Chapter 20: Endrocrine System
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• There is a close association between the
endocrine and nervous systems.
• Hormone secretion is usually controlled by
either negative feedback or antagonistic
hormones that oppose each other’s
actions, and results in maintenance of a
bodily substance or function within normal
limits.
The endocrine system
Posterior Pituitary
• The posterior pituitary stores and releases
the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
produced by the hypothalamus.
• ADH is secreted during dehydration and
causes more water to be reabsorbed by the
kidneys; the secretion of ADH is regulated by
negative feedback.
• Oxytocin causes uterine contractions and
milk release, and is controlled by positive
feedback.
Anterior Pituitary
• The hypothalamus controls the anterior
pituitary by producing hypothalamicreleasing hormones and hypothalamicinhibiting hormones.
• The anterior pituitary produces six
hormones.
• Three of these six hormones have an effect
on other endocrine glands:
1) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
hormones;
• 2) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
cortisol;
• 3) the gonadotropic hormones (FSH and
LH) stimulate the gonads to produce sex
cells and hormones.
• In these three instances, the blood level of
the last hormone exerts negative feedback
control over the secretion of the first two
hormones.
• The next three anterior pituitary hormones
do not effect other endocrine glands.
• After childbirth, prolactin (PRL) causes
mammary glands to produce milk.
• Growth hormone (GH) promotes skeletal
and muscular growth.
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
causes skin color changes in fishes,
amphibians, and reptiles.
Hypothalamus and the pituitary
Effects of Growth Hormone
• The quantity of GH is greatest during
childhood and adolescence; GH promotes
bone and muscle growth.
• Pituitary dwarfism results from too little GH
during childhood.
• Giants result from too much growth
hormone during childhood.
• If growth hormone is overproduced in an
adult, it causes acromegaly.
Effect of growth hormone
Acromegaly
Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland requires iodine to
produce thyroxine (T4) which contains four
iodine atoms, and triiodothyronine (T3)
which contains three iodine atoms.
• Thyroid hormones increase the metabolic
rate, and stimulate all body cells to
metabolize and use energy at a faster
rate.
• Effects of Thyroid Hormones
• If iodine is lacking in the diet, a simple
goiter develops.
• Use of iodized salt helps prevent simple
goiters.
• Hypothyroidism in childhood produces
cretinism; in adulthood it causes
myxedema.
• If the thyroid is overactive (Grave’s
disease) an exophthalmic goiter develops.
Simple goiter
Cretinism
• Calcitonin
• The thyroid gland also produces calcitonin,
which helps lower the blood calcium level
when it is too high.
• The primary effect of calcitonin is to bring
about the deposit of calcium in the bones;
it does this by temporarily reducing the
activity and number of osteoclasts.
• When the blood level of calcium is
returned to normal, the release of
calcitonin is inhibited.
Parathyroid Glands
• Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH), which raises the blood
calcium when it is insufficient, and
decreases the blood phosphate level.
• PTH acts by stimulating the activity of
osteoclasts, thus releasing calcium from
bone, and stimulates the reabsorption of
calcium by the kidneys and intestine.
• Insufficient parathyroid hormone will cause
serious loss of blood calcium and cause
tetany.
Regulation of blood calcium level
• The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine
and norepinephrine, which bring about
responses we associate with emergency
situations.
• On a long-term basis, the adrenal cortex
produces glucocorticoids similar to
cortisone and mineralocorticoids to
regulate salt and water balance.
• The adrenal cortex also secretes both
male and female sex hormones in both
sexes.
Adrenal glands
Glucocorticoids
• Cortisol promotes breakdown of muscle
proteins to amino acids; the liver then
breaks the amino acids into glucose.
• Cortisol also promotes metabolism of fatty
acids rather than carbohydrates, which
spares glucose.
• Both actions raise the blood glucose level.
• High levels of blood glucocorticoids can
suppress immune system function.
Mineralocorticoids
• Aldosterone causes the kidneys to reabsorb
sodium ions (Na+) and excrete potassium
ions (K+).
• When blood sodium levels and blood
pressure are low, the kidneys secrete renin;
the effect of the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system is to raise blood
pressure.
• The hormone atrial natriuretic hormone
produced by the heart inhibits the secretion of
aldosterone, thus reducing blood pressure.
Regulation of blood pressure and
volume
Malfunction of the Adrenal Cortex
• Addison disease develops when the
adrenal cortex hyposecetes hormones.
• A bronzing of the skin follows low levels of
cortisol, and mild infection can lead to
death; aldosterone is also hyposecreted,
and dehydration can result.
• Cushing syndrome develops when the
adrenal cortex hypersecretes cortisol.
• The trunk and face become round; too
much aldosterone results in fluid retention.
Addison disease
Cushing syndrome
Regulation of blood glucose level
Diabetes Mellitus
• The most common illness due to hormonal
imbalance is diabetes mellitus.
• Diabetes is due to the failure of the
pancreas to produce insulin or the inability
of the body cells to take it up.
• Hyperglycemia symptoms develop, and
glucose appears in the urine.
• Diabetes is diagnosed using a glucose
tolerance test.
Glucose tolerance test
• Type I diabetes mellitus occurs when the
pancreas does not produce insulin and the
patient requires insulin injections.
• Most people with diabetes have Type II
diabetes mellitus where the pancreas
produces insulin but the body cells do not
respond.
• Both types lead to long-term serious
complications.
The effects of anabolic steroid use
Thymus Gland
• The thymus under the sternum produces
thymosins that stimulate T lymphocyte
production and maturation.
• The thymus decreases in size with age
and becomes fatty.
• There is hope that thymosins can be
injected into AIDS or cancer patients
where they would enhance T lymphocyte
function.
Pineal Gland
• The pineal gland in the brain produces
melatonin which is involved in circadian
rhythms and the timing of development of
the reproductive organs.
• Children whose pineal gland has been
destroyed due to a brain tumor experience
early puberty.
Hormones from Other Tissues
• Leptin
• Adipose tissue (fat) produces leptin that
acts on the hypothalamus where it signals
satiety—that the individual feels “full” and
has had enough to eat.
• It is possible that obese people have
ineffective leptin due to a genetic mutation
or that their cells lack adequate leptin
receptors.
Growth Factors
• A number of different types of organs and
cells produce peptide growth factors, which
stimulate cell division and growth:
• granulocyte and macrophage colonystimulating factor to fight infection,
• platelet-derived growth factor for wound
healing,
• epidermal growth factor and nerve growth
factor, both for wound healing, and
• tumor angiogenesis factor that causes blood
vessels to grow near tumor cells.
Prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins are produced within cells
from arachidonate, a fatty acid.
• Prostaglandins act close to where they are
produced.
• They cause uterine muscle contraction
and are involved in the pain of menstrual
cramps; aspirin is effective against the
pain by countering prostaglandins.
Chemical signals
The Action of Hormones
• Steroid hormones enter the nucleus and
combine with a receptor protein, and the
hormone-receptor complex attaches to
DNA and activates certain genes.
• Transcription and translation lead to
protein synthesis.
• Peptide hormones are usually received by
a hormone receptor protein located in the
plasma membrane.
Action of a steroid hormone
• Most often the reception of a peptide
hormone leads to activation of an
enzyme that changes ATP to cyclic AMP
(cAMP).
• cAMP, as a second messenger, then
activates an enzyme cascade.
• Calcium is also a common second
messenger.
• Hormones work in small quantities
because their effect is amplified by
enzymes.
Action of a peptide hormone
• The anterior pituitary produces several
hormones, some of which control other
endocrine glands.
• Growth hormone is produced by the anterior
pituitary; giants are due to overproduction of
growth hormone during childhood, and
pituitary dwarfs are due to underproduction
of growth hormone.
• The thyroid produces two hormones that
speed metabolism and another hormone
that lowers the blood calcium level.
• The distinct parathyroid glands produce a
hormone that raises blood calcium level.
• Adrenal glands produce hormones that
help us respond to stress.
• Malfunction of the adrenal cortex leads to
the symptoms of Addison disease and
Cushing disease.
• The pancreas secretes hormones that
regulate the blood glucose level.
• Diabetes mellitus occurs when cells are
unable to take up glucose and it spills over
into the urine.
• The gonads produce sex hormones that
control secondary sex characteristics.
• Many other tissues, although not
traditionally considered endocrine glands,
secrete hormones.
• Hormones influence the metabolism of
their target cells.
Chapter 21: Reproduction
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• Along the way, secretions (seminal fluid)
are added from three glands: two seminal
vesicles, the donut-shaped prostate gland
at the base of the urinary bladder, and
paired bulbourethral glands.
• These glands add frustose for energy so
sperm can swim, and prostaglandins that
cause uterine contractions; the secretions
are slightly basic.
• Sperm with secretions from these glands
is called semen.
The male reproductive system
Orgasm in Males
• The penis, the organ of sexual, intercourse,
becomes erect from sexual arousal that
stimulates cGMP in smooth muscle cells to
allow erectile tissue to fill with blood;
arterioles dilate and veins are compressed.
• Orgasm involves ejaculation and muscular
tension followed by muscular contractions
and relaxation.
• Over 400 million sperm may be in each
ejaculate.
Penis anatomy
Male Gonads, the Testes
• The testes, which produce sperm and
male sex hormones, contain seminiferous
tubules surrounded by interstitial cells.
• Testes originate in the abdominal cavity
but descend into the scrotum where it is
cool enough for sperm development.
• Testes that do not descend must be
treated surgically otherwise sterility will
result.
Seminiferous Tubules
• Seminiferous tubules inside the testes
produce haploid sperm through
spermatogenesis.
• Sustentacular cells (Sertoli cells) support,
nourish, and regulate the cells during
spermatogenesis.
• Sperm have a head, middle piece, and tail.
Testes
• The head of the sperm is covered by a cap
called the acrosome which stores
enzymes needed to penetrate the egg.
• Sperm do not live more than 48 hours in
the female genital tract.
• Interstitial cells that lie between the
seminiferous tubules within testes produce
testosterone.
Sperm anatomy
Hormonal Regulation in Males
• In both males and females, gonadotropinreleasing hormone, or GnRH, secreted by
the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior
pituitary to release follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH).
• FSH stimulates the seminiferous tubules
to produce sperm and the hormone
inhibin.
• LH stimulates interstitial cells to produce
testosterone.
• Testosterone brings about and maintains
the male secondary sex characteristics.
• Testosterone exerts feedback control over
the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
resulting in a constant amount of
hormones and sperm production over
time.
Hormonal control of testes
The Genital Tract
• The oviducts that extend from the ovaries
to the uterus have finger-like projections or
fimbriae that sweep the egg into an
oviduct with the help of cilia.
• Fertilization usually takes place in the
oviduct; the zygote moves by ciliary
movement and oviduct contractions to the
uterus, where it implants in the uterine
lining (endometrium).
• The pear-shaped uterus is thick-walled
and muscular.
• The lower end of the uterus is the cervix
that opens into the vagina.
• The vagina facilitates sexual intercourse,
serves as the birth canal, and acts as an
exit for menstrual flow.
• A Pap test allows microscopic examination
of the cervix tissue for cancer cells.
The female reproductive tract
External Genitals
• The external genital area of the female is
the vulva and includes the vaginal
opening, urethral opening, clitoris, labia
minora, and labia majora.
• The vagina may be partially closed by a
ring of tissue called the hymen.
• The reproductive and urinary systems in
females are completely separate.
External genitals of the female
Orgasm in Females
• Upon sexual stimulation, the labia, vaginal
walls, and clitoris become engorged with
blood.
• The clitoris is extremely sensitive, and
orgasm occurs at the height of the sexual
response.
• In contrast to the male penis, there is no
refractory period, and multiple orgasms
can occur during a single sexual
experience.
Anatomy of ovary and follicle
• Egg follicles mature, from primary follicles
to Graafian follicles.
• When the egg is released, the empty
follicle becomes the hormone-secreting
corpus luteum.
• The ovaries produce the female sex
hormones estrogen and progesterone.
• Estrogen and progesterone exert feedback
control over the hypothalamus and the
anterior pituitary causing the cycle to begin
again.
• During a follicular phase (day 1-13), FSH
from the anterior pituitary stimulates
development of an oocyte-containing follicle
which secretes estrogen and progesterone.
• Ovulation occurs on day 14 of a 28-day
cycle.
• During a luteal phase (days 15–28), the
corpus luteum develops under the influence
of LH and secretes progesterone and
estrogen to promote the development of the
endometrium.
Hormonal control of ovaries
The Uterine Cycle
• The female sex hormones, estrogen and
progesterone, affect the endometrium,
causing the uterus to undergo a cyclical
series of events called the uterine cycle.
• During menstruation (days 1-5), menses
occurs due to the low levels of estrogen
and progesterone in the blood.
• During a proliferative phase (days 6-13),
the endometrium thickens.
• Ovulation occurs about day 14.
• During a secretory phase (days 15-28),
the endometrium continues to thicken and
becomes vascular.
• If pregnancy does not occur the cycle
begins again.
Female hormone levels
Fertilization and Pregnancy
• If fertilization occurs, the embryo implants
in the endometrium.
• The placenta begins to produce human
chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which
maintains the corpus luteum and the
uterine lining is maintained.
• Eventually, the placenta will produce
sufficient estrogen and progesterone.
• No new ovulations occur during this time.
Implantation
Estrogen and Progesterone
• At puberty, sex hormones (primarily
estrogen) stimulate development of sex
organs and maintain the secondary sex
characteristics.
• Estrogen is primarily responsible for
female fat distribution.
• Both estrogen and progesterone are
needed for breast development.
• Females have a wider pelvic girdle than
males.
Menopause
• Between the ages of 45 and 55, the
ovarian and uterine cycles cease.
• The ovaries are no longer responsive to
anterior pituitary hormones, and thus no
longer produce estrogen and
progesterone.
• When menstruation ceases for a year,
menopause is complete.
• The intrauterine device (IUD) alters the
uterine environment so fertilization and/or
implantation cannot take place.
• A diaphragm is a latex barrier that covers
the cervix; a cervical cap is a minidiaphragm.
• The diaphragm must be used along with
spermicidal jelly or cream.
• The male condom is a latex sheath fitted
over the erect penis.
• Contraceptive implants use time-release
progesterone, and Depo-Provera
injections alter the endometrium to
discourage pregnancy.
• Contraceptive vaccines may be able to
utilize the immune system to HCG that is
necessary to maintain the embryo.
• An antisperm vaccine may also be
possible.
Various birth control devices
Morning-after Pills
• A kit called Preven, made up of four
synthetic progesterone pills, may be taken
up to 72 hours after unprotected
intercourse.
• This upsets the normal uterine cycle,
making implantation unlikely.
• Mifepristone (RU-486) is a pill that causes
the loss of an implanted embryo and may
one day be routinely taken if menstruation
is late.
Infertility
• Infertility is the failure of a couple to
achieve pregnancy after one year of
regular, unprotected intercourse.
• The American Medical Association
estimates that 15% of all couples are
infertile.
• The cause of infertility can be attributed to
the male (40%), the female (40%), or both
(20%).
Causes of Infertility
• Infertility in females is often caused by
endometriosis, growth of the uterine lining
outside the uterus, or blocked oviducts due to
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).
• In males, a low sperm count and/or
production of abnormal sperm occur due to
disease, radiation, chemicals, high testes
temperature, or psychoactive drugs.
• Vasectomies are difficult to reverse, also
leading to male infertility.
Assisted Reproductive
Technologies
• Alternative methods to assist reproduction
include artificial insemination by donor and
intrauterine insemination, in vitro
fertilization, and gamete intrafallopian
transfer (GIFT), intracytoplasmic sperm
injection, and surrogate mothers who carry
a pregnancy for another couple.
AIDS
• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) is caused by the retrovirus HIV whose
primary host is helper T cells.
• HIV attaches to a CD4 receptor in the host
cell membrane; then the viral enzyme
reverse transcriptase copies viral RNA into
DNA, which integrates itself into a host
chromosome.
• At the time of viral reproduction, host DNA
produces many copies of viral RNA and
protein synthesis produces capsid proteins.
Reproduction of HIV
Phases of an HIV Infection
• During Category A: Acute Phase, the
helper T lymphocyte count is 500 per mm3
or greater.
• The immune system can still function
normally and no serious symptoms
appear.
• The patient is highly infectious but does
not have antibodies and therefore tests
negative for HIV.
• By the Category B: Chronic phase, the
helper T cell count is 200–499 per mm3.
• The lymph nodes are swollen, a person has
severe fatigue, recurrent fevers, night
sweats, and a persistent cough and
diarrhea.
• Toward the end of this phase, infections like
thrush, and/or herpes simplex occur.
• By the Category C: AIDS stage, the CD4
T cell count is below 200 per mm3.
• Opportunistic infections develop, such as:
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
toxoplasmosic encephalitis, Kaposi’s
sarcoma, and invasive cervical cancer.
• Treatment is successful for a while but
death usually occurs 2–4 years following
the AIDS stage.
The course of an AIDS infection
Treatment for HIV
• There is no cure for AIDS but highly active
antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which
combines the administration of two
inhibitors of reverse transcriptase with a
protease that prevents assembly, stops
the progress of AIDS in the chronic stage
for a number of years.
• Research into various vaccine strategies is
now being pursued.
Genital Herpes
• Genital herpes is caused by herpes
simplex virus type 2 and occasionally type
1 which usually causes cold sore.
• Blisters are followed by painful ulcers,
which can clear up and reappear later.
• Infants born vaginally to women with
genital herpes may contract herpes,
causing grave illness, blindness,
neurological disorders, or death.
Genital herpes
Genital Warts
• Genital warts are caused by human
papillomaviruses (HPVs).
• Warts need not be visible on penis or
vaginal opening.
• Genital warts are associated with cancer of
cervix; teenagers with multiple sex partners
are especially susceptible to cervical
cancer.
• Genital warts are not curable at this time.
• A newborn can become infected during
vaginal birth.
Genital warts
Hepatitis Infections
• There are a number of hepatitis infections.
• Hepatitis A is normally acquired from
drinking sewage-contaminated water, but
may also be spread through oral/anal
contact.
• Hepatitis B is spread by sexual contact.
• Hepatitis C is spread through transfusion.
Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is more likely to be
spread by sexual contact than the HIV
virus.
• Flu-like symptoms and jaundice may be
present.
• A chronic form of the disease can lead to
liver failure.
• An HBV vaccine is now available and a
part of the routine immunizations for
children.
Chlamydia
• Chlamydia infections are more numerous
than any other sexually transmitted
disease.
• Symptoms may appear to be a urinary
tract infection with a mild burning
sensation upon urination.
• If not treated pelvic inflammatory disease
(PID), sterility, or ectopic pregnancy can
result.
Chlamydial infection
Detection and Treatment of
Chlamydia
• Tests for detection of chlamydia are
expensive and may not be readily
available.
• Physicians can use several criteria aside
from detection of the organism to decide
whether to prescribe the proper antibiotics
to cure chlamydia.
• If gonorrhea is present, some physicians
also routinely prescribe antibiotics for
chlamydia.
Gonorrhea
• Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium
Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
• Most males complain of pain on urination
and there is a discharge.
• Females are asymptomatic and may
develop PID.
• Infants can be infected during vaginal
birth; silver nitrate or antibiotics in the eyes
are standard treatment.
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
• Syphilis, caused by a bacterium
Treponema pallidum, has three stages.
• In the primary stage, a chancre forms at
site of infection.
• In the secondary stage, the individual
breaks out in a rash that does not itch; hair
loss and gray patches on the mucous
membranes in the mouth may occur.
• These symptoms soon disappear.
• In the terminal tertiary stage, gummas
(large destructive ulcers) may appear on
skin and within internal organs, and the
disease affects a wide variety of organs.
• In congenital syphilis, in which the
bacterium has crossed the placenta, the
child is born blind and/or with anatomical
malformations.
• Antibiotics easily cure syphilis.
Two Other Infections
• Vaginitis is caused by a naturally occurring
yeast, Candida albicans, that grows to
infectious levels.
• Trichomoniasis is an vaginal infection
caused by a flagellated protozoan.
• The protozoan infection causes a white or
yellow foul-smelling discharge, while the
yeast causes a white, curdy discharge
accompanied by itching.
• Hormones control the monthly reproductive
cycle in females and play a significant role in
maintaining pregnancy when it occurs.
• Birth-control measures vary widely in
effectiveness.
• Today, alternative methods of reproduction
include in vitro fertilization, artificial
insemination, and many others.
• There are many serious sexually transmitted
diseases and some are of epidemic
proportions.
Lab Practicum III Review
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Practicum Review
• Practicum covers Ex.17 - 24
• That is, start with porifera, end with echinoderms
(in your text, it is Ch. 30-31)
• Each exercise represents a Phylum – you
should know the name of each phylum, which
kingdom they belong to, and examples of
animals from each (see lab stations, review your
notes and lab-book).
Practicum Review
• For each phylum know: the level of organization
(cellular, tissue, or organ), symmetry, if they
have a true coelom (what is a true coloem?).
• Know if parasitic species of a phylum exist. If
so, be able to give an example.
• Know the difference between a “complete” and
“incomplete” digestive system (and who has
what) and the general habitat in which
representative organisms live.
Porifera
• Know and understand the following: spicules,
spongin, regenerative power, type of
reproduction (asexual vs. sexual), mode of
nutrition and waste.
• Anatomy: spongocoel, osculum, flow of water
through the sponge (and how)
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Cnidaria
• Know and understand the following: dimorphic
(polyp vs. medusa form), , type of reproduction
(asexual vs. sexual), nervous system (what
type?), digestive system
• Anatomy: tentacles, basal disc, cnidocytes, oral
vs. aboral side, where mouth is located on three
examples
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Platyhelminthes
• Know and understand the following: digestive
system, parasitic vs. free-living forms, definitive
vs. intermediate host, transmission
• Anatomy: Planaria (mouth, pharynx, and ocelli),
tapeworm (scolex, hooks and suckers,
proglottids –what’s in them?, mode of nutrition,
mouth)
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Aschelminthes
• Know and understand the following: parasitic vs.
free-living forms, digestive system, ascaris lifecycle and transmission
• Anatomy: cuticle, viscera, parthenogenesis
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Mollusca
• Know and understand the following: type of
circulatory system, presence of sense organs
(eyes and chemoreceptors), mode of nutrition,
intelligence in cephalopods – know the 5 classes
and which animals belong where….
• Anatomy: foot, shell, mantle, gills, radula
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Annelida
• Know and understand the following: parasitic vs.
free-living, type of circulatory and respiratory
system, brain? (nerve cord) and level of function
• Anatomy (and function!): septa, setae, buccal
cavity, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, aortic
arches, nephridial tubules (function only)
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Arthropoda
• Know and understand the following:
exoskeleton, chitin, shedding/molting,
metamorphosis, sense organs (antennae,
compound and simple eyes, auditory organstympanic membranes), respiratory system
• Anatomy (and function!): spinnerets, spiracles
and trachei-tube system, 6 vs. 8 legs
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Echinodermata
• Know and understand the following:
endoskeleton, oral vs. aboral, dueterostome,
importance of central disc and regeneration
• Anatomy (and function!): watervascular system,
mouth, stomach, tube-feet, pedicillarie
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Practicum Review
• Study the Ex. Lab Review questions….most
questions will be based on these as well as
highlights discussed in class.