support or clarify
3. Quoted directly or paraphrased—condensing a long text or
clarifying a technical passage
ii. Quoted well—cannot be stated any better. JFK: “Ask not what your
country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”
iii. Testimony should be qualified by virtue of skills, training, expertise, or
recognition; must be believable and acceptable to listeners.
b. Examples
i. An example is a simple, representative incident or model that clarifies a
point.
1. Examples are useful when presenting complex information to
listeners unfamiliar with a topic.
a. Brief example: specific instance that is used to introduce a
topic, drive home a point, or create a desired response.
(Ex. page 205)
b. Illustrations- extended example, narrative, case history, or
anecdote that is striking and memorable.
i. Exemplify concepts, conditions, or circumstances
demonstrate findings.
1. Factual illustration- a report of something
that exists or actually happened.
2. Hypothetical illustration- a report of
something that could happen, given a
specific set of circumstances.
c. Analogy- comparison of two things that are similar in
certain essential characteristics
i. Figurative analogy- a comparison of things in
different categories (Ex. Page 206)—make ideas
vivid and clear
ii. Literal analogy- a comparison of things in the
same category (example: two majors: art and music;
two search engines: yahoo and goggle; two genres
of literature: drama and poetry)—evidence to
support points
iii. Restatement- the expression of the same idea using
different words; adds clarity, meaning, and dramatic
rhythm. Ex. Page 207.
c. Definitions
i. Logical definition (most common) consists of a term’s dictionary
definition and the characteristics that distinguish the term from other
members of the same category.
ii. Operational definition- a definition that explains how an object or
concept works or lists the steps that make-up a process. Ex. Page 207
iii. Definition by example- clarifying a term, not by describing it or giving its
meaning, but by mentioning or showing an example of it. Ex. Page 208
d. Statistics
i. Numerical data that show relationships or summarize or interpret many
instances
1. Summarize a large amount of data rapidly
2. to analyze specific occurrences or instances
3. to isolate trends
4. to calculate probabilities of future events
ii. Making the most of statistics (page 208)
Chapter 9: Organizing and Outlining Your Speech
Organizing your speech involves arranging its parts into a systematic and meaningful whole.
I.
II.
III.
Organizing the body of your speech.
a. The body is the main content of a speech that develops the speaker’s general and
specific purposes.
b. The main points are the principal subdivisions of a speech
i. Relate main points, specific purpose, and thesis
ii. Present the main points
1. be specific
2. use vivid language
3. show relevance
4. create parallel structure
5. Limit number of main points
Order the main points (decide which order in which to present)
a. Mind mapping- a visual organizational strategy that uses words or symbols to
identify the concepts and their connections to each other. Figure 9.1
b. Patterns of Presentation
i. Time-Sequence (Chronological) Pattern- begins at a particular point in
time and continues either forward or backward.
ii. Spatial Pattern- content of a speech is organized according to the
relationships of space.
iii. Topical Pattern- main topic is divided into a series of related subtopics.
c. Patterns used in persuasive speaking
i. Problem-solution pattern- order of presentation that first discusses a
problem and then suggests solutions.
ii. Cause-Effect Pattern- the speaker first explains the causes of an event,
problem, or issue, and then discusses its consequences.
iii. Motivated Sequence Pattern- specifically developed for persuasive
speaking that combines logic and practical psychology; five steps:
attention; need; satisfaction; visualization; and action.
d. Connect the Main Points
e. Transitions- a phrase or word used to link ideas (Ex. Page 222)
f. Signposts
i. Traffic signs warn drivers about travel conditions, tell audience what’s
ahead
ii. A word, phrase, or short statement that indicates to an audience the
direction a speaker will take next.
g. Internal previews: short statements that give advance warning or preview, of the
points to be covered. Example: Next, we’ll look at possible solutions to the
problem of budget shortfalls.
h. Internal Summaries- a short review statement given at the end of a main point
(Ex. Page 223)
Organize the Introduction of Your Speech
a. Introduction- opening statements that orient the audience to the subject and
motivate them to listen.
IV.
V.
i. Orient the audience to the Topic
1. Refer to the subject or occasion
2. Use personal references or narratives
3. Ask rhetorical questions
4. Present a startling statement
5. Use humor
6. Use quotations
7. State the specific purpose and thesis
ii. Motivate the audience to listen
1. Credibility: a speaker’s believability based on the audience’s
evaluation of the speaker’s competence, experience, character, and
charisma.
iii. Forecast the main points
1. Before you finish introducing your speech, let the audience know
what you will cover in the speech itself.
Organize the conclusion of your speech
a. Conclusion- closing statements that focus the audience’s thoughts on the specific
purpose of a speech and bring the most important points together in a condensed
and uniform way.
b. Functions
i. Show that you are finishing the speech
ii. Make your thesis clear
iii. Review the main points
iv. End with a memorable thought
Outline Your Speech
a. Outlining- arranging materials in a logical sequence, often referred to as the
blueprint or skeleton of a speech, and writing out that sequence in a standardized
form.
i. Blueprint or skeleton of a speech
ii. Develop two outlines: one when putting speech together and when
delivering it.
b. Principles of Outlining
i. Subordination- most important points are main points and are supported
by subpoints (subordinate to the main points)
ii. Coordination- ideas with the same level of importance use the same kind
of numbers and letters to provide visualization of the relationships
iii. Parallelism- style in which all ideas, main points, subpoints, and subsubpoints use similar grammatical forms and language patterns
c. Types of Outlines
i. Preliminary outline- a list of all the main points that may be used in a
speech (page 235).
ii. Full sentence Outline- outline that expands on the ideas you have decided
to include in your speech. Example page 237.
1. It identifies the main points and subpoints you will cover, written
as full sentences.
2. Good outline helps the speaker to stay on task and provides
reminders of what comes next.
D. The Presentational Outline
a. A concise, condensed outline with notations, usually a combination of
full sentences and key words and phrases.
i. Use when formally present speech.
ii. Concise, requires little space, comprehensible at a glance.
Page 229
iii. Presentational Note cards example: page 242
Chapter 10: Managing Anxiety and Delivering Your Speech
I.
Qualities of Effective Speakers
a. Ethics (moral principles)
i. Communicate with honesty, sincerity, and integrity
ii. Present worthwhile and accurate information
iii. Do not falsify evidence to misinterpret information
iv. Do not make unsupported attacks on opponents in order to discredit them
v. Do not deceive an audience about their intention
vi. Do not use irrelevant emotional appeals
vii. Do not pose an authority when they are not
b. Knowledge (Speaker’s greatest asset)
i. Read and observe things around you
ii. Careful research to add support
c. Preparation
i. Successful speakers are very well prepared
ii. Preparation allows you to respond to the situation and listeners more
freely.
iii. Require practice, planning, and work.
iv. Sound conversational, not “canned”
d. Self-confidence (belief in one self) Assertiveness
i. Discussed in Chapter 3
e. Managing Speech Anxiety
f. Speech Anxiety
i. Fear of speaking before an audience
ii. Normal to encounter anxiety before, during, and after a speech; problem
arises when we cannot control it or choose not to communicate.
iii. More we know about stage fright, better we can control it.
iv. Speaking in front of others is identified as people’s greatest fear.
g. Communication Apprehension
i. Most severe form of anxiety
1. Fear speaking in all contexts; one-to-one; small-group
2. Choose to remain silent and cut self off from most communication
with others.
h. Symptoms of Speech Anxiety
II.
i. Anxiety is a condition during which our bodies secrete hormones and
adrenaline that eventually overload our physical and emotional responses.
1. Reactions similar to job interview; seeing a long-lost friend.
ii. Symptoms: Table 10.1
iii. Statements: “I am not good at this anyway.”
iv. Overestimate how much audience notices.
i. Causes of Speech Anxiety
i. Can treat if you know the underlying problem.
ii. Many people treat symptoms and ignore the problems
iii. Severe speech anxiety begins at an early age as a result of negative
feedback in the home.
iv. May develop if hear that speaking in front of others is a terrible
experience.
v. Most common fears
1. Fear of physical unattractiveness
2. Fear of social inadequacy
3. Fear of criticism
4. Fear of the unknown
5. Fear of speech anxiety
6. Conflicting emotions
7. Excitement from anticipation
vi. Anxiety is a learned behavior
1. Only solution for its’ suffers is to examine the potential reasons for
the anxiety and learn how to use this knowledge to manage the
discomfort.
j. Speech Anxiety and other cultures
i. Anxieties that go beyond native speakers
ii. Eye contact limited in other cultures
k. Treating Speech Anxiety
i. Don’t allow the possibility of failure to overcome us
ii. Guidelines to reduce anxieties:
1. Select a topic you enjoy and know
2. Be prepared
3. Be confident
4. Think positively
5. Practice
6. Don’t Give Up!
iii. Systematic desensitization: a relaxation technique designed to reduce the
tenseness associated with anxiety. Visualize success! Example page 257
Methods of Delivery (Table 10.2)
a. Impromptu Delivery
i. A delivery style in which a speaker delivers a speech with little or no
planning or preparation.
1. Ex. response to a question; business meeting
2. Speaker depends solely on ability to think on their feet.
b. Manuscript Delivery
III.
i. A delivery style in which a speaker writes the speech in its entirety and
then reads it word for word.
1. Use in situations in which every words must be stated precisely.
2. In learning, discouraged because it invites the speaker to
concentrate more on the script than the audience; reduces eye
contact; less able to adapt to audience—sound mechanical
c. Memorized Delivery
i. A delivery style in which a speaker memorizes a speech in its entirety,
from a word for word script.
1. Short presentations: toasts, introductions; speakers in contests.
2. Speakers sometimes memorize certain parts
3. Benefits: concentrate less on what you have to say, more on
delivery
4. Disadvantage: lack of flexibility; might forget
d. Extemporaneous Delivery
i. A delivery style in which the speaker carefully prepares the speech in
advance, but delivers it using only a few notes and with a high degree of
spontaneity.
1. Between memorized, manuscript, and impromptu
2. Ex. report at work.
3. Advantages: gives you better control; more spontaneity; adaptable.
4. Disadvantages: easy to get off track; intimidating
Vocal and Physical Aspects of Delivery
a. Vocal Aspects
i. Voice plays an important role in delivery; voice should be pleasant and
express a wide range of emotions.
ii. Three aspects of voice that determine the effectiveness:
1. vocal quality
a. The overall impression a speaker’s voice makes on his or
her listeners.
i. Harsh, nasal, thin, mellow
ii. Attitude affects the quality of voice and illustrates
speaker’s emotions.
2. intelligibility
a. Speaker’s vocal volume, distinctiveness of sound, clarity of
pronunciation, articulation, and stress placed on syllables,
words, and phrases
i. Volume-consider size of room
ii. Mispronouncing words (
iii. Grammatical Words
iv. Difference between mispronounced words and
regional dialect or ethnic language (ex. Ebonics)
v. Good articulation involves producing and saying
words clearly and distinctly ; most problems result
from laziness
IV.
V.
vi. Avoid fillers and vocal pauses and use appropriate
language.
3. vocal variety—variations in rate, force, and pitch
a. Rate- speed at which a speaker speaks, normally between
120-175 wpm.
b. Force- intensity and volume of the voice; use to
communicate confidence and vigor to emphasize an
important point and to regain lagging interest.
c. Pitch—how low or high the voice is on a tonal scale
b. Physical Aspects
i. Personal Appearance—what a speaker looks like and the way a speaker
dresses, grooms, and presents himself/herself to others is important.
1. Wearing caps, shirts with words, distracting jewelry
2. Appearance affects self image.
ii. Body movement
1. Posture—relaxed and natural; avoid slouching
2. Use movement (stepping to the side or backwards) to hold
attention
3. Too much can distract audience
iii. Gestures—movements of the head, arms, and hands—to help illustrate,
emphasize, or clarify a point.
1. Spontaneous, not forced
2. Distracting behaviors, Table 10.3
iv. Facial expressions—configurations of the face that can reflect, augment,
contradict, or be unrelated to a speaker’s vocal delivery.
1. Face is most expressive part of body; tell a lot about you.
v. Eye contact—the extent to which a speaker looks directly at audience
members.
1. associated with feelings about listeners
2. most important physical aspect of deliver
3. indicates concern and self-confidence
4. failure to make eye contact loses listeners
Presentation Aids—materials and equipment, such as diagrams, models, real objects,
photographs, tables, charts, and graphs that speaker’s may use to enhance the
speech’s content as well as their delivery.
a. Choosing and Using Presentational Aids (page 268)
b. Kinds of Presentational Aids (page 270)
c. Methods of Presentation
i. Posters
ii. Projected visuals
iii. Handouts
d. Computer-Generated Presentation Aids
e. Thinking about PowerPoint (color, type size and font, graphics)
f. Developing Presentational Aids
Your Delivery
a. Practice!
Chapter 11: Informative Speaking
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Information and Power
a. Information—definite knowledge acquired or supplied about something or
somebody
Distinctions between informative and persuasive speaking
a. General goal of informative speakers is to increase their listeners’ knowledge
b. Persuasive speech is meant to alter attitudes and beliefs
c. Fine line between informing and persuading
i. Information can be presented without an attempt to persuade
ii. Persuasion cannot be accomplished without attempting to inform
Topics for Informative speeches—Guidelines on page284
a. Objects—examine concrete subjects: people, animals, things, structures, and
places (page 286)
b. Processes—usually focuses on a demonstration in which the speaker explains how
something is done or how it takes place (page 286)
c. Events—discuss happenings or occasions (page 287)
d. Concepts—deal with abstract topics such as beliefs, theories, ideas, and
principles. (page 287)
Preparing and developing an informative speech
a. Gain and maintain audience attention
i. Generate a need for the information
ii. Create informative relevance
1. informative relevance: making information relevant to an
audience and give them a reason to listen
iii. Provide a fresh perspective
iv. Focus on the unusual
b. Increase understanding of the topic
i. Organize your presentation
1. Plan for repetition
a. Planned repetition- the deliberate restating of a thought to
increase the likelihood that the audience will understand
and remember it
2. Use advance organizers
a. Statements that warn the listener that significant
information is coming
ii. Choose language carefully
1. use concrete words (symbols for specific things)
iii. Use description
1. Descriptors—words used to describe something
iv. Use definitions
1. Show contrasts
a. Contrast definition—a definition that emphasizes
differences
V.
VI.
2. Use synonyms
a. Synonym- a word, term, or concept that is the same or
nearly the same in meaning as another word, term, or
concept.
3. Use antonyms.
a. Antonym—a word, phrase, or concept that is opposite in
meaning to another word, phrase, or concept.
4. Use etymologies.
a. Etymology-A form of definition that traces the origin and
development of a word.
c. Hints for effective informative speaking
i. Avoid assumptions
1. Guidelines on page 296
ii. Personalize information (relate topic to listeners)
Evaluating the informative speech (page 299)
a. Topic
b. General requirements
c. Audience analysis
d. Supporting materials
e. Organization
f. Delivery
g. Language Choice
Sample informative speech page 303
Chapter 12: Persuasive Speaking
I.
The Goal of Persuasive Speaking
a. Persuasion is a communication process involving both verbal and nonverbal
messages, that attempts to reinforce or change listeners’ attitudes, beliefs, values,
or behavior.
i. Ultimate goal is action or change.
1. Adoption is an action subgoal that asks listeners to demonstrate
their acceptance of attitudes, beliefs, or values by performing the
behavior suggested by the speaker.
a. Ex. Big Brother/Sister speech; never before considered,
become one after
2. Discontinuance is an action subgoal that asks listeners to
demonstrate their alteration of an attitude, belief, or value by
stopping certain behaviors.
a. Ex. Stop going without breakfast (discontinue doing
something negative)
3. Deterrence is an action subgoal that asks listeners to demonstrate
their acceptance of an attitude, belief, or value by avoiding certain
behavior.
II.
III.
a. Ex. If you don’t do illegal drugs, don’t start now
b. Prevent occurrence than end its occurrence—
discontinuance
4. Continuance is an action goal that asks listeners to demonstrate
their acceptance of an attitude, belief, or value by continuing to
perform the behavior suggested by the speaker.
a. Ex. Continue to volunteer as a Big Brother/Sister
b. Keep a good behavior rather than begin a new behavior—
adoption
Topics for Persuasive Speeches (Guidelines page 312)
a. Questions of fact
i. question that asks what is true and what is false
ii. built on predictions of future events that will eventually become matters of
fact
iii. based on complicated answers to questions of fact or justifications for
answers that are unclear
iv. may attempt to answer questions of fact that are not completely verifiable
b. Questions of value—a question that asks whether something is good or bad,
desirable or undesirable
i. Requires a more judgmental response than a fact
1. Ex. Who was the best president of this country?
ii. Not based solely on fact, but on what each individual considers to be right
or wrong, ethical or unethical, acceptable or unacceptable, or a good or
bad choice.
1. Evidence supports position and justify opinions
c. Questions of policy—question that asks what actions should be taken
i. Goes beyond seeking judgmental responses to seeking courses of action
ii. Ex. Should universities provide birth control to students
iii. Involve both facts and values; never simple
iv. Speakers can defend an existing policy, suggest modifications of an
existing policy, and suggest a new policy to replace an old one; or create a
policy where none exists.
Persuasive Claims
a. Aristotle claimed that speakers had three models of persuasion available
i. Ethos- speaker’s character as perceived by the listeners
ii. Logos- substance of the speech or the logical appeals the speaker makes
iii. Pathos- evoking of appropriate emotion from the listeners
b. Stephen Toulmin developed a model to help understand everyday persuasive
arguments
i. Claim—what the persuader wants or hopes will be believed, accepted, or
done.
ii. Claims require evidence, data—supporting materials or evidence that
should influence the listener to accept the claim as stated
iii. Not always a clear or irrefutable relationship between the claim and the
data.
iv. Warrant—explains the relationship between the claim and the data
IV.
V.
1. Example on page 317
Establishing Credibility (most valuable tool a persuasive speaker can possess)
a. Competence: amount of knowledge, degree of involvement, extent of experience
displayed (page 319)
b. Character (trustworthiness and ethics)
i. Trustworthiness is an audience’s perception of a speaker’s reliability and
dependability
1. Ex. Instructor judging student on attendance
ii. Ethics
1. Cite Sources
a. Oral footnote-providing within the speech the source that
particular information come from (According to Newsweek
magazine of July 24, 2007)
2. Do not falsify or distort information to make your point
3. Show respect for your audience
c. Charisma—the appeal or attractiveness that the audience perceives in the
speaker, contributing to the speakers credibility.
i. Sincere, speak with energy and enthusiasm, seem attractive and likable
Preparing and Developing a Persuasive Speech
a. Research the topic
b. Organizing the speech
i. Problem-solution pattern
ii. Cause-effect pattern
iii. Monroe’s motivated sequence (page 325)
c. Supporting Materials (impressiveness to influence audience)
i. Appeals to needs- an attempt to move people to action by calling on their
physical and psychological requirements and desires.
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs(pg. 326)
ii. Logical appeals- an attempt to move people to action through the use of
evidence and proof.
1. Deductive reasoning is a sequence of thought that moves from
general information to a specific conclusion; consists of a general
premise; a minor premise; and a conclusion (page 327)
2. Inductive reasoning (opposite) a sequence of thought that moves
from specific facts to a general conclusion (page 327)
3. Causal reasoning- a sequence of thought that links causes with
effects; either implies or implicitly states the word because
a. Ex. The earth’s temperature is rising because the ozone
layer is thinning
4. Reasoning by analogy- a sequence of thought that compares
similar things or circumstances in order to draw a conclusion (page
328)
iii. Emotional appeal—an attempt to move people to action by playing on
their feelings.
1. Ex. Student cheating on exam (justified because of pressure from
parents)
VI.
VII.
Fallacies in Argument Development (pages 330-332)
a. Fallacy is an argument that is flawed because it does not follow the rules of logic
i. Questionable cause: a fallacy that occurs when a speaker alleges
something that does not relate to or produce the outcome claimed in the
argument.
ii. Ad Hominem: a fallacy that attacks a person rather than the argument
itself; name calling
1. Smoke screen ;inability to provide good counterarguments
iii. Fact vs. opinion: speaker states opinion as if it were fact
1. “Our university’s policy on drinking is too stringent.”
iv. Red Herring: use of irrelevant information to divert attention from the
real issue (draw attention away from issue being questioned)
1. Ex. Questioning significant other
v. Hasty generalization: fallacy that occurs when a speaker does not have
sufficient data and therefore argues or reasons from a specific example.
vi. Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy: one attributes something as a cause
simply because it followed (came after) another incident
vii. Either-or fallacy: fallacy of reasoning where only two options exist (black
or white)
Evaluating the Persuasive Speech (pg. 332)
a. Topic
b. General Requirements
c. Audience Analysis
d. Supporting Materials
e. Organization
f. Delivery
g. Language Choice
Chapter 13: Interpersonal Communication
Connecting with others and forming relationships is what interpersonal relationships is all about.
I.
II.
Connecting with Others via Interpersonal Communication
a. Interpersonal communication- creating and sharing meaning between persons who
are in a relationship.
i. Competent interpersonal communicators adjust and communicate
effectively with a variety of people from diverse backgrounds in order to
establish short or long-term relationships.
b. Relationship is an association between at least two people, which may be
described in terms of intimacy or kinship.
Motivation and Need to Form Relationships
a. Uncertainty Reduction Theory
i. Suggests that when we meet others to whom we are attracted, our need to
know about them tends to make us draw inferences from observable
physical data.
1. Urge or desire to reduce our uncertainty about those individuals
motivates our desire for further communication with them.
2. Three stages of initial interaction
III.
IV.
a. Entry phase: physical appearance, physical attractiveness
and economic or social status.
b. Personal phase: less constrained; more openness
c.
Exit phase: future is decided (Example page 349)
b. Social Information processing theory
i. Suggests that electronic-mediated communication relationships grow only
to the extent that people first gain information about each other and use
that information to form impressions. (Example page 350)
c. Social Exchange Theory
i. A theory based on the assumption that people consciously and deliberately
weigh the costs and rewards associated with a relationship or interaction.
1. Benefit: anything that is perceived to improve our self-interest.
2. Costs: negative things or behaviors that we perceive to be not
beneficial to our self-interest.
d. Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation Theory- a theory that
provides insight into our motivation to communicate; consists of three needs that
motivate communication
1. Affection: feel likable or loveable (social groups, dating services)
a. Underpersonal- avoid emotional commitment; don’t let
others get close
b. Personal- deal effectively; poised
c. Overpersonal- need affection badly
2. Inclusion: feel significant and worthwhile
a. Undersocial- don’t like being around other people; find
communicating threatening
b. Oversocial- cannot stop themselves from communicating
and getting involved and communicating
c. Social- satisfied need for inclusion; can handle situations
with or without others; rarely feel uncomfortable
3. Control: derived from responsibility and leadership
a. Abdicrats- extremely submissive to others
b. Autocrats- never have enough control
c. Democrats- control needs essentially satisfied
Relationships: Getting to Know others and Ourselves
a. Once we are motivated to begin a relationship, we then begin the process of
getting to know ourselves and others.
b. Learning through face-to-face relationships
i. Small talk- casual conversation that is often impersonal and superficial,
including greetings, comments about the weather, newsworthy events, or
trivia.
c. Connecting online (Facebook, MySpace)
Self-disclosure in Relationships
a. Relationships grow further and more intense through self disclosure.
i. Self-disclosure is voluntary sharing of information about the self that
another person is not likely to know
b. Self-disclosure the process
c.
d.
e.
f.
i. Johari Window Model- a graphic model describing human interaction
that is useful because it depicts four different levels of knowledge that
exist in our relationships with others.
1. The Open Area: Information known both to the self and others
2. The Blind Area: information that others perceive about us but that
we do not recognize or acknowledge about ourselves. (ex.
Instructor showing favoritism)
3. The Hidden Area: personal and private information about ourselves
that we choose not to disclose to others
4. The Unknown Area: Information not known to us or others
(defensive)
ii. Social Penetration Model- process of increasing disclosure and intimacy
in a relationship (penetrate further, deeper)
Why do we self-disclose?
i. Self-presentation: an intentional self-disclosure tactic that we use to
reveal certain aspects about ourselves for specific reasons (ex. job
interview…talk about yourself.)
ii. Relationship building—start or maintain relationships
iii. Catharsis: communicative release (getting something off your mind)
When shouldn’t we self-disclose too much?
i. Can be harmful, risky, unwise, or insensitive
ii. Honest sharing of our feelings, thoughts, concerns and secrets with others
is the heart of self-disclosure
Privacy and Gender
i. Privacy- the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for
themselves when, how, and to what extent information about themselves is
communicated to others (you decide when, how, and what to
communicate)
ii. Gender- women disclose more than men do; more likely to talk about their
relationships
iii. Culture Issues
1. How does your ethnicity affect your communication with whom
you choose to communicate?
Rhetorical sensitivity- a cautious approach to self-disclosure in which the
situation and factors about the other person are considered before communication
begins. (ex. telling friend they are gaining weight)
i. Review Attributes and Conclusions on page 368
ii. General conclusions about self-disclosure page 370
Chapter 14: Developing Relationships
I.
Forming and Dissolving Relationships
a. Interpersonal attraction- the desire to interact with someone based on a variety
of factors, including physical attractiveness, personality, rewards, proximity, or
similarities
i. Social attraction- fitting into circle of friends; similarities
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
ii. Physical attraction- looks
iii. Task attraction- ability to get the job done
Physical attributes
i. “Beauty is only skin deep”
1. People respond positively to those who are very attractive and
negatively to those who are very unattractive
a. Especially true in the early stages of interpersonal contact
with strangers
ii. Communication and Attraction
1. People tend to pair off by selecting individuals whom they
consider similar in attractiveness
a. Mis-matches do occur
i. Marge and Homer; Shrek
2. People tend to infer that the less attractive person in the
relationship has an attribute that “balances” the mismatch
a. Wealth, power, intelligence, sex appeal, or fame
i. Beauty and the Beast
iii. Chemistry and Attraction
1. Chemistry is right and relationship develops; or mismatched and
does not move beyond initial stages
iv. Gender and Attraction- women status is appearance; men’s status is
material wealth; women—young; men-old
Meeting on the Internet
i. Heterosexual men want physical attractiveness
ii. Heterosexual women want financial security
iii. Homosexual men emphasize physical attractiveness
iv. Homosexual women focus on relational goals, less sexual in nature
Knapp and Vangelisti’s Stages of Coming Together
i. Initiating- individuals meet and interact for the first time
ii. Experimenting- coming together; requires risk taking because little is
known as yet about the other person
iii. Intensifying- marks an increase in the participant’s commitment and
involvement in the relationship
iv. Integrating- relationship has a sense of togetherness
v. Bonding- public announcement of the commitment
Knapp and Vangelisti’s Stages of Coming Apart
i. Differentiating- differences are highlighted and become forces that slow or
limit the growth of the relationship
ii. Circumscribing- information exchange is reduced, and some areas of
difference are completely avoided because conversation would only lead
to a deepening of the conflict
iii. Stagnating- standstill (avoid interaction and sidestep controversy)
iv. Avoiding- physical and emotional distancing and eventual separation
v. Terminating- breakup; end relationship
vi. Table 14.1
Signs that Show a Relationship is in Trouble
II.
i. Aggressive behavior
ii. Lies
iii. Betrayal
g. Duck’s Phases of Dissolution
i. The Intrapsychic Phase- people begin to internally assess their
dissatisfaction with a relationship
ii. The Dyadic Phase- people discuss the status of their relationship
iii. The Social Phases- relationship difficulties become more public within the
context of family, friends, co workers
iv. The Grave Dressing Phase- after the breakup, each partner gives an
account of why the relationship ended.
h. Dialectical Theory Push and Pull
i. Dialectic- contradictory impulses that push and pull us in conflicting
directions with others
1. Table 14.2
i. Managing Relational Tensions
i. Denial- least helpful (denying that tension exists)
ii. Selection- strategy in which one end of the dialectical tension is chosen
over the other
iii. Segmentation- tactic in which a couple compartmentalizes different
aspects of their relationship
iv. Reframing- allows tensions to be redefined so as to dilute the tension,
make less obvious, or make it disappear
v. Moderation- compromises in which deals are struck to help reduce
tensions
vi. Reaffirmation- individuals recognize that dialectical tensions will always
be present and therefore we should accept and even embrace the
challenges
Interpersonal Conflict
a. Conflict happens to all of us; at home, school; and work
i. Conflict- an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent
parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and
interference from others in achieving their goals.
ii. Look at questions in page 393
b. Strategies to Manage Conflict
i. Withdrawing- avoid conflict by either psychologically or physically
removing ourselves from the situation
ii. Accommodating- does not assert his or her own needs but rather prefers to
go along to get along
iii. Forcing- one person has power and dominance over another person
iv. Negotiating- give-and-take process and leads to each party having some
satisfaction and some dissatisfaction with the outcome
v. Collaboration- cooperation and mutual respect (problem-solving
approach)
III.
c. Relational repair strategies page 397
Improving Communication Competence in Relationships
a. Establish supportive and caring relationships
b. Nurture a supportive environment
c. Invite more communication (page 400)
Chapter 15: Group and Team Communication
I.
II.
III.
IV.
What is a group?
a. A group is not simply a collection of people gathered at the same place.
b. Group- a collection of individuals who influence one another, have a common
purpose, take on roles, are interdependent, and interact together.
i. Members interact with one another often
ii. The group is important to its members
iii. Members share common goals and outcomes
iv. Members are similar to one another in important ways
Group formation: why we join and why we leave….
a. Help satisfy psychological and social needs
b. Helps achieve goals
c. Multiple sources of information
d. Security
e. Contribute to positive social identify
f. Make demands on time, energy, and resources
i. Much time, accomplish little
Types and purposes of small groups
a. Primary groups- focus on social and interpersonal relationships (socialization
and catharsis)
i. Family, close friends, coworkers, neighbors
b. Secondary groups- exist to accomplish tasks or achieve goals
i. Decision Making: homecoming
ii. Problem solving: how to improve healthcare
iii. Committees: specified task
iv. Learning and Sharing Information: social clubs
v. Therapy and Personal Growth: AAA, lost loved one
Project or work teams
a. Team- a special form of group that is characterized by a close-knit relationship
among people with different and complimentary abilities and by a strong sense of
identity
i. Involve: interaction; interdependence; common goals; personality;
commitment; cohesiveness; and rules.
ii. Not all groups are teams
1. Teams more likely to consist of people with diverse abilities
2. Teams develop more interdependence
3. High degree of group identify and more likely to identify
themselves as team members than individuals on a team
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
iii. Project team- individuals representing different specialties who are
assigned to coordinate the successful completion of an assigned task
1. Possess little history, work under a deadline; difficulty establishing
mutually agreed-on relationships.
a. Ex. Species Movie; Team formed to target parking
problems
iv. Work team- group of people responsible for an entire work process or a
segment of the process that delivers a product or service to an internal or
external customer.
1. Ex. university department
v. Focus group- a special form of work team that ascertains what its
members think about specific ideas, issues, or people.
1. What do college students think of binge drinking? (Parent, student,
administrator)
Characteristics of Small Groups
a. Interdependence- mutual dependence of group members on one another (most
essential characteristic)
b. Commitment- desire of group members to work together to complete a task to
the satisfaction of the entire group
c. Cohesiveness- attraction that group members feel for each other and willingness
to stick together; a form of loyalty
d. Group size- number of participants (five is most effective; no fewer than three no
more than nine)
e. Group norms- expected and shared ways in which group members behave.
f. Group culture- the pattern of values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors that is shared
by group members and that shapes a group’s individual personality.
i. Changes and underlies all actions and behaviors
Gender differences
a. Men dominate talking
b. Women more cooperative
Ethical Behavior
a. Collectivistic approach
Virtual groups and teams
a. Teleconferencing- use of telephones and speakerphones to connect people in
different locations
b. Videoconferencing- extension of teleconferencing and includes picture and
sound
c. Interactive computer conferencing- similar to videoconferencing, except
interaction occurs via computer.
Disadvantages of small groups
a. Groupthink (going along to get along) group members value the harmony of the
group more than new ideas, fail to critically examine ideas, hesitate to change
flawed decisions, or lack willingness to allow new members to participate.
b. Time consuming
c. Varying communication styles
d. Unfair workloads
i. Social loafing- tendency for individuals to lower their work effort after
they join a group
e. Pressure to fail (weaker group members
f. Grouphate phenomenon- dislike for groups
Chapter 16: Participating in Groups and Teams
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Team Building
a. Leadership- influence process that includes any behavior that helps clarify a
group’s purpose or guides the group to achieve its goals.
i. Leader- a person who is assigned, selected, or emerges from a group, to
provide direction toward reaching the group’s goals.
b. Leading a group (boss usually leader in business meetings)
i. Leaders help address two sets of needs
1. Task needs- related to the content of a task and all behaviors that
lead to the completion of it.
a. Gathering info; solving problems
2. Maintenance needs- related to organizing and developing a group
so that the members can realize personal satisfaction from working
together.
a. Atmosphere, structure, praise
c. Leadership styles and behaviors
i. Initiating structure- a dimension of leadership that focuses on getting the
job done.
1. organizing work, setting goals, making sure rules are followed
ii. Consideration- focuses on establishing good interpersonal relationships
and being liked by group members
1. doing favors for group members, taking time to explain things,
watching out for members’ well being
iii. Power styles
1. Autocratic leader= complete control
2. Democratic leader= shares control
3. Laissez-faire leader= gives up control
d. Leadership and gender
i. Early research says men were most leaders
ii. Task oriented men and women emerge as leaders
Conducting a Meeting
a. Agenda- a list of all topics to be discussed during a meeting (Page 438)
Member Participation
a. Roles of group members (task and maintenance)
b. Contributions of group members
i. Comments that are open to evaluation
ii. Provocative comments
c. Table 16.2
Problem Solving and Decision Making
a. Determining the problem
V.
VI.
i. Question of interpretation- a question that asks for the meaning or
explanation of something
b. Discussing the problem
c. Applying reflective thinking to Problem Solving and Decision Making (page 445)
d. Brainstorming
i. Brainstorming via technology
e. Reaching group consensus—all group members have been able to express how
they feel and think about the alternatives and have been given equitable
opportunities to influence the outcome.
Managing group conflict
a. What words do you think of when you hear the word conflict?
b. Conflict and Group Communication
i. Conflict can produce better understanding of both issues and people
ii. Conflict can increase member motivation
iii. Conflict can produce better decisions
iv. Conflict can produce greater cohesiveness among group members
v. Too much conflict can create unmanageable tension and heighten
disagreement, resulting in personal attacks on individual group members.
c. Groups must view conflict as beneficial; should not be avoided
i. Principled negotiation- procedure that helps group members negotiate
consensus by collaboration through the expression of each differing need
and a search for alternatives to meet those needs.
d. Ethical behavior and conflict
i. Review page 450
Evaluating Small-Group Performance
a. Page 450