California State University, Northridge
AN INVESTIGATION OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
IN UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
A graduate project submitted in partial
satisfaction of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Arts in
Education
by
Carolyn Rankin Mallory
July, ]972
This graduate project of Carolyn Mallory is approved:
Co~ittee Chairman
California State University, Northridge
July, 1972
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express her sincere appreciation
to Los Angeles City Schools Division of Research and Testing for allowing this study to be conducted within city
schools.
Special thanks to Dr. Owen Knox, who supplied
many important statistics, and to the principals, science
department chairmen, and teachers who allowed their studen
to be tested.
Also, without the kind cooperation of the
students tested, there would be no data.
The author is indebted to Dr. Faye Louise Grindstaff,
committee member, for her recommendations regarding this
study, for her encouragement, and for sharing her scholastic expertise.
For guidance, patience, and advice the author is
deeply grateful to Dr. James Barrett Cunningham.
Dr. Cun-
ningham opened his mind and his library to the author in
a manner which fostered scholarly research, writing, and
thinking.
Simple thanks seem inadequate for the role he
played as committee chairman.
The author greatly appreciates the constant encourage
ment and understanding of her husband, Bill, during the
arduous task of completing this study.
To her helpful typ
ing assistant, Marian, the author says, "Thank you".
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter
I.
Page
The Problem
Background
Delineation of the Problem
II.
III.
IV.
Survey of the Literature • • • •
7
]0
The Interrelation of School and
Culture . .
. . .
]0
Interrelation of School and Student
Self-Image • . . . •
]5
Inquiry Science Courses and the Low
Achiever
• • . .
. . • .
]9
Procedures and Presentation of Results
26
Selection of Schools and Students •
27
Testing Procedures
28
Design
29
Presentation of Results •
30
Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations •
Discussion • .
33
34
• •
38
Recommendations
42
REFERENCES
Lv
List of Tables
Table
1
Page
Factorial Analysis of Covariance:
TOUS
•
•
•
•
"
•
•
::_v
•
•
•
•
•
•
31
Chapter I
The Problem
Background
"The force of science has always, in modern times,
been a major factor shaping social and cultural patterns
{Roberts, 1967, p. 247) ."
The current level of scientific
technology enables considerable power over matter and multiplies the conveniences or pleasures of life for most of
the United States population.
By-products of space tech-
nology in medical research, textile development and recycling techniques have directly or indirectly affected everyone.
The multi-billion dollar automobile industry influ-
ences the unemployment rate, social patterns dependent on
personal mobility, traffic congestion, and air pollution.
Computers check newborn infants' blood for genetic defects,
program students into their classes, bill credit card
users, and calculate social security payments to the aged.
From advances in standard of living to social consequences of technology, science affects everyone.
To make
intelligent choices in the market place of products or the
market place of ideas, science should be understood by
everyone.
Citizens must be scientifically literate in
order to make decisions about national and personal goals.
Understanding science means both to know a body of
.undamen±al facts, concepts and princi];ll.e.s_, and also to
1
2
-----·~--------------------------------~
grasp the processes of science.
of science are:
Some important processes
observing, inferring, hypothesizing,
measuring, and experimenting.
According to Brandwein
(1958), Romey (1968), and Sund and Trowbridge (1967), ·the
process dimension is of fundamental importance.
Anderson
(1969) says,
Science instruction should be based on a
series of principles selec·ted for their
value in projecting science as a process of
inquiry designed to discover new facts, improve the quantitative descriptions of known
facts, and organize the facts in conceptual
schemes which more adequately describe the
phenomena of the universe and beyond (p. 1).
The National Science Teachers Association (1971) defines the scientifically literate person as one who:
learns how to learn; uses rational processes; builds cornpetence in basic skills; develops intellectual and vocational competence; explores values in new experiences;
lives harmoniously within the biosphere.
The goal of understanding science as both content and
rocess may never be reached by inner city pupils.
Nurner-
ous s·tudies, such as Coleman (1966), Russell (1967), and
Zacharias Panel (1964), reveal that these pupils usually
o not reach the minimum acceptable academic level of midle class schools.
Indeed, less than 50 percent of inner
ity students complete high school
(Passow, 1970).
(Zach~rius
Panel, 1964),
And while 80 to 90 percent of suburban
outh are going to college (Conant, 1961), only about 5
ercent of inner city youth are doing so (Coleman, 1966).
3
Although science courses are required in college, for many
students in the inner city schools, high school represents
the last phase in their formal education.
will not attend college.
These students
Consequently, the terminal high
school science courses in which they enroll must prepare
them to become scientifically literate citizens.
Many problems beset inner city pupils.
By definition
the neighborhoods in which they live have such a high popu
lation density that privacy and quiet are impossible.
The
monetary value of single family residences in these areas
is less than half that of the average of other houses
within the county limits, indicating that they are in a
run-down condition.
Aid to Families with Dependent Chil-
dren (AFDC) welfare payments are received by the families
of many pupils.
Transiency results in rapid classroom and
neighborhood turnover (Dr. Owen Knox, personal communication, June 26, 1972),
(Brazziel and Terrell, 1962).
Inner city residents of Los Angeles typically belong
to one of three minority groups:
Anglo, Mexican-American
or Black {Dr. Owen Knox, personal communication, June 26,
1972).
Sexton {1961) defines a minority group Anglo as a
person of Caucasian ancestry whose family income is less
than $5,000 annually.
Palomares (1972) says, ''The Mexican
American can be characterized by three basic elements:
language, culture, and poverty
(p. 2)."
Leinwand (1969)
states that inner city Negroes have an adult unemployment
rate exceeding ten percent; in 1969, median family income
4
was three-fourths of the White median family income five
years ago; and forty-four percent of Black inner city residents live in substandard housing.
How best can inner city youngsters be taught to understand science?
Coleman (1966), Bingham and Cronin (1970)
and Lisenbee (1965) note that typically the inner city
child has a negative self-image, very little feeling of
control over his life or environment, and difficulty structuring concepts.
The ''inquiry" method of teaching science
helps inner city youngsters to overcome these problems.
As
defined by Sund and Trowbridge {1967), "The inquiry, or
discovery, method stresses student-centered rather than
teacher-centered class instruction (p. v) ."
According to
Schwab (1960) , the inquiry method is not only studentcentered, it is even student-actuated.
Each of the three minority groups:
Anglo, Mexican-
American and Black, has distinctive cultural characteristics.
Arag6n (1971) defines culture as, "The life style
which includes language, diet, dress, social patterns, and
ethics (p. 4) • "
Elkins (1969), Coleman {1966), Conant (1961), Hernandez
(1969), Metfessel (1965) , and Leinwand (1969) point
out that certain characteristics are common to almost all
disadvantaged youth:
short attention span, inability to
communicate verbally to the degree that middle class youth
do, failure to develop ego strength to energize learning,
5
learning skills and levels.
However, the Anglo minority
student has less of a language barrier than the other two
groups, and in all probability his family trusts and cooperates with the school system.
This is in contrast to
the situation for Mexican-American and Black students.
Hernandez (1969) says that the Mexican-American family regards the school system as usurping the patriarchial right
of the home to instruct the child.
Financial and emotional
support of the home is the first duty of a youngster from
the Mexican-American culture and school must take second
place.
Other handicaps which any Mexican-American youngs-
ter has, according to Hernandez, are:
limited familiarity
with the English language; poor self-image; lack of motiva
tion; absence of awareness on the part of his teachers of
his handicaps and cultural differentiation; minimum amount
of communication between the school and his home; poor
scores on tests that do not take into account the
difference~
in his cultural background; and, parents who lack a real
I
understanding of what his school environment is like.
Black students exhibit other cultural differences.
Their language isn't middle class English.
negative self-image.
parent.
They have a
Family units commonly have but one
There is general distrust of white institutions,
for example, the school; and they are frustrated and disappointed over lack of opportunities in employment
and education {Leinwand, 1969).
housinl
'
L~~--~~~~~In ·~add~ tion t:>_.~!~ese ~istin_:_t and overt culture ~~--~----··--.
6
differences there are more subtle differences.
Value sys-
terns vary from one minority group to another, usually with
resultant detriment to students in inner cities.
Ginzberg
(1970) says,
It is not true that the public schools did well
or even satisfactorily with most youngsters
of Jewish immigrants or with youngsters of parents who came from Ireland or Italy. There
were deep tensions growing out of conflicting
value systems which had an adverse effect on
the ability of children to learn (p. 177).
These problems are compounded by the fact that children from different cultures may physically learn best in
different ways.
Entirely different groups of senses and
systems of muscles may operate in learning.
Vitrogan (1968
Elkins {1970), Piaget {1969} , Lisenbee {1965} , and Brunner
(1961) have concluded that larc;re muscle involvement, such
as is encountered in physically handling apparatus, helps
the slow learner, regardless of cultural group, to learn
better.
They further suggest that different senses, such
as audio, visual, and tactile be employed by different
groups of students.
For example, one group may learn bet-
ter using science materials which encourage the use of a
prescribed combination of senses, while another group may
learn better using another combination of senses.
Two inner city science programs, one conceived by
Vitrogan and the other by Lisenbee, which have been very
successful, share some common features.
Both increase stu-
dent self-image and motivation, stimulate basic reading
and conceptualizing skills, and offer numerous inquiry type
7
laboratory experiences.
The urgent need to improve the scholastic performance
of inner city pupils makes it imperative to investigate
new approaches to science education and specific characteristics of inner city students themselves.
As a beginning,
it is important to investigate minority groups'understanding of science and differences which may exist among the
minority groups in understanding science.
Thus, the pur-
pose of this study is to determine whether a difference in
understanding science exists between Anglo, Mexican-American and Black inner city students in selected high schools
in the Los Angeles City School District.
Delineation of the Problem
Understanding science includes an understanding of
the nature of scientific inquiry, of science as an institution, and of scientists as people.
In determining whe-
ther a difference in understanding science exists between
Anglo, Mexican-American and Black inner city students, it
is necessary to use a test which measures these three components of understanding science.
One of the few tests
which measures understanding science is Test On Understand·
ing Science {TOUS).
This test was written specifically to
answer the question this study asks relative to students'
understanding science.
The test authors maintain that,
An understanding of the scientific enterprise
and scientists can be described in terms of
definite components--which have been drawn
from analyses of scientists at work, from the
8
history and philosophy of science, from biographies of scientists, from the writings
of scientists and commentators--and that
the sum of these components provides a reasonably valid picture of the nature of
science and scientists. To the extent that
a student apprehends these components, he
also understands science and scientists
(TOUS Manual, p. 2).
Since TOUS is to be read, and there may be differences
in reading ability among the students taking TOUS, it was
necessary to statistically control variation in reading
level.
The students to which TOUS was administered were enrolled in one of two public inner city schools in the
greater Los Angeles area, selected on the basis of the
school administration's willingness to cooperate in this
study.
TOUS was administered to forty-eight randomly se-
lected Modern Science students, twenty-four from each
school.
In the Los Angeles City Unified School District in
197~Modern
Science was the terminal, required science
course for non-academic high school students.
The course
was intended for average ability students who are not pursuing a major satisfying the entrance requirements for a
California State College or University.
The following hypotheses were tested:
1.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science (TOUS) of non-academic Anglo,
Mexican-American and Black students.
9
2.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science {TOUS) of non-academic, male minority group students and non-academic,
female minority group students.
3.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science (TOUS) of the two schools.
Chapter II
. Survey of the Literature
The survey of the literature is divided into three
parts.
(])
It includes studies and literature concerning:
the interrelation of school and culture;
relation of school and student's self-image;
(2) the inter(3) inquiry
science courses and the low achiever.
The Interrelation of School and Culture
Culture is one of several variables which influence
students' achievement in school.
According to Aragon
(]97]), culture is, "The life style which includes language
diet, dress, social patterns, and ethics (p. 4) ."
Coleman (]966) found that pupils whose culture differed from that of the middle class Anglo culture were
not very successful in American schools.
Coleman measured
success by using standardized non-verbal and verbal skills
tests, and reading, mathematics, and general information
tests.
With the notable exception of Oriental-Americans,
Coleman found that the culturally different pupil, ".
scores distinctly lower on these tests at every level
(p.
2]) ."
Hernandez (]969) feels that school personnel have
generally disapproved of the Mexican-American life style.
Durin
Hernandez' b
~hood,
Spanish was not
10
~ermitted
as a
11
language of instruction, though it was the only language
known to most of the pupils in the Mexican sector of Los
Angeles.
The Mexican diet was described by health teachers
as picturesque, hot, tasty, or delicious, rather than nutritious or healthy.
Wearing the normal Mexican peasant
dress, considered too flambouyant by school administrators,
was discouraged.
The Mexican family social ideal of many
generations living together was discouraged by the school
in so far as possible since each s·tudent was supposed to
have a room to himself in which to s·tudy and do his homework.
The Mexican ethic of humbleness, of not calling at-
tention to oneself, was disapproved by teachers who saw
competition among students as fostering desire to earn good
grades.
The entire culture, the very essence of Mexican-
American identity, received disapproval or outright condemnation from the school system.
Numerous authors have discussed the interrelation of
school and home.
Conant (1961), cuban (1972), Hernandez
(1969), and Leinwand (1966) make the point that, to a considerable degree, what a school should do and can do is
determined by the status and the ambitions of the families
being served.
the family
lS
For most inner city parents the ambition of
to have the basic necessities of life.
Ac-
cording to Hernandez (1969), Leinwand (1966), and Sexton
(1961) the common factor between Anglo, Mexican-American,
and Black inner city dwellers is poverty.
The parents of
inner city pupils work long hours a·t low paying jobs to
12
provide for their children and consequently have little
time or energy left for interest or participation in their
children's · school work.
employed.
Inner city mothers are usually
This is true even among Mexican-American women,
who have traditionally kept to the home.
1
'In 1966, over 47'b
of all Black women, with or without children, were in the
labor force, compared to 34% of all white women in the
labor force {Leinwand, 1966, p. 151) ."
Inner city Anglo
mothers who work are usually relegated to the lower-paying
jobs, due to the inadequacy of their formal education.
I
Minority group parents are not only usually unavailable to
I
communicate with the school, but also are embarrased or
luctant to do so.
re-I
Hernandez {1969) notes that Mexican-
American parents are usually lacking in a real understanding of what the child's school environment is like.
This
unfamiliarity causes shyness in initiating contact with the
school or teacher.
Black parents, on the other hand, are
familiar with the school, but generally have negative feelings about public education (Leinwand, 1966) .
What are the effects of poverty on youngsters'
ing?
learn~
Coleman {1966) has found that, "Socioeconomic factors
bear a strong relation to academic achievement (p. 21) ."
According to Landers and Mercurio {19 7 0) , "The gap between
disadvantaged childrerls
achievement levels and national
norms increases steadily especially in reading, so that
many children are ill-prepared to lead satisfying lives
13
life, in another cycle of unemployment, poverty, and wasted
lives (Leinwand, 1966).
Successful science experiences for inner city pupils
have used cultural differences of minority youngsters.
Vitrogan, who developed a course aimed at teaching scientifie literacy to socially disadvantaged youth, says that,
It was hypothesized that these children, in
spite of the fact that they demonstrated low
achievement academically, as measured by
standardized tests, did possess a large store
of sub-verbal knowledge and ability that could
be tapped. It was assumed that this knowledge
had been accumulated through the sum of past
experiences in the surrounding world, seldom
displayed, but capable of contributing to attitudes, conceptions, and reasoning processes
{Vitrogan, 1968, p. 619).
Vitrogan's project assumes that culturally different
children acquire a large fund of experiences in interacting
with the natural world which can be utilized in science
instruction.
Brunner (1961), Lisenbee (1969), and Vitrogan
(1968) say that minority group children, as a rule, don't
mentally store their experiences neatly catalogued, nor
readily available for recall.
Thus, part of the task of
the science teacher is to utilize what the inner city child
has in his mind but not in his mouth.
The Black, Mexican-
American, and poor white cultures are not verbal, compared
with middle class Anglos.
This is due to poor command of
English, and limited vocabulary, as well as a tendency to
react physically rather than verbally
(Leinwand, 1966).
1
c~l.!:_~to
(~etfessel,
1965);
Consequently, they often find it diffi-
yerbally express the knowledge they possess_.-~~~-·~·~-~·~~
14
Malkin (1964) says, "The teacher may need to help the
children verbalize questions which their environment had
led them to submerge (p. 159) ."
Malkin indicates that the
teacher will need to overcome the tendency of deprived
children not to ask questions, simply because they expect
in their accustomed surroundings, not to get answers.
In-
teracting with the physical world, which all moving creatures do, produces awareness of the effects of nature.
It
is up to the science teacher to guide the student in molding this awareness into understanding of the laws of nature.
Reisman (1962) states that the culturally deprived
child has,
ability in abstract thinking, but at a slower
rate than middle class children; skill in nonverbal communication; greater achievement when
tasks are motor-oriented; and greater motivation to tasks which have tangible and immediate goals (p. 158) ."
According to Gordon (1968),
Several studies suggest that children from
disadvantaged backgrounds in comparison with
middle-class children are less able to make
use of conventional verbal symbols in representing and interpreting their feelings, their
experiences, and the objects in their environment.
It is important to note that the apparent deficiency is in the use of such conventional verbal symbols - there is no definite
evidence that such children suffer from an
underlying deficiency in symbolic representation (p. 3) •
The experiences of the culturally different child are
positive elements upon which a functional and
education can be built,
developmen~a
If the schools would take a more
positive attitude toward cultural differences, science
15
curicula could be devised to use these experiences.
Interrelation of School and Student Self-Image
The National Science Teachers Association (1971)
vises that each school's science curriculum should,
11
adcontr·
bute to the development of a student's concept of himself
as an adequate person (p. 49) ."
Usually, the self-image of
a minority student is not augmented by his school experiences; rather, he continually experiences situations which
make him feel like an inadequate person.
In their report
concerning a compensatory science program, Bingham, Cronin,
and Paulk {1970) state,
Much of what goes on in the classroom tells
the disadvantaged student that he is a failure.
He is seldom complimented for his achievements.
He expresses himself poorly. Someone else
always says what he is trying to say before
he can say it and says it better than he can
say it. Someone else always gains the teacher's approval while he is unwittingly overlooked (p. 527).
Ginzberg (1970), Hernandez (1969) , and Leinwand {1966)
point out that the self-image of minority Anglo, MexicanAmerican, and Black students is radically decreased by the
school experiences.
Elkins (1969) says,
With the passing of years in school the deficits
multiply so that by the time the child reaches
grade six, his self-image has been shattered
to such an extent that hostility toward school
is no longer hidden, and the general hopelessness is all-pervasive (p. 599).
Poor scholastic performance accompanies this breakdown in self-image.
The average child from a low socio-
.~e~.QilQmiQ~g$ground c:~.chieves
slightly less tha~]_9f~~~~--~·~-
j
16
year's growth per school year {Russell, 1967).
falls further and further behind
h~s
Thus he
middle-class school-
mates as he progresses through the grades.
Naturally the
teacher approves the fine work of the achievers and disapproves the poor work of the underachievers.
Coleman (1966) found that teachers don't like to work
at inner city or racially mixed schools, and will very oft
try to escape by transferring from such a school.
Passow
(1969) advises that children sense their teachers'
atti~
tudes toward them.
He warns that children who feel their
teachers don't like them seem to have lower self-perceptions, achieve less well, and behave less well in the clas
room than children who feel their teachers do like them.
Coleman (1966} found that self-concept shows a strong relation to achievement.
Thus, it would seem that for prac-
tical as well as humanitarian reasons, self-concepts of
minority children must be increased.
Baillie (1969) developed a program of laboratory experiences for disadvantaged youth.
He comments that of the
programs designed to teach educationally, culturally, and
economically deprived youth, ''those that are successful involve the student as something other than a passive partici
pant in the learning process {p. 704) ."
Baillie feels
that the science teacher has the ready-made advantage of
being able to create interest in his subjects, since 1 ''students of this age have a built in curiosity of the world,
~nd~£reative
and innovative science teacher can
help~to~~·
17
bring the disadvantaged child out of his shell and stimulate an interest in school (p. 704) ."
In his science program for disadvantaged youth, Vitrogan (1969) suggests two major strategies.
First, all
teachers involved should approach the children as though
they were capable of learning.
The teachers should expect
that the children will succeed, and challenge them accordingly.
This same conclusion is reached by Passow (1970}
when he says, ''By accepting and expecting lowered standards,
teachers must bear some responsibility for the sharp differences between the disadvantaged youth's aspirations and
achievement {p. 317) ."
Vitrogan's first strategy is aimed
explicitly at modifying the classroom situation and developing an approach which tends to break up the pattern of
failure.
The second major strategy suggested by Vitrogan
involves bringing science experiences into the classroom in
the most dramatic way, so as to capture the child's attention, arouse his curiosity, and challenge his imagination.
Lisenbee is also aware that true respect for pupils
requires persistent confidence in their potential.
Accord-
ing to Lisenbee {1965) " • • • immediate praise and frequent
evaluation is appreciated by the limited learner (p. 404} ."
The Educational Policies Commission {1962) adds,
The small successes of his least privileged
pupils are praiseworthy in his eyes, and his
praise is an invaluable motivating force for
the children. The teacher's respect is the
secret of contact between the child and
school (p. 404) •
·-·
~=·~·--~~~~~~--~·~·
-·
~-··-~~·
~--·-~-~~-~-~----~~~~--
.. •
~w-~~~~~---~-··~-~
I
18
Lisonbee feels that teachers skilled in working with slow
learners should stick with these pupils, so that the pupils
have the benefit of experienced teachers.
Bingham (1970) describes a new science program which
emphasizes the positive interrelation of school and student
self-image.
Bingham {1970) feels that,
Perhaps most basic of all is that the teacher
arrange a success-oriented learning situation
in which a child's belief in himself, in his
self-image, escalates. This kind of situation
can be arranged by utilizing small group investigations and by providing a classroom atmosphere in which each child may operate responsibly in a self-directed way. In this
kind of situation, he will want to participate
in school, he will find his communication
skills increasing, and he will find his belief
in himself escalating (p. 529).
Much of the literature reviewed gave suggestions for
structuring classroom activities to increase student selfimage.
Another dimension mentioned was to structure
teacher activities to increase student self-image.
Citron
and Barnes (1970) found that a positive relationship exists
between supportive teacher dialogue and students• total
achievement in biology.
exemplified by, " . • •
Supportive teacher dialogue was
(1) accepting feelings {2) praising
or encouraging {3) accepting or using ideas of students (4)
asking questions (p. 10) ."
Use of this type of positive
'verbal interraction by a teacher of a biology class for
slow learners resulted "in increased ability to solve biology problems (p. 12) ."
Rosenthal and Jacobson reached this
conclusion also in their study concerning teacher expecta-
19
tions for the disadvantaged.
Strasser ( 1971) suggests that the following "SelfImage Goals for Science Education" could be reached by the
culturally different pupil.
1,
I can identify some problemsof my own to
work on.
2.
I can generate some of my own theories
about why things happen and am able to
test out these theories.
3.
There are some things I know something
about.
4.
There are some problems or questions I
have identified which I cannot solve to my satisfaction - at this time.
Inquiry Science Courses and the Low Achiever
Metfessel (1965) concludes that youth from the culture
of poverty,
Are generally unaccustomed to "insight buildingh by external use of lectures and discussions at home.
Are frequently crippled in language development because they do not perceive of the concept that objects have names, and, indeed, that
the same object may have different names.
Learn less from what they hear than middle
class children.
Tend to have poor attention span and consequently great difficulty in following the
orders of a teacher (p. 1-2).
These conclusions seem to indicate that the lecture, formal
discussion, and teacher-directed experiments of tradition-
20
ally taught science classes might not provide a successful
learning environment for minority group students.
Clarke {1972) found that inner city, suburban, and
rural school children in grades five through eight are
interested to the same degree in physical, biological, and
physiological questions.
However, children from the three
groups seem to learn in completely different ways.
Spe-
cifically, the inner city child must use language skills
other than reading.
"These include speaking, reporting,
listening, observing, and note-taking (Malkin, 1964, p.
157) ."
Also, these students must be given much opportunity
to handle materials and equipment.
''This is especially
true for the culturally deprived child since he seems to
have greater achievement when tasks are motor-oriented
{Malkin, 1964, p. 161) • 11
The culturally deprived child
does observe physical events but, "he judges in terms of
perceptual data, of how things look to him, instead of performing logical operations on the data (Stendler, 1965,
p. 304)."
According to Piaget (1969) all children go through the
same developmental stages in the process of attaining mental maturity.
Culturally deprived children may take longer
to progress through these stages of development, and may
stop at a lower stage, than more advantaged children.
Many teachers seem to think the ideal pupil should absorb lectures attentively, read books to answer his quesLi::;!,gns LJ~_§_§Q-,_hi.e. __~hands qff the equipment, and
sounC!-_..3~ar~~--~~
21
when he opens his mouth!
This behavior simply does not
agree with researcherst findings about the behavior of culturally deprived pupils.
Vitrogan (1968) says,
One can discern certain personality traits
which are characteristic of the disadvantaged
child, namely, an impulsive, hyperactive individual, lacking both purpose and organization
in his behavior, exhibiting difficulty in delaying his immediate satisfactions for long
range goals, in conflict with authority both
in and out of school and rebellious (p. 618).
Inquiry, or discovery oriented science courses, which
emphasize student manipulation of science apparatus and rnaterials, appears to have great potential as a method of
providing disadvantaged students with a strong background
in science.
Sund and Trowbridge {1967} describe inquiry
learning as follows:
"The inquiry, or discovery method
I
stresses student-centered rather than teacher-centered cla,
instruction {p. v) ."
Many educators agree that student-
centered instruction adds interest to a science class, increases student self-concept, and helps give the student
some feeling of control in what he is doing.
And Coleman
(1966} has shown that, "Of all the variables measured • • •
the attitudes of student interest in school,
self~concept,
and sense of environment control show the strongest relation to achievement (p. 21} ."
II
Baillie (1969) argues that
• involving the learner in a variety of 'discovery'
activities provides practice in the investigative procedures that are characteristic of science (p. 705) ."
Fish and Goldmark (1966) describe other characteristiG
22
of inguiry techniques in science teaching: hospitable
class environment fostering student responses; multi-sensery student activities undertaken to allow students to discover science facts for themselves; encouragement for
students to structure discreet facts that they've discovered into general laws.
These characteristics seem ideally
suited to meet the needs of the slow learner.
Brandwein
(]958) says,
Slow learners must structure, must see relationships, must apprehend, must build mental
models in order to understand and appreciate
a concept. And no one can do this for them.
It is the work of the teacher to guide, to
encourage, to lead the special student along
a learning pathway on which he structures for
himself (p. 3).
All authors whose work on inquiry teaching was reviewed agreed on the importance of physical manipulation
of laboratory equipment by students.
Bingham (]970),
Brandwein (]958), and Lisenbee (]965) insist, however, tha
for inner city or slow learners the laboratory experience
should be structured.
Romey (]968) says that a well-
designed, structured activity should include the following
].
Pose a problem.
2.
Suggest a procedure for gathering data.
{Procedure may be specified in great detail or only generally discussed) .
3.
Allow the student time to gather the data
in the way prescribed.
4.
Require the student to organize his data
in both tabular and graphical form whenever
possible.
5.
Require the student to answer a series of
questions about his data.
23
6.
Require the student to generalize on
the basis of his data and to be prepared
to defend his generalizations in front
of the class (p. 23).
An activity organized according to Romey's specifications is called a structured, discovery laboratory exercise.
Romey feels that the inquiry technique, when used
with fast or average students, does not require so structured an approach.
Discovery oriented, compensatory science programs for
minority students have shown excellent results.
In Bing-
ham's (1970) DISCUS program each activity includes brief
introductory materials, a list of the materials to be used,
a diagram of the apparatus, and questions to be answered
and discussed.
In the summary of the program's accomplish-
ments, the authors concluded that a preferential treatment
of educationally disadvantaged students in success-oriented
classes does improve their attitudes toward school and
school personnel, and that, without this sort of atmospher
the students would drop out of school.
Bingham (1970) con-
eludes that,
The evidence is clear that involvement in
small group meaningful laboratory activities
in which the students generate data, communicate about the data, and use the data in developing concepts does enable educationally
disadvantaged underachievers to continue to
develop in school (p. 542).
In one science program for disadvantaged youth it was
found that eighth grade children who were classified as
non-literate because they had reading scores below the
24
fourth_ grade level could achieve under controlled positive
conditions.
The science class presented "problems which
were challenging and required a level of skill and understanding of children with normal achievement at the eighth
grade {Vitrogan, 1968, p. 621) ."
The children demonstrated their ability to
work with concrete science materials in a
meaningful way. They showed that they were
capable of abstract reasoning in applying
these science concepts which they discovered
experimentally to new situations (Vitrogan,
1968, p. 621).
Students• success in the task-oriented laboratory si
ation motivated these same students to improve their reading ability.
Also, the childrens' vocabularies grew as
they realized that they needed new words to describe their
new experiences and new knowledge.
Vitrogan concludes that,
The methods that evolved and which were found
to be effective in terms of learning experiences with these disturbed children may be
characterized as structured discovery approaches
which relied on inductive procedures and the
use of the process of inquiry.
Thus these children, in response to a challenge,
learned meaningful science concepts which they
were able to apply to new situations. Their
attitudes and approach to these learnings in
science, when they were given the indication
that they could learn, were found to be similar to the advantaged child at the same grade
1 eve 1 {p • 6 2 3 ) •
An inquiry science program which emphasizes success,
and in which the student is able to manipulate and work
with a variety of science apparatus and materials, appears
25
disadvantaged student.
Successful realization of short
term goals in the structured, discovery-oriented laboratory
exercise seems to increase positive attitudes toward school
and self.
I
L.~·--·~~-~--~-~-~---~~-----~---
Chapter III
Procedures and Presentation of Results
Description of Measuring Instruments
"Understanding science" includes an understanding cbou
the scientific enterprise, about scientists, and about the
methods and aims of science.
The instrument entitled Test
On Understanding Science_JTOUS) was designed to measure st dent understanding in these three basic areas of science.
The authors of TOUS maintain that an understanding of
the scientific enterprise and scientists could be described in terms of
d~finite
components drawn from the his-
tory and philosophy of science, and from the work and biographies
of scientists.
three basic areaso
The components are grouped into
Each of the three basic areas encompass
es the understanding of several themes.
Understanding abo
the scientific enterprise includes the following themes:
human elements in science; communication among scientists;
scientific societies; instruments; money; international
character of science; interaction of science and society.
Understanding about scientists includes the following them s:
generalizations about scientists as people; institutional
pressures on scientists; abilities needed by scientists.
Understandings about the methods and aims of science includes
the following themes: generalities about scientific
26
27
r
imethods; tactics and strategy of sciencing; theories and
models; aims of science; accumulation and falsification;
controversies in science; science and technology; unity and
interdependence of the sciences (TOUS Manual, 1961, p. 2).
Multiple-choice items were constructed to test understanding of the ideas contained in the various themes.
Each item was examined for validity, appropriateness, and
clarity, and when necessary, items were revised or
ated.
elimin~
The authors of TOUS then constructed a sixty item,
four-alternative, multiple-choice test.
After additional
item analyses, and validation using test results from
over 3000 students, form W of TOUS was developed.
was the form used in this study.
form
w,
Form W
The reliability of TOUS,
was determined by applying the Kuder-Richardson
Formula 20 to the test data from 2535 students.
ability of the test is 0.76.
ment is 3.49.
The reli-
The standard error of measur
Further information regarding TOUS can be
found in the TOUS Manual.
TOUS was employed in this study
because it is one of few available standardized tests which
measure understanding science.
Selection of Schools and Students
Of the four inner city, public high schools asked to
participate in this study, two agreed to do so.
Non-
academic, Modern Science students who participated in this
study were randomly selected from the population consisting
of all eleventh grade Modern Science students enrolled in
28
the two schools.
subjects:
The following method was used to select
At each school a meeting of all Modern Science
teachers was held.
At this meeting teachers wrote the name
of each eleventh grade Modern Science student on a piece of
paper, and all papers were placed in a container.
Names
were randomly drawn from the container until the following
sample was obtained at each school:
four Anglo males; four
Anglo females; four Mexican-American males; four MexicanAmerican females; four Black males; and four Black females.
A total of forty-eight students participated in the study.
Testing Prbcedur·es
The Test On Understanding Science was administered and
scored by the investigator.
The actual testing was carried
out in the following manner:
Subjects were excused from
their assigned class to accompany the investigator to a
quiet, suitably furnished, and amply large room.
sheets and test booklets were handed out.
Answer
Directions for
administering the test, which appear in the test Manual,
were followed explicitly.
Most students had no difficulty
finishing within the alloted forty-minute time limit.
Con-
sistent, comfortable environmental conditions were maintained at all testing sessions.
The greatest number of
students tested at any one time was twelve.
All testing
was carried out before noon, on the assumption that studen
would be most alert then.
29
Design
Coleman (1966), Greene (1965), and Hernandez (1969)
agree that a student's score on a test which he must read,
especially if he is a minority student in a timed test situation, is a function of his reading ability.
Since TOUS
must be read, it was assumed in this study that reading
skill and mean score on TOUS would be positively related.
lt was assumed that a student's score on TOUS was directly
related to two factors:
{1) the student's understanding of
Con~
science; and {2) the student's ability to read TOUS.
sequently an analysis of covariance was used to statistically control for individual differences in reading level.
The reading test scores used were the raw scores
earned by each subject on the California Test of Basic
Skills (CTBS), form Q4.
It is the practice in the Los
Angeles City School District to administer CTBS to tenthgraders in all city schools sometime during the second
month of school.
Thus, all subjects were given the same
reading test during the same month, regardless of which of
the two schools they attended.
CTBS scores were obtained
from inspection of each subject's cumulative school record.
The computer program BMD03V Analysis of Covariance for
Factorial Design (Dixon, 1970), was used in the analysis of
data.
Variates were student scores on
were student scores on CTBS.
A
~;
covariates
three~by-two-by-two
ial analysis of covariance design \'las employed.
~~~~~-~-'1.11 ~__c;goup.
There were three levels;
factor-
Factor one
Anglo,~-~~ ------~-~~
30
Mexican-American, and Black.
were two levels:
schools.
ma~e
and
Factor two was sex.
female~
There were two levels:
There
Factor three was
school one and school two
Presentation o·f Re·sults
The results of the Analysis of Covariance are presented in Table 1.
1.
The three hypotheses tested were:
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science {TOUS) of non-academic Anglo,
Mexican-American, and Black students.
2.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science {TOUS) of non-academic, male
minority group students and non-academic,
female minority group students.
3.
There is no significant difference between mean scores on the Test On Understanding Science {TOUS) of the two schools.
~]
·-Table ]
~actorial
Analysis of Covariance:
Source
ss
df
Culture
·:aTable
35
5.37
.36a
] . 54
] . 54
• Job
0.26
0.26
.O]Sc
5]6.5]
]4.76
Value:
F
0.05 (2,35)
bTable Value:
c
Table Value:
F
0.05 (] '35)
0.05 (] '35)
F
F;
]0.74
2
School
Within
MS
TOUS
=
=
=
3.28
4.] 2
4.] 2
- Examination of Table ] reveals that the F-value for
adjusted means on TOUS for culture groups was not sig nificant at the 0.05 level.
jected.
Thus, hypothesis one was not re-
When covariance adjustments were made for varia-
tion in reading level, there was no significant difference
between the mean TOUS scores of non-academic Anglo, Mexican
American, and Black students.
Examination of Table ] reveals that the F-value for
adjusted means on TOUS for sexes was not significant at the
0.05 level.
Thus, hypothesis two was not rejected.
When
covariance adjustments were made for variation in reading
level, there was no significant difference between the mean
TOUS scores of non-academic, male minority group students
and non-academic, female minority group students.
32
Examination of Table 1 reveals that the F-value for
adjusted means on TOUS for schools was not significant at
the 0.05 level.
Thus, hypothesis three was not rejected.
When covariance adjustments were made for variation in
rea~
ing level, there was no significant difference between the
mean TOUS scores of students in the two inner city schools.
The results presented in this chapter showed that when
variation in reading level was controlled by covariance
ad~
justments, there was no significant difference in TOUS mean
scores between culture groups, between sexes, or between
schools.
The grand mean on TOUS for all eleventh grade subjects
(N=48) participating in this study was 20.35.
There is no
explicit information in the TOUS Manual concerning the specific characteristics of the norming
grou~whose
mean on
TOUS was 31.57, except that they are, "probably representative of senior high students who are just beginning a coum
in biology, chemistry, or physics (TOUS Manual, 1961, p.
11) ."
Chemistry and physics are taken almost exclusively
by academic students, that is, students preparing for college.
The norming group students would be expected to at-
tain a higher mean score on TOUS than the non-academic students tested for this study.
That expectation is fulfilled
by the data gathered in this study.
Chapter IV
Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate
whether inner city, non-academic Anglo, Mexican-American,
and Black students differ in their understanding of science
as measured by the Test On Understanding Science (TOUS) .
Three hypotheses were tested:
1.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science of non-academic Anglo, MexicanAmerican, and Black students.
2.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science of male minority group students
and female minority group students.
3.
There is no significant difference between
mean scores on the Test On Understanding
Science of the two schools.
When variation in reading skill was statistically controlled through analysis of covariance, none of the three
hypotheses was rejected.
No significant difference in un-
derstanding science was found between culture groups, sexesj
or schools.
33
34
Discussion
Several limitations in this study may have influenced
the outcome of this study and the generalizability of the
results.
group.
The sample size was small (N=l6) for each culture
Therefore, it is possible that differences between
the groups in understanding science may exist but were not
detected in this study because,
When group comparisons are made and when the
Ns are relatively small, the null hypothesis
is apt to be accepted too often for the simple reason that a real difference has to be
sizeable before it is demonstrated by small
samples (McNemar, 1969, p. 96).
Another limitation which may have affected the findings of this study is the very restricted geographic area
from which tested students were drawn.
Although Leinwand
(1966) says that discrimination against Blacks is not confined to the geographic area of the southern United States
but exists all over the country, Hernandez (1969) reports
that discrimination against Mexican-Americans is most preva
lent in specified geographic areas, which includes California.
In areas where discrimination is highest, minority
students' self-concept is likely to be lowest.
Virtually
every author cited in this paper makes note of the interrelationship of student self-concept and scholastic performance.
Thus, it would seem that minority students'
scholastic performance on TOUS may vary between geographical areas.
Hernandez (1969) reports that complete disenchantment
1
c~~~~--c----~~~-----~-~-~~~----c•J
35
with school and the school system is common among inner
city Mexican-American youth by tenth grade, and many of
these youngsters drop out of school in tenth grade.
Lein-
wand (1966) reports similarly when he points out that a
fifty percent drop-out rate during high school is not
uncommon among inner city Negro youth,
But the subjects
tested in this study are students who have remained in
school, and are, thus, somewhat self-selected candidates
for inclusion in the study's sample.
This is one of
several reasons why this study could not purport to represent the performance of all non-academic Anglo, MexicanAmerican, or Black students who are the proper age to be
in eleventh grade, or who are, indeed, in eleventh grade.
It should be emphasized that the disadvantaged, inner city,
minority students who participated in this study are a dis
tinct population, and their scores do not necessarily re<
fleet the abilities of minority students in every geograph"'":
ic location and financial position.
Since the two schools participating in this study met
the same requirements for inner city designation, it is
not surprising that there was no significant difference in
their mean scores on TOUS.
However, it was unexpected to
find no significant difference in mean TOUS scores of nonacademic inner city male and female students.
Science
teachers generally agree that the average male high school
student's performance exceeds that of female high school
l~~,udents in ~~ien~.~~lkin~ (1965~~ an~_.vitrogan ~19682~.~~·~
36
have noted the disadvantaged male student's typically
antagonistic attitude toward school and teachers.
This is
a moot point, but perhaps female minority students' compliance enhances their ability to learn, and, thus, score
as well on TOUS as male students, who would ordinarily
score higher.
Both objective and subjective observations made by
the author suggest that TOUS may have been an unsuitable
instrument to measure science understanding of inner city
students.
The TOUS Manual is very general in its descrip-
tion of the group TOUS was intended for and the group from
which norms were obtained.
It states only that,
The tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade students included in that (norming) sample are
probably representative of senior high school
students who are just beginning a course in
biology, chemistry, or physics (TOUS Manual,
]96], p. ]]).
-In basic skills, such as reading and arithmatic, Los
Angeles City Schools rate pupils on a one through nine
scale (Stanine Scale).
grade level.
A score of five is average for
If a student included in this study earned
a Stanine five on his CTBS reading test, it is assumed he
is reading at the eleventh grade level.
ing stanine of Anglo subjects whose
~
The average readscores were in-
cluded in this study was 2.94; the average reading stanine
of Mexican-American subjects was 2.75; the average reading
stanine of Black subjects was ] .44.
It is evident that
these students' reading ability is considerably below nor-
37
mal for eleventh grade.
The Dale-Chall Formula for
Pre~
dieting Readability was applied to two randomly selected
pages of the ten pages of TOUS.
This formula, which is
based on two counts--average sentence length and percentage of unfamiliar
words~-established
college graduate reading level.
TOUS as having above
The TOUS average raw
score using the Dale-Chall Formula was 11•90:
a raw score
of 10.0 and above is considered a reading level in excess
of sixteenth grade level (Dale and Chall, 1948).
By Dale-
Chall analysis, TOUS sentence length is not above eleventh
grade level; however, the TOUS vocabulary is far above
eleventh grade level.
Bingham (1970) and Metfessel (1965)
I
I
point out that limited vocabulary is characteristic of disl
advantaged youth.
TOUS thus discriminates against inner
city students because vocabulary is one of their least developed language skills.
These considerations indicate
that the reading level of TOUS was too high for the sample
included in this study.
The experimenter has certain subjective observations
about the suitability of TOUS as a measuring instrument for
use with inner city students.
At the time of testing,
students made remarks such as, "Do you really want us to
take this test?
Don't you know we're the dummies?"
Stu-
dents indicated by these and various other comments that
they were overwhelmed by the vocabulary and ideas in TOUS.
Many students had never heard of the professions mentioned
in the questions contained in TOUS.
For example, many
38
students asked what a geologist (TOUS test, question 56)
or a botanist (TOUS test, question 26) is when they handed
in their answer sheets.
When the experimenter defined each
word and explained the nature of the profession, the students seemed surprised that anyone would want to do that
particular job.
The students seemed to have a prevailing negative
attitude about tests and being tested.
Taking a test as
difficult as TOUS seemed to add to their general demoralized state, and the experimenter had the distinct feeling
that, in some cases, students were guessing at the test
answers,
On the sixty item, multiple-choice, four alter-
native TOUS test, if correct answers were randomly distributed, random guessing would result in fifteen "correct"
answers per test on the average.
The grand mean on TOUS
for students in this study was 20.35, not much greater than
15.00.
Recommendations
This study brought out important aspects of the problems of teaching and testing minority, inner city children.
The substantial difference between mean test scores of the
norm group students and the disadvantaged students who par
ticipated in this study illustrates the need to improve
educational opportunities in science for disadvantaged
students,
The norm group, whose mean TOUS score was 31.57,
consisted of, " • • • approximately 3,000 students in 108
39
high schools throughout the country (TOUS Manual, ]96],
p. 7) • 11
The TOUS Manual does not indicate that this group
was in any way extraordinary or special, but rather implies that the norming group consisted of average ability
students.
The sample of students tested for this study was
admittedly unigue, since it was drawn from a population of
inner city, non-academic students.
The lower mean scores
of this group indicate that improved educational opportunities are needed in science.
These might consist of multi-
media, inquiry-type science curricula recommended by many
specialists in compensatory education.
The ethnic balance at the two inner city schools participating in this study elicits a recommendation concerning minority teachers.
School one enrolled 3% Anglo, 80%
Mexican-American, 2% Black, and ]5% Oriental-American students in the ]97]-]972 academic year:
School two enrolled
]8% Anglo, 56% Mexican-American, 24% Black, and 2% Oriental
Americans {Dr. Owen Knox, personal communication, July ]4,
]972).
According to the above figures, most Modern Scienre
enrollees in these two schools are minority students.
How-
ever, most Modern Science instructors at the same schools
are not minority persons.
To be exact, the combined
sci~
ence faculty at these two schools includes no MexicanAmerican teachers, and only one Black teacher.
Thus all
except one science teacher in the two science departments
of the inner city schools used in this study are Anglos.
40
It was demonstrated in Bingham's (1970) and also in
Vitrogan's (1969) compensatory science program than an
Anglo teacher who is well informed about the Black and
Mexican-American cultures can relate well and act as an ef
fective teacher with minority students.
However, Metfesse
(1965) has shown that youth from the culture of poverty
need responsible, personally effective, well educated
adults of their own culture group to identify with and use
as models.
The presence of many minority teachers in
racially mixed, inner city schools could do much to increase the self-image of minority pupils by providing them
with competent figures of authority with whom to identify.
Coleman (1966) and others have cited the direct relationship between scholastic performance and self-image.
The
author, therefore, strongly recommends recruitment of
qualified minority teachers for positions at schools where
the self-image of minority students seems low.
Although science teachers agree on the desirability o
measuring students• understanding of science, TOUS is one
of few standardized tests available for this purpose.
Mos
recently developed curricula in science such as BSCS biology, CHEJ').1S chemistry, IPS physical science, Harvard Project Physics, and PSSC physics stress understanding about
the scientific enterprise and about the methods and aims
of science.
The dual needs of testing inner city students
on understanding science processes, and doing so with a
l~~~e(i~~~ci::~!r~ment_~hici:_ does not exceed their reading
-~
-
~~~~-~---~~-~-~~~~~~--·~--~~·~~-~~~-~~--~--=~
j
41
level, points to the need to develop new measuring instruments for this purpose.
REFERENCES
!Anderson, H. o. Readings in science education for the
j
secondary school. New York: McMillan, 1969.
Arag6n, J. Culture, Conflict, and Counselors. American
Personnel and Guidance. Oct. 1971. Cited by u. H.
Palomares in speech titled The Psychology of the
Mexican American delivered before Cal. State University, Northridge workshop titled Perspectives on the
Education of the Mexican American, June 23, 1972.
!Baillie, J. H. Laboratory experiences for disadvantaged
j
youth in the middle school. School Science and
'
Mathematics, 1971, LXX {7), 704-707.
I
1
1
1
1
1
Bingham, N. E., Cronin, c. R., & Paulk L. DISCUS, a demon-i
stration of an improved science curriculum for underachieving students. School Science and Mathematics, I
1970' LXX (6) , 527-542.
I
I
Brandwein, P. F. One plan for teaching the science shy.
Harbrace Teachers Notebook: Science #1. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1958.
I Brazziel,
W. F., & Terrell, M. An experiment in the development of readiness in a culturally disadvantaged
group of first-grade children. Journal of Negro
Education, 1962, XXXI, 598-603.
!
i
;
II
I
I
textbook selection and the Dale-Challl
Science and Mathematics, 1965, LXV
I
Brunner, J. s. The Process of Education.
Harvard University Press, 1961.
California Test of Basic Skills Manual.
orn1a: McGraw-H1ll, 1968.
Cambridge:
I
I
Monterey, Calif-
Citron, I. M., & Barnes, c. w. The search for more .effective methods of teaching high-school biology to slow
1
1
learners through interaction analysis. Journal of
,
Research in Science Teaching, 1970, 7(1), 9-28.
:
1
I
-
----
!clarke, c. 0. A determination of commonalities of science
I
interests held by intermediate grade children in inne
city, surburban and rural schools. Science Education,
1972' 56, 29-34 •
42
43
Coleman, J. s. Equality of Educational Opportunity.
United States Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1966.
Conant, J. B.
1961.
Slums and Suburbs.
New York:
McGraw-Hill,
Cuban, L. Ethnic content and 'White' instruction.
Delta Kappan, 1972, LIII (5) , 270-27 3.
I
!
Phi
Dale, E., & Chall, J. S. A formula for predicting readability: Instructions. Educational Research Bulletin, 1948, XXVII, 11.-20.
Educational Policies Commission of the National Education
Association. Education and the Disadvantaged American, 1962. Washington, D. C.: National Education
Association.
Elkins, D. Instructional guidelines for teachers of the
,
disadvantaged. The Record-Teachers College, 1969, 10 I
-I
J.1l.r 593-615.
!
Fish, A., & Goldmark, B. Inquiry method: Three interpretations. In w. D. Romey (Ed.), Inquiry Techniques
for teaching science. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Ginzberg, E. The reform of urban schools: Illusion or
reality? Speech delivered at Columbia University
chapter of Phi Delta Kappa, Nov. 1970.
Greene, M. F. The Schoolchildren.
House, 1965.
New York:
Hernandez, L. F. A Forgotten American.
League of B~nai B?rith, 1969
Random
Anti-Defamation
Introductory Physical Science Group.
Science. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Hall, 1967.
Landers, J., & Mercurio, c.
Improving curriculum and instruction for the disadvantaged minorities. In
Secondary Education. R. Hahn, & D. Bidna (eds.),
~N~e~w~Y~o-r~k-:~~M~a--c-m~i~1~1--an, 1970, 312-314.
Leinwand, G. {Ed). The Negro in the City.
Washington Square Press, 1966,
New York:
Lisenbee, L. Teaching science to the slow learner.
Science and Mathematics, 1965, LXV {I), 39-46.
L_.--~-
I
I
I
School!
I
~-·---.1
44
Malkin, S. The culturally deprived child and science. In
Readings in Science Education for the Elementary
School. E. Victor, & M. S. Lerner (eds.), New York:
Macmillan, 1967, 157-162.
1
I
McNemar, Q. Psychological Statistics.
York: Wiley, 1969.
{4th ed.)
New
Metfessel, N. s. An Investigation of Attitudinal and
I
Creativity Factors Related to Achieving and Nonachiev~
ing Culturally Disadvantaged Youth. Unpublished manu!
script, Bureau of Educational Research, University of 1
Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles
1
90007, Report Number CRP-2615, August, 1965.
!
I
National Science Teachers Association. School Science Edu~
cation for the 70's. Report presented to National
Science Teachers Association Board of Directors, July I
1971.
I
i
Owens, A. 0. Selecting science textbooks. In Readings in
Science Education for the Secondary School. H. 0.
Andersen {ed.), New York: Macmillan, 1969, 252-256.
Palomares, u. H. The
Speech delivered
sity, Northridge
Education of the
Psychology of the Mexican American.
before the California State UniverWorkshop titled Perspectives on the
Mexican American, July 23, 1972.
I
I
1
_,,1
1
1
1
Passow, A. H. Diminishing teacher prejudice. In Secondar~
Education. R. Hahn, & D. Bidna {eds.), New York:
I
Macmillan, 1970, 314-322.
i
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. The Psychology of the Child.
New York: Basic Books, 1969.
!!
1
I
Riessman, F. The Culturally Deprived Child, New York:
Harper & Row, 1962.
\
Roberts, W. 0. Science, a wellspring of our discontent.
The American Scholar, 1967, 36 (2), 246-260.
Romey, W. D. Inquiry Techniques for Teaching Science.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Russell, D. Handbook on Research on Teaching.
Rand McNally, 1967.
Chicago:
I
I
I
Schwab, J. J. Inquiry, the science teacher, and the educa+
tor. The Science Teacher, 1960, 27 {6), 6-11.
~
. Sexton, P.
!
1961.
L---·----------
Education and Income.
New York:
!
Viking Presst
----·--- ___ j
I
45
Stendler, C. B. Piaget's developmental theory of learning
and its implications for instruction in science. In
Readings in Science Education for the Elementary
School. E. Victor, & M. s. Lerner {eds.), New York:
Macmillan, 1967, 334-345.
Strasser, B. B. Self-image goals for science education.
The Science Teacher, 1971, 38 {5), 48.
Sund, R. B., & Trowbridge, L. w. Teaching Science by
Inquiry. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merill, 1967.
Test On Understanding Science Manual.
tional Testing Service, 1961.
Princeton:
Educa-
I
I Vitrogan, D.
,
l
1
Scientific literacy and the socially disadvantaged youth--A laboratory--demonstration project.
Paper presented to National Science Teachers Association, Washington, D. C., March 1968.
I Zacharius, J.
Innovation and experiment in education.
Panel on Educational Research and Development.
Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing
Office, 1964.
I!
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I!
!!
I
!
L_ _ .
I
________ _j