Review Slides
Theophilus Benson
How Does the Internet Work?
• Context: you are trying to visit facebook.com
– What are the different protocols that are used?
– How does this Class’s content fit in?
• Browser decides:
– What version of HTTP to use..
– And uses TCP
Anatomy of a Web Page
• HTML content
• A number of additional resources
– Images
– Scripts
– Frames
All of these
Are web-objects
• Browser makes one HTTP request for each
object
– Course web page: 14 objects
– My facebook page this morning: 100 objects
Step-0: Open your browser
What Version of HTTP
• Versions vary in terms of performance
• Cause of performance problems
– For small objects:
• Latency matters (RTT dominates)
– For large objects:
• Throughput matters
• Major causes of latency problems:
– Opening a TCP connection
– Actually sending the request and receiving response
– And a third one: DNS lookup!
HTTP Timeline
TCP Timeline
• HTTP1.0
No keep-alive
•
•
HTTP1.1
Keep-alive
Get index.html
Response
Get img1
Response
Get img2
Response
Get img3
Response
Green lines are TCP-handshake
Black lines: HTTP request
Blue Lines: HTTP responses
Browser Request
GET / HTTP/1.1
Host: localhost:8000
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macinto ...
Accept: text/xml,application/xm ...
Accept-Language: en-us,en;q=0.5
Accept-Encoding: gzip,deflate
Accept-Charset: ISO-8859-1,utf-8;q=0.7,*;q=0.7
Keep-Alive: 300
Connection: keep-alive
Step-1: Name Resolution
• Packets are sent using IP-addresses
– You don’t know IP, you only know the URL.
• So need to figure out the ip-address for
facebook.com
– Domain Name Resolution.
• Converts name to IP-addresses
Basic Domain Name Resolution
• Every host knows a local DNS server
– Sends all queries to the local DNS server
• If the local DNS can answer the query, then you’re done
1. Local server is also the authoritative server for that name
2. Local server has cached the record for that name
• Otherwise, go down the hierarchy and search for the
authoritative name server
– Every local DNS server knows the root servers
– How is caching used by the resolver? What are the implications?
– Iterative versus Recursive queries
10
Local Name Servers
Where is
google.com?
Northeastern
• Each ISP/company has a local, default name server
• Often configured via DHCP
• Hosts begin DNS queries by contacting the local
name server
• Frequently cache query results
11
Authoritative Name Servers
Where is
www.neu.edu?
www.neu.edu =
155.33.17.68
www.neu.edu
Northeastern
Root
edu
Authority
for ‘edu’
neu
Authority for
‘neu.edu’
• Stores the nameIP mapping for a given host
12
Step-2: Transport
– TCP?
• Reliable, in-ordered
• Congestion-control + Flow-control
– UDP?
• Low over-head
• Website use TCP, some interesting questions:
– How does connection start-up?
– What is Flow-Control? (helps avoid receiver problems)
– Congestion-control? (helps avoid network problems)
Establishing a Connection
three –way handshake
Connect
Listen,
Accept…
Accept
returns
• Three-way handshake
– Two sides agree on respective initial sequence nums
• If no one is listening on port: server sends RST
• If server is overloaded: ignore SYN
• If no SYN-ACK: retry, timeout
Step-2: Transport
– TCP?
• Reliable, in-ordered
• Congestion-control + Flow-control
– UDP?
• Low over-head
• Website use TCP, some interesting questions:
–
–
–
–
How does connection start-up?
What is Flow-Control? (helps avoid receiver problems)
Congestion-control? (helps avoid network problems)
How to set buffers
Flow Control
• We should not send more data than the
receiver can take.
• Receiver uses window header field to tell
sender how much space it has
Step-2: Transport
– TCP?
• Reliable, in-ordered
• Congestion-control + Flow-control
– UDP?
• Low over-head
• Website use TCP, some interesting questions:
–
–
–
–
How does connection start-up?
What is Flow-Control? (helps avoid receiver problems)
Congestion-control? (helps avoid network problems)
How to set buffers
Congestion Control Window
cwnd
Timeout
Init_ssthresh
AIMD
Timeout
AIMD
ssthresh
Slow
Start
Slow
Start
Slow
Start
Time
Congestion-Control
• TCP has two states:
– Slow Start (SS)
– Congestion Avoidance (CA)
• A window size threshold governs the state
transition
– Window <= threshold (ssthresh): slow start
– Window > threshold (ssthresh): congestion avoidance
– Threshold magically defined
• States differ in how they respond to ACKs
– Slow start: w = w + MSS
– Congestion Avoidance: w = w + MSS2/w (1 MSS per RTT)
Duplicate ACK example
each segment contains 1460 bytes
Receiver sends ACKs for the last inDropped Pkt order accepted packet.
Seg2 re-transmitted after 3-dupacks
Dup-Ack
Dup-Ack
ACK_5 after re-transmission
acknowledges all packets
Dup-Ack
20
Timeout (RTO) example
1K SeqNo=0
Wait for ACK … if no ACK then packet is lost
AckNo=1024
1K SeqNo=1
024
How long to wait?
**some function of RTT
1K SeqNo=2
048
1. duplicate
AckNo=1024
1K SeqNo=3
072
2. duplicate
AckNo=1024
1K SeqNo=4
096
3. duplicate
AckNo=1024
1K SeqNo=1
024
1K SeqNo=5
120
21
TCP Response to Loss
Slow Start
• Triggered by a Timeout
• W=1
• Ssthresh= W/2
• Switch to (SS)
Fast Recovery
• Triggered by 3 dup-acks
• W = W/2
• Ssthresh= W/2
• Stay in (CA)
Step-3: IP Routing
• How to get Traffic from your browser to
facebook’s (FB) server?
– Determine network of FB’s IP.
• In my local-area-network? Or in a different network?
• Use Netmask!!
– If in different network, route to it
• Use IGP to route in an ISP
– IGP = Distance Vector (RIP), Link-State (OSPF)
• USE EGP to route between ISPs
– EGP = BGP
– Valley Free routing
Compare your IP address with destination IP address
• Source IP: 128.35.7.2
• You netmask is 128.35.7.*/24
so you network has: 128.35.7.0-128.35.7.255
Dest IP: 128.44.7.5
Destination is not in your network range,
so you need to use your gateway router.
GateWay == First Router that I’m connected to.
Gateway: responds to DHCP and gives you an IPaddress and netmask
Router C
G
Router B
H
G
H
IGP Protocols
Link-State
Distance Vector
Flood messages from one neighbors to
other neighbors
Send forwarding table to neighbors
Each router has whole topology
(Scaling issues)
Each router has local view of network
(loop-issues)
E.g. OSPF
E.g. RIP
BGP= Distance Vector+Path
information
• Distance vector algorithm with extra information
– For each route, store the complete path (ASs)
– No extra computation, just extra storage (and traffic)
• Advantages
– Can make policy choices based on set of ASs in path
– Can easily avoid loops
• Challenges:
–
–
–
–
Convergence
Traffic engineering: Load Balancing
Scaling (route reflectors)
Security
Recall
Bad Policies
canBGP
be costly
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Default free,
Has information on
every prefix
Default: provider
Tier 2
Regional
$$
$$
$$
Tier 2
$$
Tier 2
$$
$$
Tier 3
(local)
Tier 3
(local)
Recall
BGP:
Realistic
Example
“Best
Route”
is not
The shortest
route
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 2
Tier 2
$10
Tier 2
Regional
$$
$$
Tier 2
$20
$$
Tier 2
$$
$$
Tier 3
(local)
Tier 3
(local)
BGP Policies
• Two mechanisms
– Route export filters
• Control what routes you send to neighbors
– Route import ranking
• Controls which route you prefer of those you hear.
• The resulting paths must be Valley-free
– Number links as(+1,0,-1) for provider, peer and
customer
– In any valid path should only see sequence of+1 ,
followed by at most one 0, followed by sequence
of -1
IGP+EGP: Two types of BGP sessions
128.112.0.0/16
Next Hop = 192.0.2.1
128.112.0.0/16
iBGP
AS23
eBGP
192.0.2.1
Forwarding Table
destination
next hop
192.0.2.0/30
AT&T
Sprint
AS23
10.10.10.10
+
BGP (iBGP)
destination
next hop
128.112.0.0/16
192.0.2.1
Forwarding Table
destination
next hop
128.112.0.0/16
192.0.2.0/30
10.10.10.10
10.10.10.10
Step 3: Switching
• How do you get packets to that first router?
– Layer 2 switching: each switch makes local
decision
Router C
G
Router B
H
G
H
What Limitations Does Ethernet Have?
• Switches use a very simple Forwarding policy
– @ start-up: Flood the traffic on all interfaces
– Traffic will go to all switches
• Learning == loop problems when there’s a cycle
– Spanning tree used to eliminate loops
• Minimum Packet Size
– 64Bytes (512 bits): To ensure that collisions are detected!
– Bandwidth-Delay-Product (for a link)
• Maximum Ethernet LAN size
– 2500 meters: Due to signal decay, any longer and packets would not be
delivered
Router Versus Switches
Router
Switches
• Runs multiple switching
protocols: Ethernet, ATM
• Runs one switching protocol
– Switches between techs
• Runs routing protocols
• Runs DHCP
• Needs a common address
across techs: IP address
– E.g. Ethernet addresses make
no sense to ATM hosts
– Can only work with same tech
• Dictates how bits become
signals
• Dictates how bits becomes a
packet/frame
• Needs hardware addresses to
identify hosts/switches
Step-4: Link Layer and Framing Traffic
• Frame= Act of putting bits on the link as a
packet (frame)
– Collision detection
– Collision avoidance
G
Layers, Services, Protocols
Application
Service: user-facing application.
Functions: Application specific
Transport
Service: multiplexing applications
Functions: Connection establishment/termination, error
control, flow control
Network
Service: move packets to any other node in the network
Functions: Routing, addressing
Link
Service: move frames to other node across link.
Functions: Framing, media access control, error checking
Physical
Service: move bits to other node across link
Functions: Convert bits to singal