1.
Compare and contrast the three perspectives on the family—family is deteriorating, family is changing,
not deteriorating, or family is stronger than ever—as to how they would view the increase in unmarried
couple households in the United States.
2.
How have the demographic trends in changing families discussed in the chapter been reflected in your
own family?
3.
Choose one (or more) of the following macro-level influences on the family and discuss how it has
affected your own family: economic forces, technological innovations, popular culture, social
movements, and family policies.
4.
Suppose you are interested in studying teen suicide. Compare how the Ecological and the Family
Development perspectives might approach this issue.
5.
Suppose you were interested in studying the impact of domestic violence on its victims. Which method
of data collection would you use – survey, clinical or field research? What are the strengths and
weaknesses of the method you chose?
6.
You want to study interactions between young children and their parents. You have access to a day care
where there are one-way mirrors allowing you to observe the children without anyone knowing you are
there. You decide you will sit behind one of these mirrors and observe interactions between parents and
children in the morning during drop-off and again in the evening when the children are picked up.
What should you do to make sure that your study is ethical?
7.
How were the hardships of each of the following groups the same or different: American Indians,
African Americans, Mexican Americans, and European immigrants?
8.
Describe the changing role of the wife in the colonial period, the Industrial Revolution, the World War
II era, and the 1950s. Be sure to include differences by class for each time period.
9.
Discuss the major shifts in family life since the 1960s.
10.
Discuss the strengths of each family group.
11.
Discuss gender roles for each group discussed in the text.
12.
How would the following theories discussed in the text: social learning theory, cognitive development
theory, and feminist approaches, explain why men are less likely than women to engage in childcare and
domestic chores?
13.
What is the Global Gender Gap Index? What does research using the GGGI show concerning women's
status and quality of life in countries around the world?
14.
Discuss the basic assumptions and criticisms of the theories of love discussed in the text.
15.
Discuss the different reasons why people (particularly teens) have sex for the first time.
16.
How does sexuality change as we grow older?
17.
Compare traditional dating to contemporary dating. How are they similar of different in terms of
gender-role expectations.
18.
Compare and contrast how filter theory and social exchange theory view dating and mate selection.
19.
Discuss the factors that contribute to date violence and date rape.
20.
How do macro-level, demographic, and individual-level variables affect our decisions about
matrimony?
21.
What structural factors have led to an increase in the unmarried population among African Americans,
Latinos, and Asian Americans?
22.
Describe the relationship between marriage and health. How is this relationship affected by gender?
23.
Describe how marriage changes throughout the life-cycle.
24.
Discuss some of the common communication problems that couples can have.
Test Name: Essay Questions
1.
Family is deteriorating: This perspective is worried that we are in a "marriage crisis" and would view
unmarried couple households as part of the larger "family decay" in our society, which includes high rates of
divorce and children born out of wedlock, latchkey children, single parent families, and an increase in the
number of people deciding not to get married. This perspective would argue that couples live together rather
than marry because they lack individual responsibility, lack commitment to each other, and are just plain
selfish. Couples who do not marry are putting their own needs above family duties. This perspective would
argue that marriage exists for the sake of the children and not just for adults and a couple who is not married is
not stable enough to raise kids well.
Family is changing, not deteriorating: This perspective argues that the changes in the family we are
experiencing today are extensions of long-standing family patterns. This perspective also notes that there have
always been problems in the family, and that today's families are not as bad off as some people think. If people
are living together before getting married, this may be in response to divorce rates that have been increasing
over many years. And if in fact people postpone marriage until they are older, are more mature, and have
stable careers, this may be a good thing. Also, the family over all is coping with these societal changes and can
adapt to alternatives to marriage such a living together. Family is stronger than ever: This perspective would
argue that the family is much more strong and loving today than it was in the past because family members
have more equitable roles at home and are more accepting of diverse family forms (such as unmarried couple
homes). Also, most Americans believe that marriage is a lifetime commitment that should end only under
extreme circumstances, and living together before marriage may be a way of trying to make that happen.
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2.
Student can discuss what type of family (married couple with or without children, single parent) or nonfamily
household they live in, whether they or anyone in their family is remaining single or cohabiting, whether they
or members of their family have divorced and remarried, or if their mothers worked in the paid labor force
while they were young, or whether their grandparents are still living.
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3.
Economic Forces: The student could discuss how the nature of the economy has changed, such that both their
parents had to work or that they are postponing marriage and parenthood to get a college education. Student
could also discuss negative impacts such as unemployment and job dissatisfaction and their affect on their
family.
Technological Innovations: The student could discuss how birthrates in their family have declined and how
family members are living longer due to medical advances which may result in their parents caring for their
grandparents. Student could also discuss the effects of TV, e-mail and the Internet on interactions with family
members.
Popular Culture: The student could discuss how their families reflect or do not reflect popular culture.
Social Movements: The student could discuss how the civil rights movement, the women's movement, the gay
rights movement, or the marriage movement has affected their family. For example, perhaps they themselves
or another family member is living in an openly gay or lesbian relationship and are more accepted by their
family members because of the gay rights movement.
Family Policies: The student could discuss the procedures they went through to legally marry or why they are
not allowed to legally marry.
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4.
The Ecological Perspective stresses the importance of understanding the relationships between individuals and
the social environments that shape human development. This theory posits that there are four interlocking
systems that can help or hinder a child's development and a family's functioning. This theory would analyze
teen suicide by trying to understand how and how well the teen interacted with his or her parents (the
microsytem), how and how well the teen interacted with his or her peers and teachers (the mesosystem),
whether or not the teen's parents worked, how TV and music portrayed suicide and teen life, the type of
neighborhood the teen lived in (the exosystem), and the effect of the overall culture and economy on the teen's
life (the macrosystem).
The Family Development Perspective examines the changes that families experience over their lifespan. It
posits that the family transitions though a series of stages, accomplishing a number of developmental tasks at
each stage. This theory might analyze teen suicide as the failure to transition from one stage to the next or to
accomplish the necessary developmental tasks. For example, during the adolescent years, the teen may not
learn to handle to stress of balancing school, family, and work or may be fearful of making the transition to
adulthood. Parents may not be accomplishing their developmental tasks in that work / family conflicts may
prevent them from acting as parents who guide their children. The theory may also look at how divorce and
single parenting may affect the transition of the teen and the parents through each stage.
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5.
Survey Research: Using this method the student could collect information through questionnaires or
interviews. Questionnaires could be mailed to victims of domestic violence, given by telephone or face-toface. A major issue with using this method would be how to select a sample. The population of domestic
violence victims would be very large and also difficult to identify. The student would probably have to use a
nonprobabilty sample by either choosing victims who had gone to shelters or had come in contact with the
police by reporting the domestic violence or a medical facility. These victims may or may not be
representative of all victims of domestic violence, especially those who never report the violence. Mailing
questionnaires to shelters would be inexpensive, however the response rate might be very low. Telephone
interviews with victims at a shelter might be possible if the shelter gives permission. Face-to-face interviews
with victims, either at a shelter or at a hospital or police station, should produce higher response rates and also
allow the student to record the respondents' nonverbal behaviors during the survey. With face-to-face or
telephone interviews, the student can also clarify questions for the respondent, or provide probes or prompts if
the respondent seems reluctant to answer. A drawback of face-to-face interviews is that they can be very
expensive in terms of time and money.
Clinical Research: Using this method, the student could interview victims of domestic violence who get
counseling for it. Students could also observe the victims during the counseling sessions. As the counseling
might also include the abuser, the student could observe the interactions between the abuser and the victim
during the session. Using the case study method, the student could gather much in-depth information about the
victim and the victim's family life. A weakness of this approach is that it is time consuming and expensive.
There is also the issue of representativeness, as not all victims of domestic violence seek or can afford
counseling. Also, the method may be too subjective, relying too much on victims' self-reports.
Field Research: Using this method, the student would try to observe victims in their natural surroundings.
Doing so in the victim's home would probably be very difficult, but the student might observe at a shelter,
police station or hospital. The student could observe how the victim acts and communicates in that setting. The
student could be a participant observer in which he or she does not reveal that he or she is a researcher. For
example, the student could act as a nurse or a counselor. The student could also do nonparticipant observation
in which he or she observes the behavior of victims but does not interact with them. A strength of this method
would be that the student could get in-depth understanding of the victims through observing their actual
behavior, rather than relying on self-reports as with surveys. The student can also decide to interview the
subjects about their experiences, thereby gathering more information. A weakness of this method is that it can
be very expensive and time consuming. It can be very difficult to balance participating and observing,
especially if the student felt like he or she wanted to help the victims. Also, field research can be subjective in
that the student's biases for or against the victims may color what and how they make their observations.
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6.
If the researcher wants to engage in ethical research, he or she must not sit behind the mirror without anyone
knowing about it. Even if the children will never know the researcher is there, the researcher must get
permission from the parents for themselves and their children to be part of the study. Also, the researcher
should guarantee that information gathered about the parents and children remains confidential. The researcher
cannot coerce the parents into giving permission by telling them that their children will not be able to come to
the day care center if they do not participate. The researcher needs to be as accurate as possible in making his
or her observations and careful of the potential biases that are part of field research, e.g. the researcher may
like some children and/or parents more that others and view that interaction more positively. Lastly, the
researcher needs to describe the potential limitations of the research in any reports.
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7.
American Indians: Much of American Indian culture was destroyed by European explorers, colonists, and
missionaries. Europeans exploited the resources. Missionaries tried to eliminate cultural practices that were not
regarded as "Christian." Indian tribes coped with military slaughter, enslavement, forced labor, land
confiscation, coerced mass migration, and involuntary religious conversions. Many tribes were devastated by
disease epidemics. Intrusive federal land policies and intermarriage with outside groups further reduced the
number of American Indian tribes and the diversity of cultural practices.
African Americans: Like the American Indians, most African Americans faced enslavement. Although the first
African Americans came over as indentured servants, the slave trade meant that African Americans quickly
lost most of their rights. Slavery negatively affected families in that all members of the family (mothers and
children included) had to work under grueling conditions. Female slaves who worked in the house were often
forced into sexual relations with the master, and injuries and punishments were common. Although slavery is
often portrayed as destroying the African American family, most African American families in the 19th
century were stable, intact, and resilient. Most single parent families were due to the death of the father. After
emancipation, parents tried to find lost children, and migrants to the north kept in contact with kin in the south.
Mexican Americans: Like American Indians, many Mexican American families lost their land after it was
annexed by the American government. Other families lost their land to land speculators. Most Mexican
Americans, having lost their economic base, had to become laborers. Many were economically exploited and
paid very low wages.
European Immigrants: Like Mexican American families, most immigrant families lived in dire poverty
because of low wages. Most families lacked decent housing. Like American Indians, epidemics and disease
killed many immigrants. Other immigrants had their health harmed by the industries in which they worked.
Like the other groups, many European immigrants faced prejudice and discrimination.
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8.
The Colonial family: In general, women were subordinate to men; the wife's chief duty was to obey her
husband. At the same time, husbands and wives worked together to keep the family going. Husbands, wives,
and children worked side by side to produce, cultivate, and process goods for the family's consumption. Men
might care for and discipline children while women worked in the fields. In general, women were expected to
support their husbands and be frugal.
Industrial Revolution: For middle- and upper-class women, the role of the wife became more closely tied with
the home as women were expected to stay home and care for their children. The role of wife was redefined
from workmate to nurturer and caregiver. In the lower socioeconomic classes however, most women worked
outside the home in low-paying jobs in order to help support the family since men's wages were low. Working
women were not considered "true women."
World War II: During WWII, workers were scarce because many able-bodied men had been drafted. Initially
both employers and women were reluctant to violate traditional gender roles, but by 1942, women were being
recruited into these jobs. Women were told that it was their patriotic duty to work rather than stay home. Even
working-class women were praised as diligent, patriotic, and wholesome people. Working gave women new
economic independence, which helped fuel divorce rates after the war.
1950s: During the 1950s, the culturally approved role of the wife returned to the housewife who cared for the
home and children and pleased their husbands. Although women continued to enter the job market, many
middle-class families sought to emulate the breadwinner/homemaker model. Suburban moms were expected to
volunteer as part of their child-rearing duties and make their home an "oasis" for their working husband.
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9.
Family structure: birth rates decreased, divorce rates increased, more people over 25 postponed marriage,
married couples delayed having children, out-of-wedlock births declined, number of one parent households
increased, number of two income families increased, number of adult children living at home with their
parents increased.
Gender roles: Women's employment became central to a family's economic advancement. Women were more
likely to be recognized in financial transactions (e.g. applying for credit) and also had greater decision-making
power in their families. Men experienced less pressure to be breadwinners and also had more support for being
a stay-at-home dad. Two income families faced stressful task of juggling family and work roles.
Economic concerns: Problems in the stock market meant many older persons could not retire or had to return
to work. Many young adults were laid off from high paying tech jobs. Health care costs skyrocketed. Many
federal programs and services that help families, especially the poor and working class families, received
drastically reduced funding.
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10.
African American families: Families have strong kinship bonds, an ability to adapt family roles to outside
pressures, a strong work ethic despite recessions and unemployment, determination to succeed in education,
and an unwavering spirituality that helps them cope with adversity. Numerous self-help institutions such as
churches and extended family networks enhance the resilience of black families. Despite economic adversity,
parents love their children, provide them with a strong religious foundation and teach them to be proud of their
heritage and to contribute to their communities. Cooperation in the family is also stressed.
American Indian families: Strengths include "relational bonding," a core behavior that is built on widely
shared values such as respect, generosity, and sharing across the tribe, band, clan, and kin group. Individuals
are taught to put the community and family needs before their own achievements. Another strength is a
spirituality that sustains the family's identity and place in the world. Tribe members work together to develop
self-sufficient industries.
Latino families: Family networks protect their member's health and emotional well-being. The ability of
families to transmit traditional values about familism has often offset the negative impact of prejudice and
discrimination, drug use, and other risky behavior among many adolescents. Parental socialization, which
emphasizes ethnic pride and identity, protects many Latino children from anger, depression, and possibly
violence.
Asian American families: Strengths include stable households in which parents encourage their children to
remain in school and offer personal support that reduces the stress produced by discrimination and leads to
better emotional health. Families emphasize cooperation, caring, and self-sacrifice.
Middle Eastern families: Families have a strong ethnic identity, close family ties, and religious beliefs that
secure children to their communities. Many Middle Eastern families have extended kin networks and relatives
whom they can count on during hard times.
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11.
African American families: Many African American couples follow an egalitarian family pattern, that is, both
men and women share equal authority. Black husbands more equally share household tasks and child care,
especially when their wives work. Black women are still more likely than men to do more of the traditional
chores, such as cooking, cleaning, and laundry, and to be overworked.
American Indian families: Few studies have been done of contemporary American Indian families. One study
of the Navajo found that women spent significantly more time than did fathers in cleaning, food-related work,
and child-care activities. However, compared with fathers in other groups, Navajo fathers' involvement in
household labor and child-related tasks was relatively high.
Latino families: Although there exists the stereotype of machismo for men (men should be dominant and
aggressive), many men participate in domestic work and child rearing. However, like other groups, wives are
usually responsible for the care of the home and children, even if they work outside the home. Many women
see themselves as wives and mothers first.
Asian American families: Gender role socialization tends to be very traditional, with girls expected to do more
domestic chores than boys. Many Asian Americans follow Confucianism, which endorses a patriarchal social
structure in which a woman derives her status through her role as a wife, mother, or daughter-in-law. The man,
in contrast, is the head of the household, principle provider, decision maker, and disciplinarian. Even if a
woman works outside the home, she is still expected to take care of the house and children. However, some
groups, such as Filipinos, tend to be more egalitarian, sharing financial and domestic decision making.
Middle Eastern families: Men are expected to be good providers and make decisions that promote the family's
well-being. The man is the highest authority in the family. Women are expected to be a good wife who takes
care of the home and children, obeys her husband, and gets along with her in-laws. She does not challenge her
husband and she does not work outside the home, especially when the children are young. Girls are much
more restricted in terms of dating, because they are expected to remain virgins until marriage. Girls are also
expected to perform traditional domestic chores and serve men.
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12.
Social Learning Theory: The central assumption of this theory is that people learn attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors through social interaction. The learning occurs as a result of reinforcement, imitation, and modeling.
Reinforcement occurs when we receive direct or indirect rewards or punishments for particular gender role
behaviors. Girls may receive more praise and rewards for doing household chores than boys. Boys may also
see other boys who do household chores teased by their peers. If parents exhibit traditional behaviors, boys
and girls will learn to do the same by imitating them. Other role models such as teachers may praise boys for
doing activities outside the home and girls for more domestic activities.
Cognitive Development Theory: This theory argues that children acquire male or female values on their own
by thinking, reasoning, and interpreting information in their environment. According to this theory, children
pass through a series of developmental stages in learning gender-appropriated attitudes and behavior. Around
age 3, girls may prefer "girl toys," which are more likely to be toys that are modeled after household
appliances, or which involve "family" activities, such as dolls. Around age 5, boys and girls may anticipate
disapproval from their peers for playing with opposite sex toys, so the boy who played with the kitchen set
will not longer do so. In adolescence, children may feel compelled to conform to gender-role stereotypes
rather than risk disapproval from their peers. Eventually both boys and girls accept cultural definitions of
gender appropriateness and reject behavior that does not match their sex. If childcare and household tasks are
viewed as appropriate for girls, boys will reject these activities and girls will not.
Feminist Theory: Feminist theories view gender as a social role, a role that is socially constructed because it is
taught carefully and repeatedly. Consequently, one's gender script—how society says one is supposed to act
based on one's sex—becomes so natural as to be seen as an integral part of oneself. To the extent that girls are
taught to do childcare and household tasks and boys are not, these tasks become a "natural" part of who a girl
is. Because parents follow traditional gender scripts, they interact differently with their daughters and sons.
Sons may be given more opportunities, resources, and support than girls to excel outside of the home,
reinforcing the idea that they are not responsible for childcare and household activities. Feminist theory
maintains that if gender roles change, so will behaviors. If gender scripts for males include cooking and boys
are thus taught how to cook, they will cook.
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13.
The Global Gender Gap Index is a measure of women's status and quality of life in countries around the world.
The GGGI is based on key indicators in four fundamental categories: economic participation and development,
educational attainment, political empowerment, and health and survival. Using the GGGI as a measure, most
women live in countries that rank from "medium" to "bottom ten countries."
Women do best in the top ten countries. However, even in these countries there are areas of inequality between
women and men. In high ranking countries in general, women have higher literacy rates, lower maternal
mortality rates, and a higher percentage of university students. However, domestic violence is still widespread
in many of these countries.
In the middle ranked countries, there is a great deal of variation in women's roles in the family, education, and
politics and in employment opportunities. In some of these countries, thriving sex industries are fed by a
steady supply of young women from poor countries where they cannot find employment.
In low ranked and bottom 10 countries, women tend to experience early death due to AIDS and maternal
mortality during childbirth. Literacy rates are generally low and women's participation in government is
negligible. Rates of sex trafficking to other countries tend to be high.
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14.
Biological Perspective: This perspective maintains that love is grounded in evolution, biology, and chemistry.
Love is essential from an evolutionary perspective to keep parents in long term relationships to care for
children. Chemicals in our brains bring people together by first producing feelings of elation. As the
relationship grows, other chemicals produce feelings of comfort and security. Problems with this perspective is
that studies typically rely on small samples of female volunteers, and it is unclear how chemicals "cause" love.
Attachment Theory: This perspective proposes that our primary motivation in life is to be connected with other
people, because this is the only true security we will ever have. Theorists have examined how the three
attachment styles identified by Ainsworth (secure, anxious/ambivalent, avoidant) in infants are related to adult
relationships. A criticism of this perspective is that attachment styles can change over the life course as various
events occur in one's life and that these events are more important than early bonding with one's mother in
determining adult well-being.
Reiss's Wheel Theory of Love: Reiss describes four stages of love that a relationship moves through: rapport,
self-revelation, mutual dependency, and personality need fulfillment. Relationships can go through these
stages many times. A criticism of this theory is that it ignores the variations in intensity between stages of the
relationship.
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love: Sternberg proposes that love has three components: intimacy, passion,
and decision/commitment. If all three components are absent there is no love. If all three are present, there is
consummate love. If the components vary in intensity for each partner, this can lead to dissatisfaction in the
relationship. A basic criticism of this theory is that "perfectly matched" couples exist only in Disney movies.
Also, the three dimensions vary depending on marital status.
Lee's styles of Loving: Lee identified six basic styles of loving which overlap and may vary in intensity: eros,
mania, ludus, storge, agape, and pragma. This perspective is useful for developing scales to measure attitudes
about love. No criticisms are listed in the text.
Exchange Theory: Romantic and long-term love relationships involve social exchanges in the sense that they
provide rewards and costs for each partner. If the interactions are mutually satisfying the relationship will
continue. The theory takes into account that our perceptions of rewards and costs will change over time. No
criticisms are listed in the text.
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15.
Interpersonal Reasons: sex can be an expression of affection and a means of communication. The majority of
first sexual relationships are with a romantic partner. Individuals can experience sexual arousal and go with the
flow or just be curious.
Peer Pressure: Boys may have sex to prove their masculinity or heterosexuality. Girls may having trouble
saying no to a boy who is older, bigger, stronger, more popular, or more powerful, or if she has been using
alcohol or other drugs. Partners may feel obligated to have sex for fear of hurting their feelings or losing his or
her interest.
Parental Inputs: mothers who disapprove of adolescent sex, have close relationships with their daughters, and
frequently talk with the parents of their daughter's friends have daughters who are more likely to delay sex.
Same may be true for boys.
Structural Factors: teens are more likely to engage in sex at an early age if they experience family turbulence,
such as parental conflict before or during a divorce, remarriage, or redivorce; if they live with single parents
who are sexually active; in cohabiting households where the adult does not have much authority; or in
neighborhoods where adults who are role models don't have steady jobs and bear children out of wedlock.
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16.
Sex during the middle years: As we mature, sexual interests, abilities, and responses change. Although a
majority of adults over 45 agree that a satisfying sexual relationship is important, it's not their top priority.
Physiological changes of menopause in women can cause uncomfortable symptoms in women. However,
many women do not consider menopause a crisis but a liberating time in life. Many women enjoy sex more
because they are no longer bothered by menstruation, the need for contraception, or the fear of pregnancy.
Men's testosterone levels decline as they grow older, however, only a small percentage actually experience
decreased sexual performance.
Sex and later life: Sexual activity among older people declines but doesn't disappear especially for those with a
regular partner. However, men and women hold sharply different opinions about sex. More women than men
rate sex as "not at all important." Among these women, some lacked an interest in sex, experienced vaginal
dryness than made sex uncomfortable or painful, or did not have orgasms. It is not until about age 70 that
frequency of sexual activity, in both men and women, declines significantly. This generally results from poor
health and habits. For women, the drop in estrogen levels after menopause can decrease sexual desire and
make sex painful because the walls of the vagina become thin and dry. Illnesses such as diabetes as well as
some medications for high blood pressure can decrease sexual interest for both sexes and cause impotence in
older men. However, despite these difficulties, older men and women engage in sex and enjoy it. As people
age, the biggest impediment to sex, especially for widows and divorcees, is a partner gap. Single older women
have a smaller pool of eligible partners than single older men.
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17.
In traditional dating, males and females follow clear, culturally defined gender role scripts, at least among the
middle classes. The boy asks out the girl, plans the evening, picks the girl up at her house, and pays all the
expenses. The girl may be expected to show her gratitude in some way—usually through a goodnight kiss,
petting, or intercourse.
One form of contemporary dating is "getting together." Groups of friends typically meet at someone's house, a
club, or a party. They also may "float" from place to place. This activity is more gender neutral in that either
males or females can organize the initial effort and the group usually pools its resources. Since females may
help organize the activity and share in the expenses, this type of dating does not involve as much sexual
pressure for them as traditional dating.
Another form of contemporary dating is "hooking up" which refers to physical encounters with no strings
attached. Although hooking up would seem to be gender neutral in that it does not require one person to set it
up and there are no expenses, it can have disadvantages especially for women. Among college students, men
are more likely to initiate sex, more likely to experience an orgasm, and women are more likely to get a bad
reputation as being easy.
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18.
According to filter theory, rather than having a vast pool of eligible dating partners, our field of potential
partners is limited by our culture. We sift eligible people according to specific criteria and thus narrow the
pool of potential partners to a small number of candidates. The major filtering mechanism is homogamy in that
we tend to date people who are similar social characteristics to ourselves. The first filter is propinquity or
geographic closeness because you cannot date and marry someone if you do not meet them. Other filters
include physical appearance, ethnicity and race, religion, age, social class, and values. For each filter, we tend
to date and marry people who look similar to us and share our race-ethnicity, religion, age, social class and
values. Pressure to date people who are similar may come from family or religious organization. Our social
worlds are often organized by social class so that we only meet people of our own class.
According to social exchange theory, people are attracted to prospective partners who they believe will
provide them with the best possible deal in a relationship. It posits that people will only begin and stay in
relationships if the rewards of the relationship outweigh the costs. Rather than focusing on just social
characteristics, rewards may be intrinsic (intelligence, sense of humor), behavioral (sex, companionship), or
give us access to desired resources (money, power). Costs may include unpleasant or destructive behavior or
losses of time and money. Social exchange theory relates to filter theory in that people who are physically
attractive can trade this attribute for a partner's higher education and income level (hypergamy). Also, our
filters may be affected by how people weigh their perceptions of rewards and costs in choosing dating
partners. For example, people who are midlife adults, men, never married, or sexually permissive may be more
likely to date people of a different race or religion or with much less money.
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19.
Family violence: Dating violence is more common among partners who had abused a sibling. Growing up in a
family in which children see adult violence or experience parent to child violence increases the likelihood of
being both an assailant and a victim during dating.
Gender-role expectations: Misogyny, or hatred of women, may be a factor in that violence and rape are ways
of striking out against women who challenge men's "right" to control them. Narcissistic men may be more
likely to use coercion during dating because they feel entitled to sexual gratification. Men who commit date
rape usually hold traditional views of gender roles, seeing themselves as in charge and women as submissive.
They may believe that "she deserved it" by dressing suggestively or that women "enjoy rough sex" or that all
women initially resist sexual advances.
Peer pressure: Peers may expect men and women to date and have a romantic partner. Peers may cover up
incidents of sexual abuse rather than reporting it. Teenagers may keep quiet about the abuse because they do
not want their friends to pressure them to break up.
Use of alcohol and other drugs: Alcohol lowers inhibitions against violence and reduces a woman's ability to
resist a sexual assault. In some cases, men may use alcohol as a strategy to get women to have sex. "Date rape"
drugs may be used to incapacitate the victims.
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20.
Macro-level factors: 1) War, technology, and social movements: Marriage rates tend to drop during war.
Technological advances in contraceptive techniques have given women greater control over child bearing and
reduced the need for "shotgun" marriages. The women's movement opened up new educational and
occupational opportunities for women, giving them career options outside marriage. 2) Economic factors:
Economic depressions and unemployment tend to postpone marriage for men because they are less able to
support a family. 3) Gender roles: Men are no longer dependent on women's housekeeping because of their
increase access to goods and services that can do the same work. Because it is difficult to juggle a family and
career, many women may choose to advance their professional lives before marrying and starting a family.
Demographic factors: 1) In countries where there is an uneven sex ratio (many more boys than girls or girls
than boys), the more numerous sex may have difficulty finding a marriage partner. Women in their middle
years may also find themselves "squeezed" out of the marriage market as men their age are often looking for
much younger women. 2) Low income couples may not marry because they do not feel they have the financial
stability to do so, have saved enough money to attain goals such as buying a house, or have enough money for
a respectable wedding. They may also fear that financial worries will increase the chances of divorce. 3)
Unmarried women with children, especially poor women, may not be able to find someone who is financially
stable or willing to make the commitment to raise non-biological children.
Individual-level factors: 1) Many singles may delay marriage because they are waiting for their soul mate or
perfect partner. 2) Singles may not want to give up their independence. 3) Singles may be able to find
companionship through close friends and family. 4) Many men may not want to make the commitment to
marry. 5) Couples no longer feel pressured to marry to have a family, or to marry if they have a child out-ofwedlock. 6) Many singles postpone marriage because they worry about divorce. 7) People who are less
attractive or who have physical or emotional problems are more likely to remain single longer or to not marry
at all.
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21.
African Americans: The main reason for the high percentage of never-married black women is the shortage of
marriageable black men. This shortage is caused by deteriorating employment prospects for young men in
urban areas, occupational death for many men working in hazardous jobs, and high mortality rates due to a
lack of health care. In addition, many young men are in jail or prison. Many middle-class men are already
married and women are reluctant to marry down.
Latinos: On average, the Latino population is much younger than the non-Latino population, and many have
not yet reached marriageable age. Immigrants who come to the U.S. for economic reasons may postpone
marriage until they can support a family. If they are illegal, that also makes it difficult to marry. Economic
issues also fuel higher divorce rates, and divorced women may have a more difficult time remarrying.
Asian Americans: Asian Americans have had lower singlehood rates due to a higher likelihood of
intermarriage which increases their pool of eligibles. However, acculturation to American culture can also
increase the number of singles in that divorce rates increase as American born individuals are more likely to
accept divorce as an alternative to an unhappy marriage.
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22.
Overall, happily married people tend to be healthier and happier than those who are unhappily married, single,
divorced or widowed. There are various reasons why this positive association may exist. 1) Selection effect:
healthy people are attracted to other healthy people and are more desirable marriage partners. 2) Protection
effect: marriage may make people healthier in and of itself because receiving emotional, social, and physical
support from a spouse improves one's general health and well-being.
However, some studies show that married men are healthier than married women. Studies show that husbands
rely on their wives for caring and emotional support. Wives also tend to encourage behaviors that prolong life,
such as regular medical checkups. Marriage may also discourage behaviors associated with single life, like
partying and going to bars where there may be smoking, drinking, and illicit drug use. On the other hand,
some data suggest that marriage may be fattening to men. Compared with married women and other men,
married men are more likely to be overweight or obese.
Wives tend to be less healthy, as they may neglect their own health while caring for family members. Too
many domestic responsibilities may add to stress. Feeling overwhelmed by juggling work and family can lead
to depression. African American women may be additionally burdened by discrimination or by caring for
elderly relatives or the children of kin who are incarcerated.
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23.
In the early years of marriage, men and women must adjust to the roles of husband and wife. Wives,
especially, may experience "marriage shock," in that they are often expected to take on roles such as pleasing
the husband's family and friends and being the "emotional guardian" of the marriage. Couples may also learn
to put their mutual relationship before ties with others and may have to deal with parents who fear losing
contact with their married children and create conflict by visiting too frequently or meddling. Couples must
also make the transition from "my" money to "our" money.
When children come, new parents must spend a lot of time socializing them. Marital satisfaction can decrease
after having children. Raising adolescents can be difficult and the potential for family stress often increases as
adolescents press for autonomy and independence.
Couples in their midlife years may have to adjust to continuing problems with their parents and in-laws. Both
may criticize how the couple is raising their children and make demands on the couple, such as spending all
holidays together. Couples will eventually end up with an "empty nest" as their children move out on their
own. Although traditionally assumed to lead to depression and a lessened sense of well-being, the empty nest
can be positive in that couples may feel a sense of freedom and an easing of responsibility. This freedom can
be short lived, however, if one or more of the children moves back home. Boomerang kids can prevent parents
from enjoying greater intimacy, privacy, and freedom to pursue new interests. The situation will be more
positive if the returning child has a good relationship with his/her parents and can provide assistance,
emotional support, advice, and companionship.
Older couples report an upturn in marital happiness during retirement which brings more time to enjoy each
other's company. However, gender roles do not tend to change as women still do most of the domestic work.
Marital quality may be impaired by a decline in health of one or both partners. A depressed spouse may have
difficulty communicating, leaving the other spouse frustrated and feeling helpless. If one partner is a caregiver
for the other, they may be under tremendous stress.
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Not listening: both partners may be so intent on making their point that they are simply waiting for their turn
to speak rather than listening to the other person. In this case the couple is talking but not communicating.
Not responding to the issue at hand: couples who don't listen won't be able to address the problem. Couples
may engage in cross-complaining in which they present their own complaints without addressing the other
person's point. With counterproposals, a spouse ignores or rejects a partner's suggestions and presents his or
her own ideas. With stonewalling, which is more common among men than women, one of the partner makes
noncommittal comments but really neither hears or responds.
Blaming, criticizing, and nagging: instead of being listened to and understood, partners may feel neglected or
appreciated. They believe that their spouse or partner magnifies their faults, belittles them, accuses them
unjustly, and makes them feel worthless and stupid. The blamer is a faultfinder who criticizes relentlessly and
generalizes.
Scapegoating: by blaming others, we imply that our partner, not we, should change.
Coercion or contempt: partners may be punitive and force their point of view on others.. They may insult or
name call, use sarcasm, hostile humor, mockery, or body language such as eye-rolling and sneering.
The silent treatment: not talking to your spouse or partner builds up feelings of anger and hostility.
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