Anatomy & Physiology 34B Study Guide for Lecture Exam #!
To prepare for the first lecture exam, be sure to review the information in the lecture
outlines on the special senses, autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system, as well
as related textbook material. The first lecture exam will consist of 100 multiple choice
questions over this information. You will need a #882 Scantron and a number 2 pencil.
Study hard and good luck!
Special Senses
- Compare and contrast general senses with special senses. Where are each found in the
body?
- What five factors are necessary to perceive a sensation?
- What are the five types of sense receptors classified by the way they are stimulated?
- What are the two types of distributions of sense receptors in the body?
- What are the three types of sense receptors classified by their origins of stimuli?
- Compare and contrast phasic vs. tonic receptors. Give examples of each.
- What are the two major types of general sense receptors? Give examples of each.
- What are the accessory structures of the eye? What are their two main functions?
- What two main structures lubricate the eye surface? What type of lubricant does each
produce?
- Name and locate the 6 extrinsic eye muscles. What eye action(s) is each responsible
for? What cranial nerve controls each muscle?
- What are the 3 basic layers of the eye? What is the main function of each layer?
- Know the structures of the fibrous tunic (sclera, cornea, limbus), and their functions.
- Know the structures of the vascular tunic (choroid, ciliary body, ciliary muscle,
suspensory ligaments, lens, iris, pupil) and their functions.
- What is presbyopia? Cataracts? What part of the eye is affected by these conditions?
- What are the two main layers of the sensory tunic (retina)? What major structures/cells
are found in the neural layer?
- Where are the two main cavities of the eye found? What type of fluid is contained in
each?
- What is glaucoma? What eye structures are involved? How is it detected? What
happens if it is not treated?
- How is light entry into the pupil controlled? What two iris contractile elements are
involved? Which dilates the pupil and which constricts it?
- What 4 substances in the eye refract incoming light, and in what order is the light
refracted?
- Describe how the eye is affected by astigmatism, emmetropia, myopia, and hyperopia.
- What three main process occur in the eye during the near response? How is the lens
affected?
- What are the two types of photoreceptor cells? Which type is responsible for black &
white vision? For color vision? What types of pigments are found in each? Which
part of the pigment is responsible for nerve transmission in the rods & cones?
- What three major types of neural cells are found in the retina? In what order do the
receive light and transmit nerve impulses?
- What happens in the eye when you go from dark to light? From light to dark?
2
- Compare where the rods are found in the retina vs. where the cones are found. Why do
cones produce a sharp color image, whereas rods produce less clear image?
- What are the three types of cones and how do they allow us to see many different
colors?
- What is colorblindness? What is deficient in the cones of colorblind people?
- What is stereoscopic vision? How does it allow us to see in 3 dimensions?
- Trace the visual projection pathway from the photoreceptors to the brain. What region
of the brain interprets sight?
- What are the three main regions of the ear? Which structures are involved in hearing?
In equilibrium?
- What structures are found in the outer ear? Which structure vibrates with incoming
sound waves?
- What structures are found in the middle ear? What transmits the sound vibrations to the
inner ear? What is the function of the eustachian tube?
- What is otitis media? How can it be alleviated?
- What two tiny skeletal muscles are found in the middle ear? What is their main
function?
- Why is the inner ear called the labyrinth? What are the two main parts of the labyrinth?
- What fluid is found in the bony labyrinth? In the membranous labyrinth?
- What are the three main divisions of the bony labyrinth? Which are involved in
equilibrium, and which is involved in hearing?
- What sensory structures are found in the utricle and saccule of the vestibule? How do
the structures function in the detection of linear acceleration?
- What sensory structures are found in the ampullae of the semicircular ducts? How do
the structures function in the detection of head rotation?
- Describe the equilibrium projection pathways to the brain. What region of the brain
controls skeletal muscle coordination and balance?
- What are the three chambers in the cochlea? What type of fluid is found in each?
- Describe the sensory structures in the cochlea involved in hearing.
- How are incoming sound waves transmitted through the ear structures?
- How does the ear distinguish between loudness and pitch of incoming sounds? What
cochlear structures are involved in each?
- Describe the auditory projection pathway to the brain. What region of the brain
interprets sounds?
- What is the difference between conduction deafness and nerve deafness?
- Describe the structures involved in olfaction, and the sequence in which odor nerve
impulses are transmitted to the brain. What region of the brain interprets odors?
- Describe the structures involved in the gustatory (taste) sense.
- What are the three main types of tongue papillae? Where are each found on the tongue?
Which contain functional taste buds?
- What are the 5 basic tastes?
- Which two cranial nerves transmit taste impulses to the brain? What region of the brain
interprets tastes?
Autonomic Nervous System
- How do the somatic and autonomic nervous systems differ?
3
- Compare and contrast preganglionic and postganglionic motor neurons in the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Where are their cell bodies found?
What types of neurotransmitters do they release?
- What part of the spinal cord is involved in the sympathetic NS?
- What is significant about the fact that sympathetic preganglionic neurons synapse with
many postganglionic neurons, whereas parasympathetic preganglionic neurons only
synapse with one or two postganglionic neurons?
- By what 3 main routes do sympathetic postganglionic neurons exit the paravertebral
ganglia? What other major ganglia is involved? What major organs are innervated by
each route?
- How are the adrenal medullas involved in the sympathetic NS?
- What parts of the brain and SC are involved in the parasympathetic NS?
- Where are the ganglia for the parasympathetic postganglionic neurons located?
- Describe the 4 cranial nerves involved in the parasympathetic NS. Which carries most
of the preganglionic fibers, and what organs does it innervate?
- Which division of the PNS is considered cholinergic? Adrenergic? Why?
- Describe the two types of cholinergic receptors, where they are found, and what types
of postsynaptic potentials they produce
- Describe the 4 types of adrenergic receptors, whether they are excitatory or inhibitory,
and what type of second messengers they stimulate
- How can sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves serve the same organs, yet often
produce different responses in the organs?
- Know the examples of sympathetic and parasympathetic responses given in class.
- What organs are controlled only by the sympathetic NS, and not the parasympathetic
NS?
- What other areas of the CNS help to regulate the Autonomic NS?
Endocrine System
- What is a hormone? What is meant by a target tissue for a hormone? Why don’t all
tissues respond to all hormones passing by them in the blood?
- Which glands are completely endocrine glands? Which organs are partially endocrine?
- What is the general method whereby hormones (and neurohormones) work? In what
major ways do the mechanisms of amines, peptide and steroidal hormones differ? (e.g.,
extracellular signal transduction vs. intracellular protein synthesis)
- What are the three basic chemical classes of hormones? From what organic molecules
are the three classes derived? Which hormones are included in each class?
- Compare and contrast the formation of peptide, amine, and steroidal hormones in cells.
What cellular organelles are involved in the synthesis of each type of hormone?
- How does the transport of peptide hormones differ from that of steroidal hormones?
- How does the hypothalamus control the secretions of both the anterior and posterior
pituitary glands? List the neurohormones produced by the hypothalamus.
- What are catecholamines, and where are they produced?
- How do the anterior and posterior pituitary glands differ from each other?
- Describe the basic functions of the two neurohormones produced in the hypothalamus
and stored in the posterior pituitary gland until needed.
4
- Describe the basic functions of the 7 hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland.
How do the trophic and nontrophic hormones differ?
- What regulates the amount of a particular hormone that is present in the bloodstream at
a given time? (Hint: How does negative feedback work?)
- What is meant by synergism, permissiveness, and antagonism in terms of hormonal
interactions? Give examples of each.
- In addition to hormonal hypersecretion or hyposecretion, what other problems can cause
abnormal target tissue responsiveness? (Hint: think about hormone receptors.)
- Describe up- and down-regulation of receptors in the cell membrane. What causes
these actions to occur?
- In terms of endocrine pathologies, how do primary and secondary pathologies differ?
- In what three ways can glands be stimulated to release their hormones? Give examples
of each method.
- What glands are stimulated to release their hormones via the trophic hormones from the
anterior pituitary gland?
- Which hormones are mainly anabolic in their actions, and which are primarily
catabolic?
- What causes the pancreas to secrete insulin or glucagon? What are the target organs
and effects of these hormones? Compare and contrast type 1 and type 2 diabetes
mellitus.
- What are the three regions of the adrenal cortex, and what hormones does each region
produce?
- Where is cortisol produced, and what are its actions? With what other hormones does
cortisol have permissive effects? What pathologies result from cortisol hypo- and
hypersecretion?
- What two hormones do the two different cell types in the thyroid gland secrete? What
are the functions of the two hormones? What hormone is produced by the parathyroid
glands?
- How is thyroid hormone synthesized? What element (ion) is needed to synthesize
thyroid hormone? In what functional way does the amine thyroid hormone differ from
other amine and peptide hormones?
- What are the symptoms of hyper- and hypothyroidism, and what conditions result from
each?
- How is the release of growth hormone regulated? What are the target organs of GH?
What hormone is released by the liver in response to GH, and what are its effects?
- What conditions result from the hypo- and hypersecretion of GH?
- In addition to GH, what other things are needed for normal tissue growth to occur?
What other hormones have permissive effects with GH?
- What three hormones regulate blood plasma calcium levels, and how do they do so?
Where is the majority of calcium found in the body?
- Why is it necessary to maintain calcium homeostasis in the bloodstream? (For what
functions is calcium needed in the body?) What occurs in hypo- and hypercalcemia?