Chapter 1: Introduction and
Research Methods
I. Introduction: The Origins of Psychology
Psychology is defined as the science of behavior and mental processes.
A. The Influence of Philosophy and Physiology
1. The origins of psychology can be traced back to the writings of great
philosophers such as Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who wrote about
topics such as sleep, dreams, the senses, and memory.
2. René Descartes (1596–1650), a French philosopher, promoted a doctrine
called interactive dualism—the idea that the mind and body
are separate entities. Today, psychologists continue to debate the
relationship between mental activity and the brain.
3. Early philosophers also laid the groundwork for the nature–nurture
issue, which continues to be central to psychology. Today, the debate
is often framed in terms of heredity (nature) versus environment
(nurture).
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 5
4. Physiology is a branch of biology that studies the functions and parts
of living organisms. Physiologists’ early scientific discoveries led to
the idea that scientific methods could be applied to issues of human
behavior and thinking.
B. Wilhelm Wundt: The Founder of Psychology
1. German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) published his
landmark text, Principles of Physiological Psychology, in 1874. In
1879, he opened the first psychology research laboratory at the
University of Leipzig.
2. Wundt defined psychology as the study of consciousness and emphasized
the use of experimental methods to study and measure consciousness.
C. Edward B. Titchener: Structuralism
1. Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927) formally established structuralism,
the first major school of thought in psychology; it held
that complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental
structures, or component parts, of sensations and feelings.
2. To identify these structures of conscious thought, Titchener trained
subjects in a procedure called introspection.
3. The limitations of introspection, the most important being that it
was unreliable, led to the demise of structuralism at Titchener’s
death in 1927.
D. William James: Functionalism
1. William James (1842–1910) was an American physiologist and psychologist
whose dynamic views had an enormous impact on the
development of psychology in the United States; his ideas became
the basis for a new school of psychology called functionalism.
2. Functionalism stressed the importance of how behavior functions to
allow people and animals to adapt to their environments. Functionalists
examined how psychology could be applied to areas such as
education, child rearing, and the work environment. Like Charles
Darwin, James stressed the importance of adaptation to environmental
challenges.
3. An outstanding teacher, James wrote Principles of Psychology, published
in 1890 in two volumes.
4. William James and his students
a. In 1878, G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) received the first Ph.D. in
psychology awarded in the United States. He established the
first psychology research laboratory in the United States at
Johns Hopkins University in 1883. He began publishing the
American Journal of Psychology. In 1892, Hall founded and was
elected the first president of the American Psychological
Association (APA).
b. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was an American psychologist
who conducted research on memory, personality, and
dreams; established a psychological laboratory at Wellesley
College in 1891; wrote a well-received textbook titled
Introduction to Psychology; and was the first woman to be elected
president of the APA (1905). Although she completed all the
requirements for a Ph.D. in psychology at Harvard, Harvard
refused to grant her the degree because she was a woman.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
c. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first American
woman to officially earn a Ph.D. in psychology. In 1908, she published
an influential text titled The Animal Mind; in 1921, she
became the second woman elected president of the APA.
d. Francis C. Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American
to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. Sumner published on a wide
variety of topics and chaired the psychology department at
Howard University, which produced more black psychologists
than all other American colleges and universities combined. One
of his students, Kenneth Bancroft Clark, played an instrumental
role in the U.S. Supreme Court’s 1954 decision to end segregated
schools. Clark became the first black president of the American
Psychological Association in 1970,
E. Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
1. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian physician and the
founder of psychoanalysis, which emphasized
a. human behavior as motivated by unconscious conflicts, which
are almost always sexual or aggressive in nature.
b. past experiences, especially childhood experiences, as critical to
the formation of adult personality and behavior.
2. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality also provided the basis
for a distinct form of psychotherapy.
F. John B. Watson: Behaviorism
1. In the early 1900s, the school of psychology called behaviorism
emerged as a dominating force. It emphasized the study of overt
behavior—observable behaviors that could be objectively measured
and verified.
2. Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was the Russian physiologist whose pioneering
research on learning contributed to the development of
behaviorism; he discovered a basic learning process that involves the
association of stimuli.
3. John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an American psychologist who
championed behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable
behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes. The goal of
behaviorists was to discover the fundamental principles of learning.
4. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist and, like
Watson, a strong proponent of behaviorism.
5. Between Watson and Skinner, behaviorism dominated American psychology
for almost half a century.
G. Carl Rogers: Humanistic Psychology
1. In the 1950s, a new school of thought called humanistic psychology
emerged. It was so distinctly different from both psychoanalysis
and behaviorism that it was sometimes referred to as the “third
force” in American psychology.
2. Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was the American psychologist who
founded the school of humanistic psychology, which emphasized
a. conscious experiences, including each person’s unique potential
for psychological growth and self-direction.
b. self-determination, free will, and the importance of choice in
human behavior.
3. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was the American humanistic psychologist
who developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological
growth.
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 7
II. Contemporary Psychology
A. Major Perspectives in Psychology
1. The biological perspective emphasizes studying the physical bases of
human and animal behavior, including the nervous system,
endocrine system, immune system, and genetics.
2. The psychodynamic perspective emphasizes the importance of unconscious
influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relationships.
3. The behavioral perspective emphasizes how behavior is acquired or
modified by environmental causes.
4. The humanistic perspective focuses on the motivation of people to
grow psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on
a person’s self-concept, and the importance of choice and selfdirection
in striving to reach one’s potential.
5. The positive psychology perspective focuses on the study of positive
emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and
the social institutions that foster those qualities in individuals and
communities. Positive psychology seeks to counterbalance psychology’s
emphasis on psychological problems and disorders. Topics that
fall under the umbrella of positive psychology include
a. personal happiness
b. optimism
c. creativity
d. resilience
e. character strength
f. wisdom
Positive psychology is also focused on developing therapeutic techniques
that increase personal well-being rather than just alleviating
the symptoms of mental illness.
6. The cognitive perspective focuses on the important role of mental
processes in how people process and remember information, develop
language, solve problems, and think.
7. (text and Culture and Human Behavior) The cross-cultural perspective
(embodied in cross-cultural psychology) studies the differences
among cultures and the influences of culture on behavior and
mental processes. Cross-cultural psychology emphasizes that common
behaviors are not always universal.
a. Culture refers to the attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors
shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation
to another.
b. The tendency to use your own culture as the standard for judging
other cultures is called ethnocentrism.
c. Individualistic cultures emphasize the needs and goals of the
individual over the needs and goals of the group.
d. Collectivistic cultures emphasize the needs and goals of the
group over the needs and goals of the individual.
8. Evolutionary psychology refers to the application of the principles
of evolution to explain psychological processes and phenomena.
This perspective has grown out of a renewed interest in Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution, which is based on the principle of
natural selection. Psychologists who take the evolutionary perspective
assume that psychological processes also are subject to the principle
of natural selection.
8 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
B. Specialty Areas in Psychology
1. Contemporary psychology enjoys enormous diversity. Important
specialty areas include the following:
a. Biological psychology, which involves the study of the physiological
aspects of behavior and mental processes.
b. Clinical psychology, which involves extensive training in evaluating
and diagnosing psychological disorders, psychotherapy
techniques, and psychological testing.
c. Cognitive psychology, which involves the investigation of
mental processes, including reasoning and thinking, problem
solving, memory, perception, mental imagery, and language.
d. Counseling psychology, which involves helping people of all
ages adjust, adapt, and cope with personal and interpersonal
problems in such areas as relationships, work, education, marriage,
child rearing, and aging.
e. Educational psychology, which involves the study of how people
of all ages learn. Educational psychologists help develop the
instructional methods and materials used to train people in both
educational and work settings.
f. Experimental psychology, which is the term traditionally
used to describe research involving such basic topics as sensory
and perceptual processes, principles of learning, emotion, and
motivation.
g. Developmental psychology, which involves the study of the
physical, social, and psychological changes that occur at different
ages and stages of the lifespan.
h. Forensic psychology, which involves the application of psychological
principles and techniques to legal issues.
i. Health psychology, which involves a focus on the role of psychological
factors in the development, prevention, and treatment
of illness.
j. Industrial/organizational psychology, which is concerned
with the relationship between people and work.
k. Personality psychology, which involves the study of the
nature of human personality, including individual differences,
the characteristics that make each person unique, and how those
characteristics originated and developed.
l. Rehabilitation psychology, which involves the application of
psychological knowledge to helping people with chronic and disabling
health conditions.
m. Social psychology, which involves the exploration of how people
are affected by their social environments, including how people
think about and influence others.
n. Sports psychology, which involves using psychological theory
and knowledge to enhance athletic motivation, performance, and
consistency,
o. School psychology, which involves providing a variety of psychological
services to children, adolescents, and families in public
and private schools.
p. Military psychology, which involves providing psychological
services to military personnel both at home and in war zones.
2. Mental health professionals
a. Clinical psychologists typically have a doctorate in psychology
and extensive training in treating psychological disorders.
Clinical psychologists in New Mexico and Louisiana have been
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 9
granted legislative permission to prescribe medications for symptoms
of psychological disorders. Similar legislation is now pending
in 18 other states.
b. Psychiatrists have a medical degree and can prescribe drugs
and other biomedical procedures.
III. The Scientific Method
The four basic goals of psychology are to (1) describe, (2) explain, (3) predict,
and (4) control or influence behavior and mental processes. To achieve these
goals, psychologists rely on the scientific method, which is a set of
assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating
questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.
1. Psychologists are guided by these basic scientific assumptions:
a. Events are lawful—that is, behavior and mental processes follow
consistent patterns.
b. Events are explainable—that is, behavior and mental processes
have a cause or causes that can be understood through careful,
systematic study.
c. Psychologists are open-minded but they have a healthy sense of
scientific skepticism—that is, they critically evaluate the evidence
and are cautious in the claims they make.
2. In analyzing evidence from psychological research, students should
think critically—that is, they should actively question statements
rather than blindly accepting them.
3. Critical Thinking: What is Critical Thinking?
a. Critical thinking is the active process of
(1) minimizing the influence of preconceptions and biases while
evaluating evidence.
(2) determining the conclusions that can reasonably be drawn
from the evidence.
(3) considering alternative explanations for research findings or
other phenomena.
b. What are the key attitudes and mental skills that characterize
critical thinking?
(1) The critical thinker is flexible yet maintains an attitude of
healthy skepticism.
(2) The critical thinker scrutinizes the evidence before drawing
conclusions.
(3) The critical thinker can assume other perspectives.
(4) The critical thinker is aware of biases and assumptions.
(5) The critical thinker engages in reflective thinking.
Critical thinking is not a single skill but rather a set of attitudes and
thinking skills.
A. The Steps in the Scientific Method: Seeking Answers
Psychology is based on empirical evidence—evidence that is the result
of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation.
1. Step 1. Formulate a hypothesis that can be tested empirically
a. A hypothesis is a tentative statement that describes the relationship
between two or more variables.
b. Variables are factors that can vary, or change, in ways that can
be observed, measured, and verified.
10 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
c. An operational definition defines the variable in terms of how
the factor is to be measured, manipulated, or changed.
2. Step 2. Design the study and collect the data
There are two basic categories of research methods—descriptive and
experimental.
a. Descriptive methods are research strategies for observing and
describing behavior. Commonly used descriptive methods include
naturalistic observation, surveys, case studies, and correlational
studies.
b. The experimental method is used to show that changing one
variable causes change in a second variable.
3. Step 3. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
a. Statistics are mathematical methods used to summarize,
analyze, and draw conclusions about the data researchers collect.
b. Research findings that are statistically significant are not
very likely to have occurred by chance.
c. Statistically significant differences may or may not have practical
significance or importance.
d. A statistical technique called meta-analysis involves pooling
the results of many research studies into a single analysis.
4. Step 4. Report the findings
a. Describing the precise details of the study makes it possible for
other investigators to replicate, or repeat, the study in order to
increase scientific confidence in the accuracy of the original
findings.
b. Psychologists report their research findings at professional
conferences and in psychology journals.
B. Building Theories: Integrating the Findings
1. A theory, or model, is a tentative explanation that tries to integrate
and account for diverse findings on the same topic.
2. Theories are tools for explaining behavior and mental processes;
they evolve and change as new evidence emerges, reflecting the selfcorrecting
nature of the scientific enterprise.
3. Science Versus Pseudoscience: What Is a Pseudoscience?
A pseudoscience is a theory, method, or practice that promotes
claims in a way that appears to be scientific and plausible even
though supporting empirical evidence is lacking or nonexistent.
a. Survey research indicates that pseudoscientific beliefs are common
among the general public.
b. Magnetic therapy: an example of psuedoscience at work
(1) Magnetic therapy is the practice of applying magnets to the
body in order to supposedly treat various conditions and ailments.
(2) The Internet provides a bonanza of magnetic therapy claims
of healing benefits for everything from pain to Alzheimer’s
disease and schizophrenia, but there is no scientific evidence
that magnets can relieve pain and the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) has not approved the marketing of
magnets with any claims of health benefits.
(3) Proponents of magnetic therapy (and others who make pseudoscientific
claims) use the following effective strategies to
create the illusion of scientifically validated products or procedures.
Each of the following ploys should serve to warn us
that critical and scientific thinking skills should be engaged
immediately.
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 11
12 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
i. Strategy 1: Testimonials rather than scientific evidence.
ii. Strategy 2: Scientific jargon with scientific substance.
iii. Strategy 3: Combining established scientific knowledge
with unfounded claims.
iv. Strategy 4: Irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims. .
v. Strategy 5: Confirmation bias.
vi Strategy 6: Shifting the burden of proof. Many pseudosciences
shift the burden of proof from the person making
the claim to the skeptic.
vii Strategy 7: Multiple outs. When pseudosciences fail to
deliver on their promised benefits, multiple excuses are
offered.
• Magnets act differently on different body parts.
• The magnet was placed in the wrong spot.
• Everyone’s body will respond differently to magnet
therapy.
• The magnets were the wrong type, size, shape, etc.
• The magnets weren’t strong enough.
• The magnets weren’t worn long enough.
• The healing effect may not occur until after you stop
using the magnets.
IV. Descriptive Research Methods
The descriptive research methods are strategies for observing and
describing behavior.
A. Naturalistic Observation: The Science of People- and Animal-Watching
1. Naturalistic observation is the systematic observation and recording
of behaviors as they occur in their natural settings.
2. An advantage of this method is that it allows researchers to study
human behaviors that cannot ethically be manipulated in an
experiment.
3. As a research tool, this method can be used wherever patterns of
behavior can be openly observed.
B. Case Studies: Details, Details, Details
1. A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual
or a small group of individuals.
2. Case studies can be used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme
conditions. Yet, they can provide information that can be used to
help understand normal behavior.
C. Surveys: (A) Always (B) Sometimes (C) You’ve Got to Be Kidding!
1. A survey is a questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the
behaviors, attitudes, and opinions of a particular group. Surveys
allow researchers to gather information from a much larger group of
people than is possible with other research methods.
a. Surveys involve carefully designed questionnaires in paper-andpencil
format; they may also be computer- or Internet-based.
They are also often conducted over the telephone or in person.
Interviewers ask a structured set of questions in a predetermined
order.
b. A sample is a selected segment of the larger group or population
being studied.
c. A representative sample very closely parallels the larger
group on relevant characteristics, such as age, sex, race, marital
status, and educational level.
2. To help ensure that researchers select a representative sample,
researchers commonly use random selection, which means that
every member of the larger group has an equal chance of being
selected for inclusion in the sample.
3. One potential problem with surveys is that people do not always
answer honestly; participants may misrepresent their personal characteristics
or lie in their responses.
D. Correlational Studies: Looking at Relationships and Making Predictions
A correlational study examines how strongly two variables are related
to, or associated with, each other. Correlations can be used to analyze
the data gathered by any type of descriptive research method.
1. A correlation coefficient is a numerical indicator of the strength
of the relationship between two factors. It can range from –1.00 to
+1.00.
a. The number in a correlation coefficient indicates the strength of
the relationship.
b. The sign indicates the direction of the relationship between the
two variables.
2. A positive correlation is one in which two factors vary in the same
direction—that is, the two factors increase or decrease together.
3. A negative correlation is one in which two factors move in opposite
directions—that is, as one factor decreases, the other increases.
4. A critical point is that correlation does not necessarily indicate
causality.
5. Correlational research is valuable for two reasons:
a. Correlational research can be used to rule out some factors and
identify others that merit more intensive study.
b. The results of correlational research can sometimes allow you to
make meaningful predictions.
V. The Experimental Method
The experimental method is a research method used to demonstrate a
cause-and-effect relationship between changes in one variable and the effect
that is produced on another variable. An experiment involves deliberately
varying one factor, the independent variable, then measuring the changes
this produces in a second factor, the dependent variable.
A. The Ginkgo Biloba Experiment: Testing for Effectiveness
Paul Solomon and his colleagues (2002) used a placebo control group to
test whether the herb, ginkgo biloba, improves memory, concentration,
and mental focus in older adults.
1. The hypothesis, participants, and random assignment
a. The hypothesis predicted that participants taking the manufacturer’s
recommended daily dosage of ginkgo biloba for six weeks
would have higher test scores on measures of memory and mental
focus than participants in the placebo control group.
b. The participants were 230 adults, age 60 and over.
c. The researchers used random assignment to assign participants
to the different experimental groups.
2. The experimental and control groups
a. The experimental group, or experimental condition, consisted
of 115 participants who were exposed to the independent
variable. In this study, the independent variable was the recommended
daily dosage of ginkgo biloba for six weeks.
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 13
b. The control group, or control condition, consists of participants
who go through all the experimental phases but are not
exposed to the independent variable (the daily dosage of ginkgo
biloba). The control group serves as a baseline against which
changes in the experimental group can be compared. In this
study, the 115 participants assigned to the placebo control group
received an identical dosage of placebo capsules (fake substance)
for six weeks.
3. The dependent variable: scores on memory and other standard cognitive
ability tests
4. The experimental procedure
a. The participants were told that the researchers were investigating
the effects of ginkgo biloba on memory and other cognitive
abilities and that they had a 50-50 chance of receiving the actual
versus the placebo treatment.
b. During the first laboratory session, memory and other cognitive
functions were assessed in all participants.
c. Participants were given either the ginkgo biloba dosage or the
placebo dosage for six weeks.
d. At the end of the six-week experimental period, each participant
was tested again on memory and other cognitive functions.
e. Following the second testing session, each participant received a
debriefing statement that explained the study’s hypothesis and
procedures.
5. The results and discussion
a. At the end of the six-week study, the test scores of both groups
rose. However, there was no significant difference between the
improvement in the ginkgo biloba and placebo groups. Ginkgo
biloba was no more effective than a placebo in improving memory,
mental alertness, or concentration.
b. The rise in test scores for both groups were interpreted as being
due to practice effects. The participants’ experience with the
test—the practice they got by simply taking the mental ability
tests twice—was the most likely reason that test scores improved
in both groups.
6. Reporting the findings
Paul Solomon’s study was published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association.
7. Experimental Design controls used in the Solomon study to control
for extraneous or confounding variables.
a. Placebo control group
(1) A placebo control group is a control group in which participants
are exposed to a placebo, an inert substance or a treatment
that has no known effects. In one study using a placebo
control group, experimenters concluded that test scores
improved simply because of a practice effect.
(2) A placebo control group can help researchers check for
expectancy effects, which are changes that may occur
because subjects expect changes to occur; sometimes referred
to as placebo effects. Only after effects such as these are
accounted for can you determine the main effect, the change
that can be attributed to the treatment variable.
b. With the double-blind technique, neither the participants nor
the researcher who interacts with them is aware of the condition
to which the participants have been assigned.
14 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
i. In a single-blind study, the researcher, but not the participants,
is aware of critical information about the condition to
which the participants have been assigned.
ii. The purpose of the double-blind technique is to guard against
the possibility that the researcher will inadvertently display
demand characteristics—subtle cues or signals that communicate
what is expected of certain subjects.
B. The Hotel Experiment: Can Perceiving Work as Exercise Produce Health
Benefits?
1. Key theme: A person’s beliefs and expectations can exert a significant
influence on health and well-being.
2. The hypothesis, participants, and random assignment
a. Crum and Langer’s (2007) hypothesis predicted that changing a
person’s beliefs and expectations about the exercise benefits of a
particular activity would result in actual health benefits.
b. Participants were 84 women in the housekeeping staff at 7
matched hotels. Each woman in the study cleaned an average of
15 hotel rooms per day, spending about 20–30 minutes on each
room.
c. All participants at a given hotel were assigned to the same group
and each hotel was randomly assigned to either the experimental
or the control condition.
3. The experimental or control conditions
a. The experimental group consisted of 44 participants and were
exposed to the independent variable. The independent variable
was being informed that housekeeping work was good exercise.
These participants were labeled the “informed group.”
b. The control group consisted of 40 participants and served as a
baseline against which changes in the experimental group could
be compared. The control group participants were not exposed to
the independent variable. Consequently, in Crum and Langer’s
experiment, the control group consisted of women who were not
informed that their housekeeping work was beneficial healthy
exercise.
4. The dependent variable(s)
a. Self-report exercise questionnaire
b. Measures of physical health (weight, percentage of body fat, body
mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, and blood pressure).
5. The experimental procedure
a. The informed group participants received a write-up discussing
the benefits of exercise. It was explained that their daily housekeeping
chores satisfied, and even exceeded, government recommendations
for healthy daily exercise to burn at least 200 calories.
The average calories expended for different housekeeping
activities were also detailed.
b. Control group participants weren’t given any information on the
health benefits of their work.
c. During the month-long study, all other conditions were held constant.
At the end of four weeks, the questionnaire and measures
of physical health were administered again.
6. Results and Discussion
a. Participants in both groups reported no changes in exercise outside
of work, or in their eating, drinking, or other personal
habits.
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 15
b. The informed group reported higher levels of perceived exercise
even though their actual exercise activity levels at work and outside
of work did not change.
c. The informed group also changed their perception of their workrelated
activities. The physical activities they engaged in at work
were now perceived as exercise. In contrast, the work-related
perceptions of the control group did not change.
d. The informed group participants showed significant improvements
over the course of the study in all physical health measures
except diastolic blood pressure
e. In contrast, none of the health measures for the control group
participants showed significant changes.
f. Crum and Langer (2007) noted that the informed group’s change
in belief and expectations was accompanied by health improvements:
After 4 weeks of knowing that their work was good exercise,
the subjects in the informed group lost an average of 2
pounds, lowered their systolic blood pressure by 10 points, and
were significantly healthier as measured by body-fat percentage,
body mass index (BMI), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). These
results support the hypothesis that increasing perceived exercise
independently of actual exercise results in subsequent physiological
improvements.
7. Reporting the findings. The Crum and Langer study was published
in Psychological Science.
8. Researchers sometimes have an opportunity to study the impact of a
naturally occurring event in a natural experiment.
9. Focus on Neuroscience: Psychological Research Using Brain Imaging
a. Three commonly used brain-imaging techniques
(1) Positron emission tomography (PET scan) generates
images of the brain’s activity by tracking the brain’s use of
radioactively tagged compounds that have been injected into
the bloodstream.
(2) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses electrical signals
generated by the brain in response to magnetic fields to
produce highly detailed images of the brain’s structure.
(3) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) uses
magnetic fields to track changes in blood flow and oxygen
levels in the brain. It provides a picture of brain activity
averaged over seconds rather than the several minutes
required by PET scans.
b. Functional MRI has several advantages over PET scan technology.
Because fMRI is a non-invasive procedure and the magnetic
waves are harmless, research participants can safely undergo
repeated fMRI scans. fMRI produces a much sharper image than
PET scans and can detail much smaller brain structures.
c. How psychologists use brain-imaging technology
(1) Descriptive Research. A descriptive study utilizing brain
scans might compare the brain structure or functioning of
one carefully defined group of people with another.
(2) Experimental Research. In a typical experiment, brain scans
of research participants exposed to the experimental treatment
or task are compared to scans taken of control group
participants. The differences between the two sets of scans
are assumed to be due to the experimental treatment or
condition.
16 Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods
d. Limitations of Brain-Imaging Studies
(1) Brain-imaging studies usually involve only a few subjects.
(2) Brain-imaging studies tend to focus on simple aspects of
behavior.
(3) Brain imaging may add little to explanations of a psychological
process.
(4) Brain imaging is not necessarily a more “scientific” explanation.
e. Looking at brain-scan images
What should you notice when you look at the brain-scan images
in this text?
(1) Read the text description so you understand the task or condition
being measured.
(2) Read the brain-scan caption for specific details or areas to
notice.
(3) Carefully compare the treatment scan with the control scan
if both are shown.
(4) Keep the limitations of brain-scan technology in mind.
VI. Ethics in Psychological Research
1. The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed a strict
code of ethics for conducting research with both human and animal
subjects, the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of
Conduct.
2. Psychologists must respect the dignity and welfare of participants;
must not expose research participants to dangerous or harmful conditions
that might cause either physical or emotional harm; and
must obtain approval from the ethics panel at the institution where
the study is to be conducted.
3. Five key provisions of the APA ethical guidelines regulate psychologists’
research with humans. These cover
a. informed consent and voluntary participation.
b. students as research participants.
c. the use of deception.
d. confidentiality of records.
e. information about the study and debriefing.
4. In Focus: Questions About the Use of Animals in Psychological
Research
a. Research using animal subjects must have an acceptable scientific
purpose.
b. There must be a reasonable expectation that the research will
(1) increase knowledge about behavior,
(2) increase understanding of the species under study, or
(3) produce results that benefit the health or welfare of humans
or other animals.
c. Animal subjects are sometimes used for research that could not
feasibly be conducted on humans.
d. Comparative psychology is the study of the behavior of nonhuman
animals. More specific research is done on animal cognition,
the study of animal learning, memory, thinking, and language.
e. Psychological research with animals has made essential contributions
to virtually every area of psychology. Significant gains
have also been made in helping animals, including the preservation
of endangered species, improvements in the care of zoo animals,
and the prevention of animal diseases.
Chapter 1 Introduction and Research Methods 17
VII. Application: Psychology in the Media: Becoming an Informed
Consumer
The following guidelines can help you evaluate psychological research and
topics in the media:
1. Anecdotes are the essence of talk shows, not scientific evidence.
2. Dramatic or sensational headlines are “hooks.” Be especially skeptical
of sensationalistic claims or findings.
3. Read the actual summary of the study.
4. Evaluate the study’s design.
5. Distinguish between correlation and causality.
6. Embrace an attitude of healthy skepticism.
Perspective
Biological
Description
Emphasizes studying the physical bases of human and animal behavior, including the
nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics.
Psychodynamic
Emphasizes the importance of unconscious influences, early life experiences, and
interpersonal relationships in explaining the underlying dynamics of behavior.
Behavioral
Studies how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental consequences.
Humanistic
Focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically, the influences on a person’s
self-concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one’s
potential.
Positive
Focuses on the study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual
traits, and the social institutions that foster these qualities in individuals and
communities.
Cognitive
Focuses on the important role of mental processes in how people process information,
develop language, solve problems, and think.
Cross-Cultural
Focuses on how cultural factors influence patterns of behavior.
Evolutionary
Applies the principles of evolution, specifically natural selection, to explain psychological
processes.