Physiology 31 – Lecture Exam 2 Study Recommendations
Exam #2 will consist of 100 multiple choice questions drawn from the lecture materials from
Chapters 7-11 and 23. Refer to the lecture handouts and related textbook information that
reinforce the material covered in lecture as you prepare for the exam.
Chapter 7 – Endocrine Introduction
- What is a hormone? What is meant by a target tissue for a hormone? Why don’t all tissues
respond to all hormones passing by them in the blood?
- Which glands are completely endocrine glands? Which organs are partially endocrine?
- What is the general method whereby hormones (and neurohormones) work? In what major
ways do the mechanisms of amines, peptide and steroidal hormones differ? (e.g., extracellular
signal transduction vs. intracellular protein synthesis)
- What are the three basic chemical classes of hormones? From what organic molecules are the
three classes derived? Which hormones are included in each class?
- Compare and contrast the formation of peptide, amine, and steroidal hormones in cells. What
cellular organelles are involved in the synthesis of each type of hormone?
- How does the transport of peptide hormones differ from that of steroidal hormones?
- What are the three main groups of neurohormones? What organs (glands) secrete these
hormones?
- How does the hypothalamus control the secretions of both the anterior and posterior pituitary
glands? List the neurohormones produced by the hypothalamus.
- What are catecholamines, and where are they produced?
- How do the anterior and posterior pituitary glands differ from each other?
- Describe the basic functions of the two neurohormones produced in the hypothalamus and
stored in the posterior pituitary gland until needed.
- Describe the basic functions of the 7 hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland. How
do the trophic and nontrophic hormones differ?
- What regulates the amount of a particular hormone that is present in the bloodstream at a given
time?
- What is meant by synergism, permissiveness, and antagonism in terms of hormonal
interactions? Give examples of each.
- In addition to hormonal hypersecretion or hyposecretion, what other problems can cause
abnormal target tissue responsiveness?
- In terms of endocrine pathologies, how do primary and secondary pathologies differ?
Chapter 23 – Endocrine Control of Growth & Metabolism
- In what three ways can glands be stimulated to release their hormones (or neurohormones)?
Give examples of each method.
- What peripheral glands are stimulated to release their hormones via the trophic hormones from
the anterior pituitary gland?
- Which hormones are mainly anabolic in their actions, and which are primarily catabolic?
- What are the three regions of the adrenal cortex, and what hormones does each region produce?
- Where is cortisol produced, and what are its actions? With what other hormones does cortisol
have permissive effects? What pathologies result from cortisol hypo- and hypersecretion?
- What two hormones do the two different cell types in the thyroid gland secrete? What are the
functions of the two hormones? What hormone is produced by the parathyroid glands?
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- How is thyroid hormone synthesized? What element is needed to synthesize thyroid hormone?
In what functional way does the amine thyroid hormone differ from other amine and peptide
hormones?
- What are the symptoms of hyper- and hypothyroidism, and what conditions result from each?
How is each treated?
- How is the release of growth hormone regulated? What are the target organs of GH? What
hormone is released by the liver in response to GH, and what are its effects?
- What conditions result from the hypo- and hypersecretion of GH?
- In addition to GH, what other things are needed for normal tissue growth to occur? What other
hormones have permissive effects with GH?
- What three hormones regulate blood plasma calcium levels, and how do they do so? Where is
the majority of calcium found in the body?
- Why is it necessary to maintain calcium homeostasis in the bloodstream? (For what functions
is calcium needed in the body?) What occurs in hypo- and hypercalcemia?
Chapter 8 – Neurons: Cellular & Network Properties
- Describe the 3 main functions of the nervous system.
- What are the main structural components of the central and peripheral nervous systems?
- How do sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons differ functionally?
- Which subdivision of the PNS controls sensory input and skeletal muscle function?
- Which subdivision of PNS controls glands, as well as smooth and cardiac muscle function?
How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions differ in function?
- Describe the structure of a typical neuron, the types of neurons, and the main functions of the
dendrites, cell body, and axon.
- Compare and contrast the functions of the 4 types of CNS neuroglial cells and the 2 types of
PNS neuroglia.
- What ions are involved in the establishment of a neuron’s membrane potential? In what
relative concentrations are these ions found inside and outside of the cell?
- What is the resting membrane potential in a neuron? What is the main ion responsible for it?
- What causes electrical signals in neurons? What causes depolarization? Repolarization?
Hyperpolarization? What ions and ion channels are involved in each?
- What three types of gated-ion channels control neuronal ion permeability, and how does each
work?
- Compare and contrast graded (local) potentials with action potentials. What is the mechanism
for each? In what ways are they similar? How do they differ?
- What is necessary for a graded potential to initiate an action potential? How do the actions
inhibitory and excitatory post synaptic potentials (IPSPs & EPSPs) differ?
- After depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization, what restores the original balance of
Na+ and K+ to return the neuron to its resting membrane potential?
- Compare the absolute and relative refractory periods of a neuron.
- How do myelination and axon diameter affect nerve impulse transmission speed?
- How do neurotoxins (especially those mentioned in class) affect nerve transmission?
- What happens in hyperkalemia and hypokalemia?
- What are the three parts of a synapse? What are the two types of synapses?
- How is a nerve impulse transmitted from a neuron to its effector?
- How is calcium involved in the release of a neurotransmitter from an axon terminal?
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- What are the 6 major classes of neurotransmitters? Give examples of each, and their effects
(especially ACh and catecholamines).
- How can one neurotransmitter exert different effects in different tissues?
- Compare and contrast the ligands, effectors, and actions of the different adrenergic and
cholinergic receptors.
- How is neurotransmitter activity terminated (especially ACh & NE)?
- How do diverging and converging neural circuits differ? Give an example of each.
- Compare and contrast temporal and spatial summation.
- How does one neuron inhibit the activity of another neuron?
- How is synaptic activity modulated (regulated)?
- Why is synaptic activity so susceptible to drugs? What disorders are results of faulty synaptic
transmission?
Chapter 9 – Central Nervous System: Brain & Spinal Cord
- Compare gray and white matter in the brain and spinal cord.
- What are the three layers of connective tissue around the brain and spinal cord? What happens
if bleeding occurs in the spaces between these layers? What is an infection of the tissues
called?
- What is cerebrospinal fluid composed of, what glial cells make it, from what is it made, and
what is its purpose? Why would a spinal tap be performed?
- What does the blood-brain barrier consist of, and what is its purpose?
- What are the special metabolic requirements of nervous tissue? What two substances does the
brain require in large quantities? How does the brain respond to hyper- and hypoglycemia?
- What is the overall function of gray matter in the spinal cord? What functional types of
neurons are found in the dorsal, lateral, and ventral horns?
- What is the overall function of white matter in the spinal cord? What do the ascending and
descending tracts of the spinal cord do?
- What happens if the spinal cord becomes damaged?
- What are the 4 major regions of the brain, and the components of each region.
- What structure allows the two cerebral hemispheres to communicate with each other?
- What are the 3 main functional areas of the cerebral cortex?
- List the 5 paired lobes of the cerebrum and the main functions of each lobe.
- What are the three types of nerve tracts in the cerebrum?
- What are the basal nuclei (ganglia) and limbic system, and what are their functions?
- What brain structures are included in the diencephalon?
- What are the main functions of the thalamus? (Hint: sensory relay station)
- What are the main functions of the hypothalamus? Why is it called the master of the ANS?
- What are the three major parts of the brain stem? What are the main functions of these parts?
Why is it sometimes called the primitive brain?
- Where is the reticular activating system (RAS) located, and what are its functions?
- What are the main functions of the cerebellum?
- Know the CNS disorders mentioned in lecture.
Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology
- What 4 components are needed to perceive a sensation?
- Compare and contrast general ( somatic) and special senses.
- Name 5 types of sensory receptors.
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- What is meant by the receptive field of sensory neurons? Do more sensitive areas of the body
have smaller or larger receptive fields?
- How does the CNS differentiate between the different types of incoming sensory information?
- What are referred pain and phantom pain?
- What general region of the ear (outer, inner, or middle) contains receptors for hearing &
equilibrium?
- What specific inner ear structures are responsible for hearing? How are loud sounds and pitch
distinguished by the brain?
- Trace the pathway of sound waves from the outer ear to the cochlea, and through the neural
pathway to the cerebrum’s auditory cortex.
- What are the two main types of deafness? What is involved in each type?
- What specific ear structures allow us to sense linear & vertical acceleration? What mechanism
is involved?
- What specific ear structures allow us to sense head rotation? What mechanism is involved?
- How is the eye’s focus changed? What structures are involved? Why is it more difficult for
the eye to change focus as we age?
- Why does more eye strain occur when focusing on close objects than when looking at distant
objects?
- What is meant by astigmatism, glaucoma, emmetropia, presbyopia, myopia, and hyperopia?
- How and by what structures is incoming light through the pupil regulated?
- In what specific area of the retina is incoming light focused? Why is vision sharper in the light
than in the dark?
- What area of the retina lacks photoreceptors?
- What four structures/substances inside the eye refract incoming light?
- What does 20/20 vision mean?
- What specific nerve carries sound and equilibrium impulses to the brain? What nerve carries
the impulses for sight? What would be the consequences of damage to either of these nerves?
- What structures/pigments allow the conversion of light into sensory impulses in the eye? What
vitamin is necessary for one of the visual pigments?
- Trace the pathway of light from cornea to retina, and neural impulses from photoreceptors to
the cerebrum’s visual cortex.
- Compare and contrast light and dark adaptation in the eyes.
- What allows us to see different colors? What causes color blindness?