CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE BASIC MOUNTAINEERING: 11 A TEACHING GUIDE A graduate project submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Recreation and Leisure Studies by Paul Arnold ~llweg June 1980 The Graduate Project of Paul Arnold Hellweg is approved: California State University, Northridge ii DEDICATION This graduate project is dedicated to Mr. &Mrs. Robert D. Hellweg iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the many friends and co 11 eagues who cant ri buted to this graduate project. To begin with, the members of my Graduate Committee -- Talmage W. Morash, George E. Welton, and John J. Bullaro -- provided valuable support and guidance. their assistance, I thus wish to acknowledge Also of great value to me was the technical expertise provided by Mr. Sid Mountain. Much of this project is an attempt to formalize the rock climbing teaching techniques pioneered by Mr. Mountain. Three of the accompanying slides were taken by Jack Roberts (Slide Set I, slides 1, 8, and 10). All other slides are by myself, but they were taken with the assistance of the following persons: Steve Reichlin, John Anderson, Don Fisher, Gail Jarvis, Jay Sanzo, Cindy Lee, Colleen Rooney, Eleanor Bianchi, Annie Larson, Scott Bullock, Dave Lime, and Pat Witt. The slide sets would not have been possible without their assistance. Finally, special thanks to Kathy Seacord for her editorial and secretarial assistance, and to my parents for their love and support. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v Abstract vi Introduction 1 Course Outline 5 List of Class Equipment 6 Lesson Plans 7 Narrative, Set I 44 Narrative, Set II 57 Bibliography 69 v ABSTRACT BASIC MOUNTAINEERING A TEACHING GUIDE by Paul Arnold Hellweg Master of Science in Recreation and Leisure Studies This project provides a complete set of lesson plans and training aids for the teaching of a university-level course in Basic Mountaineering. The justification for this project is that it facilitates the teaching process for a qualified mountaineering instructor who lacks the organizational skills of the professional educator. Central to this project are two slide sets with accompanying narratives. The slides present the fundamentals of climbing in a concise, visual, easy-to-understand fonnat. Subject matter starts with basics and then proceeds to more advanced techniques. The slides thus present an overview of the entire semester and should be used as introductory lectures. vi In addition to the slide sets, this project provides an entire set of lesson plans for the teaching of a semester long course. The lesson plans provide guidance for the instructor by describing the equipment required, the safety considerations, and the behavioral objectives for each class. For classroom sessions, the lesson plans provide a detailed outline of contents. For field sessions, each lesson plan not only describes the type of activity to be conducted but also gives criteria for selecting an appropriate climbing route. The lesson plans and accompanying slides form the heart of this project, but some additional materials are provided. the following: These include an introduction, a sample course outline, a list of all required equipment, and a bibliography. In summary, this project provides complete background material for the teaching of Basic Mountaineering. vii INTRODUCTION The purpose of this project is to compile, in a logically ordered format, all the material necessary to teach a universitylevel class in Basic Mountaineering. the following minimum requirements: The class instructor must meet ability to lead climbs sub- stantially harder than anything the class will be attempting; demonstrated outdoor leadership experience; demonstrated mature judgment; demonstrated safety consciousness; and, knowledge of advanced first-aid procedures. Preferably, the instructor should also have university teaching experience. It may not be possible, however, to find a qualified instructor with both the requisite climbing experience and teaching experience. justification for this project. Therein lies the The intent is to facilitate the instructional process for an otherwise qualified instructor who lacks the organizational skills of the teaching professional. To this end, complete lesson plans and training aids have been provided for the teaching of an entire semester length course. This project presupposes a Basic Mountaineering Class of 15 weeks (one academic semester), meeting once weekly for a period of two or more hours, and conducted at a university with a readily accessible climbing area. If no climbing area is available locally, 1 2 the same lesson plans are nonetheless applicable. The only change is that the weekly two hour climbing sessions would have to be combined into one or more weekend climbing periods. HOW TO USE THIS PROJECT The new instructor should first become familiar with the lesson plans in order to gain an understanding of how the class is structured. Next, the slides and accompanying narrative should be thoroughly studied before presentation. Once all course materials have been reviewed, the instructor should determine which portions are applicable to the specific situation. It is not intended that the instructor adhere strictly to the materials provided -- available time, weather, climbing facilities, instructor•s prerogative and related variables are likely to effect the structuring of any course. It is intended, however, that the accompanying materials provide the new instructor with understanding(s) of an appropriate approach to the teaching of mountaineering. The lesson plans emphasize attention to detail and safety consciousness throughout. Addition- ally, the lesson plans are presented in a manner such that they provide a gradient approach to the teaching of mountaineering. The gradient approach to teaching high risk activities has proven successful at California State University, Northridge, where it has been employed for the past fourteen years. The concept behind gradient education is that students be gradually exposed to new material and that each installment is a logical outgrowth of 3 material already presented. This approach to teaching is particularly applicable to outdoor education because it appears to minimize the stresses associated with high risk activities. It is thus recommended that students learn all climbing fundamentals, including rappel and belay techniques, in the classroom before venturing onto rock. It is further recommended that the initial climbing session emphasize mastery of fundamentals and that practice be done on a boulder with minimal exposure (student•s feet no more than six feet off the ground). Follow-up climbing sessions should only gradually increase in difficulty. Students should practice both 5th class climbing and rappel techniques on short routes (about 20 feet) before venturing onto routes with increased exposure. If the entire course is conducted in this gradient manner, the instructor will find that virtually all students are capable of overcoming their fears and will successfully complete climbing problems of moderate difficulty. TEACHING METHODOLOGY The new instructor is invited to review the two books on teaching methods recommended in the accompanying bibliography. The first, Freedom to Learn, discusses techniques for making instruction more meaningful and significant to the student. The second, To Nurture Humaneness, discusses the role of humaneness in education. This book would seem particularly appropriate for. a class in Basic Mountaineering -- a class which by its very nature emphasizes close jt······ 4 personal contact between instructor and students. BIBLIOGRAPHY A selected bibliography has been provided for the instructor. In addition to the two books recommended above, the bi"bliography includes reference works on mountaineering and related topics. The new instructor should pay particular attention to the references on mountaineering first aid procedures. 5 COURSE OUTLINE BASIC MOUNTAINEERING WEEK # LESSON 1. Administrative Requirements (Classroom) 2. Fundamentals of Climbing (Slides) & Equipment (Both in classroom) 3. Climbing Techniques (Slides) &Basic Knots (Both in classroom) 4. Proper Belay Techniques & Rappel Technique (Both in classroom) 5. Climbing Fundamentals (Field) 6. 3rd and 4th Class Scrambling (Field) 7. Beginning Rappeling (Field) 8. Beginning 5th Class Climbing (Field) 9. Chimney Climbing (Field) 10. Intermediate Rappeling (Field) 11. Intermediate 5th Class Climbing (Field) 12. Field Evaluation Day (Field) 13. Route Finding & Cross-Country Travel (Classroom) 14. Review (Classroom) 15. Written Final (Classroom) TEXTBOOK: Robbins, Royal. Basic Rockcraft, La Siesta Press, $2.95 EVALUATION: Field Evaluations: 50% Written Fin a1: 50% ~ . 6 CLASS CLIMBING EQUIPMENT Reference is made in the lesson plans to use of a complete set of class climbing gear. The following is the minimum amount of gear required to teach a class of 25 students. 4 11mm climbing ropes, kernmantle, 150 ft. 5 Climbing helmets 25 Body slings, 111 webbing, 9 ft. lengths 25 Prussik loops, goldline, 4 ft. lengths (also used for practice knot tying) 12 Carabiners, locking 24 Carabiners, non-locking 6 Runners, 1 11 webbing, 12 ft. lengths 6 Leaders, 111 webbing, 20 ft. 1engths 1 Expedition quality first-aid kit 7 LESSON PLANS 8 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 1 TIME REQUIRED: 1-2 hours UNIT: Administrative Requirements TYPE OF UNIT: Lecture EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Activity Releases Course Outlines SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should leave with a clear understanding of what will be expected of them during the semester. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Hand out course outline and discuss with students. Insure that each student understands the course requirements. 2. Briefly discuss safety considerations pertinent to the climbing session. Pass out activity releases and have each student complete one. 3. Take roll, add new students, etc. 9 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 2-A TIME REQUIRED: 1 hour UNIT: Climbing Fundamentals TYPE OF UNIT: Lecture EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Slide Projector Slide Set #1 Narrative #1 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be ab 1e to describe the fo 11 owing fundamenta 1s: climbing classifications, belaying, proper use of legs, balance/ friction, slab climbing, three point rule, and basic hand and foot holds. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: Note: Instructor should familiarize himself with narrati.ve before class so that presentation may be conducted without reading. The sequence of slides is exactly geared to narration. Slide lecture is intended to last 30-35 minutes, thereby leaving time for introduction beforehand, and question/answer 10 CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS CONTINUED: period afterwards. SLIDE # CONTENT 1 Introduction: Climb with extreme exposure 2 Introduction: Climb with minimal exposure 3 Classifications: Class I 4 Classifications: Class II 5 Classifications: Class III 6 Classifications: Class IV 7 Classifications: Class V 8 Classifications: Class VI 9 Belaying: The Belayer 10 Belaying: Leader placing protection 11 Belaying: Top-roped climb 12 Equipment: A quick overview 13 Equipment: All that is needed to get started 14 Proper Use of Legs: Legs stronger than arms 15 Proper Use of Legs: Resting on legs 16 Balance Wrong 17 Balance Correct 18 Balance -- Wrong 19 Balance -- Correct 20 Slab Climbing --Wrong 21 Slab Climbing -- Correct 22 Three Point Rule 11 CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS CONTINUED: SLIDE # CONTENT 23 Three Point Rule -- Wrong 24 Three Point Rule -- Wrong 25 Three Point Rule -- Correct 26 Footholds: Toeing 27 Footholds: Edging 28 Footholds: Sloping 29 Footholds: Incorrect use of knees 30 Footholds: Lifting foot instead of knee 31 Footholds: Can stand on foot, not knee 32 Basic Handholds 33 Fingernail hold 34 Cling hold 35 11 36 Pinch hold 37 Downpressure hold 38 Anyone can climb ... 39 If he has a belayer Thank God 11 hold 12 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 2-B TIME REQUIRED: 1 hour UNIT: Equipment TYPE OF UNIT: Lecture EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Samples of shoes, boots, ropes, webbing, carabiners, and a helmet. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to identify major items of climbing gear, describe their characteristics, and know their function. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: I. Shoes A. Any snug fitting tennis shoe, sneaker, or jogging shoe is adequate B. Kletterschuhes: soft rubber soles for improved friction 1. Smooth soles: 2. Lug soles: intended for sandstone intended for 11 gritty 11 or wet rock, also superior for direct-aid climbing 13 EQUIPMENT CONTINUED: C. Climbing Boots: heavier and narrower sole than hiking boots 1. Superior for climbing expeditions which imvolve foot travel 2. Superior for direct-aid 3, Inadequate for narrow jam cracks 4. Necessary for cold weather and high altitude climbing " II. Clothing A. Proper clothing is function of weather conditions B. Long pants prevent cuts and scrapes (should be loose fitttng) III. C. Bare midriffs susceptible to rope burns- D. Scarves required to keep long hair safely tucked away Climbing Ropes A. Natural fiber ropes (manila, sisal, etc.) are unsafe B. Nylon ropes are elastic and will better absorb forces of a fa 11 C. Kernmantle (llmm- Average 6,000 lb. strength) 1. Core and sheath construction: thousands of nylon fibers run the length of the rope and are protected by an outer sheath 2. Favored for long climbs because smooth exteriors generate less friction (when pulled through carabiners, etc.) 14 EQUIPMENT CONTINUED: 3. Superior coiling and handling characteristics 4. Bright colors make them easier to tell apart when more than one rope is utilized D. Goldline (7/16 1. 11 - Average 5,000 lb. strength) Twisted construction: three main strands tightly twisted around each other 2. Major advantage is less expensive (approximately 1/2 price of kernmantle) E. Care of the climbing rope 1. Inspect before and after each use 2. Never step on a climbing rope 3. Do not store a rope where it will be exposed to sunlight 4. Do not allow a rope to come in contact with petroleum products 5. Do not abuse the climbing rope 6. Store the rope properly in a clean cool place out of the sun, coiled loosely, and all knots removed IV. Nylon Webbing A. 1 Tubular most common {approximately 4,000 lb. strength) B. Uses 11 1. Swami belt: a long piece tied around the waist five or six times 2. Runners: 9 to 20 foot lengths, used for anchors 15 EQUIPMENT CONTINUED: 3. Body slings: 9 foot lengths used for tying ndiapern harness 4. Etriers: short webbing ladders C. Water knot traditionally used to tie webbing D. Sewn webbing is stronger than tied: knots reduce strength, sewing (where done properly) does not V. Carabiners A. nsafety pinn - like devices used to clip elements of the climbing chain together B. Aluminum carabiners rated to average of 3500 lb. strength C. Three general styles 1. Oval: least expensive and most popular, used for most climbing purposes, superior for carabiner brake rappels 2. non: stronger than ovals, used on hard leader climbs 3. Locking: special purpose carabiner used whenever greater security is desired, most expensive VI. Helmets A. Protects falling climber, also protects from falling rock B. Must have suspension system which keeps hard outer shell off of wearer's head C. nyn strap design superior to single chin strap D. Straps should be of non-stretchable nylon; elastic straps poor 16 EQUIPMENT CONTINUED: E. Buckles or 11 011 ring fasteners superior to snaps (which can come unsnapped) V1I. Found Equipment: Climbing gear found abandoned must never be used A. Nylon deteriorates in sunlight and heat B. Metal objects subject to impact stress hardening if dropped 17 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 3-A TIME REQUIRED: 1 hour UNIT: Climbing Techniques TYPE OF UNIT: Lecture EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Slide Projector Slide Set #2 Narrative #2 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to describe the following techniques: mantleshelving, counterforce, crack jamming, chimney stemming, and rappeling. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: Note: Instructor should familiarize himself with narrative before class so that presentation may be conducted without reading. narration. The sequence of slides is exactly geared to the Slide lecture is intended to last 30-35 minutes, thereby leaving time for introduction and question/answer period. 18 CLIMBING TECHNIQUES CONTINUED: SLIDE # CONTENT 1 Introduction 2-11 Mantleshelving 12-13 Counterforce 14 Layback 15-22 Crack jamming 23-30 Chimney technique: 31-33 Downclimbing 34-42 Rappe ling squeeze and stemming 19 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 3-B TIME REQUIRED: 1 hour UNIT: Knots TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Practical Exercise EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: All climbing ropes All prussik loops SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A (No climbing involved) BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to tie the five basic climbing knots which wi 11 be used in the class: bowline-on-a-coil, figure of eight, double fisherman's, prussik, bowline. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Distribute the goldline prussik loops, one to each class member. Lay out the climbing ropes such that each end is free for knot tying. 2. Demonstrate the tying of each knot. Proceed in a slow manner, such that students can follow with their individual ropes. Explain the use of each knot: 20 KNOTS CONTINUED: Bowline-on-a-coil: For climber tie-in Figure of Eight: Places loop in rope for person or for tie-in, also used in establishing rappel anchor Double Fisherman's: Ties two ropes together Prussik: Used for self-belay Bowline: Places loop in rope, commonly used for anchoring rope to tree or boulder. 3. Repeat each knot until class thoroughly familiar. Supervise closely to insure everyone is tying knots correctly. 21 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 4-A TIME REQUIRED: 1 hour UNIT: Belay Technique TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Practical Exercise EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Complete class set of climbing equipment SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A (No climbing involved) BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate the correct procedure for setting up and conducting a belay. They should further be able to demonstrate a complete knowledge of belaying terminology. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select an outside area near classroom. Area should have trees, bike racks, or related features suitable to serve as anchor points. 2. Uncoil and lay out the four climbing ropes. Loop a separate piece of webbing around anchor for each rope, and clip in with a locking carabiner (much in the same manner as establishing a top-roped belay). 3. Direct a student to tie into one end of each rope, utilizing 22 BELAY TECHNIQUE CONTINUED: the bowline-on-a-coil knot. 4. Demonstrate proper belaying technique, emphasizing that the belayer must never remove the braking hand from the rope (not even momentarily). 5~ Discuss the role of correct belaying terminology: Climber: 6. Be layer: 11 0n belayr 11 Belay on 11 11 Climbing 11 11 Cl imb 11 11 Slack 11 Give slack 11 Up rope 11 Take in rope 11 0ff belay 11 11 Belay Off 11 Allow each student opportunity to practice role of both climber and belayer, in both up and downclimbing situations. Supervise closely for safe procedure and correct use of tenninology. 23 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 4-B TIME REQUIRED: 1 hour UNIT: Rappel Technique TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Practical Exercise EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Complete set of class equipment SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A (No climbing involved) BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Each student should be able to demonstrate correct procedure for arranging the Yosemite carabiner brake rappel system. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Use same outside area employed in lesson 4-A (Belay Technique). 2. Using same anchors, attach the middle of each doubled rope to the anchoring carabiner (locking) with a figure of eight knot. 3. Explain procedure to class. Demonstrate the tying of a diaper seat harness. Have class follow with their own body slings. 4. Demonstrate Yosemite carabiner brake rappel system, explaining its advantages over other systems (reliable, 24 RAPPEL TECHNIQUE CONTINUED: safe, no extra gear required). 5. Demonstrate self-belay with a prussik knot. 6. Demonstrate a simulated rappel, emphasizing correct feet and body position and proper use of braking arm. 7. Allow each class member to practice a simulated rappel. Supervise closely for correct procedure. 25 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 5 TIME REQUIRED: 2 hours UNIT: Fundamentals of Climbing TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: None SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: All climbing to be done close to the ground (student•s feet never more than six feet off the ground), therefore, no belay is required. Class must be trained in spotting techniques and a minimum of two spotters provided for each student actually climbing. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate mastery of the following climbing fundamentals: proper use of hands and feet, proper balance, and knowledge of three point rule. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select a practice boulder with an absolute minimum of exposure. At least one side should have a gently sloping face for practice of friction and balance techniques. 26 FUNDAMENTALS OF CLIMBING CONTINUED: 2. Instructor demonstrates and thoroughly explains all climbing fundamentals: proper balance, toeing vs. edging, necessity of taking short moves, three point rule, and basic handholds. 3. Allow each student opportunity to practice fundamental techniques to the point of total familiarity. students to spot each other. Train Closely supervise to insure that each climber has a minimum of two spotters. 27 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 6 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: 3rd & 4th Class Scrambling TYPE OF UNIT: Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Helmets; llmm rope SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: Climbers and belayers both must wear helmets. All climbers, even on 3rd class, must be belayed. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate the ability to apply climbing fundamentals to actual climbing situations. Additionally, each participant should learn how to set up and conduct a belay using no gear other than the climbing rope. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select a moderately long (50-60 feet) 3rd or 4th class route. 2. Demonstrate the method of setting up a belay using rope only. Required knots: bowline (for anchor), figure eight (for belayer tie-in), and bowline-on-a-coil (for climber tie-in). 3. Allow each student opportunity to both climb the route and to belay another student (under close supervision). 28 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 7 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: Beginning Rappel TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Complete set of class equipment SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: All rappelers must wear helmets and be on belay. Instructor must supervise closely to insure that every individual has correct hook-up before descending. Instructor must closely supervise each stage of the descent -- watching for correct balance, placement of feet, and overall safety consciousness. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate proper rappel technique, including: anchoring, harness and carabiner arrangement, body position, and belay. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select beginning rappel site. Criteria for selection: about 20-30 feet rappeling distance (free of overhangs or other obstructions), safe and easy access to top, and absolutely secure anchor. 29 BEGINNING RAPPEL CONTINUED: 2. Demonstrate Yosemite carabiner rappel hook-up. 3. Demonstrate rappel, emphasizing the following points: correct body position and foot placement, correct use of brake hand, proper dialogue with belayer. 4. Allow each class member opportunity to rappel at least once. above. Supervise closely for safety considerations outlined 30 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 8 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: Beginning 5th Class Climb TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to establish top-roped belay. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: Top-roped belay required (bowline-on-a-coil tie-in), helmets required for both belayer and climbers. instructor or trusted assistant. Belayer should be Close supervision required throughout. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to apply climbing fundamentals to easy 5th class climbing situation. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select easy 5th class climb (about 5.1-5.3). selection: Criteria for short length (about 20-30 feet), all or part of climb should involve crack of 3-4 inch width, easy and safe downclimb available, absolutely secure anchor for top-roped belay. 31 BEGINNING 5th CLASS CLIMB CONTINUED: 2. Establish top-roped belay, explaining procedure to class. 3. Demonstrate the correct hand, fist, and foot jams required to ascend the crack portion of the route. Emphasize necessity for short moves. 4. Allow each class member opportunity to climb. Supervise closely for correct hand and foot placements, balance, three point rule, etc. 32 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 9 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: Chimney Climbing TYPE OF UNIT: Demonstration - Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to set up belay anchor. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: Top belay required. Climber and belayer must wear helmets. Close supervision demanded throughout. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate the fundamentals of chimney technique. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select chimney climbing route. Criteria for selection: moderate length (about 15-20 feet), adequate width for stemming (about 3 feet), easy and safe downclimbing route, adequate site for top belay, absolutely secure belay anchor. 2. Establish top belay position, explaining procedure to class. 3. Demonstrate and explain the alternate hand and foot placements of correct stemming technique. 33 CHIMNEY CLIMBING CONTINUED: 4. Allow each class member opportunity to climb chimney at least once. Closely supervise for correct procedure and adherence to safety consciousness. 34 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 10 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: Intermediate Rappel TYPE OF UNIT: Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Complete class set of climbing equipment. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: All rappelers must wear helmets and be on belay. Instructor must supervise closely to insure that every individual has correct hook-up before descending. Instructor must closely supervise each stage of the descent watching for correct procedure throughout. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate proper rappel technique, including: anchoring, harness and carabiner arrangement, correct body position, and belay. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select the intermediate rappel site. Criteria for selection: moderate length (about 50-60 feet), free of overhangs or other hazards, safe and easy access to top, absolutely secure anchor. 35 INTERMEDIATE RAPPEL CONTINUED: 2. Set up belay and rappel, explaining each step to the class. 3. Demonstrate Yosemite carabiner-brake rappel hook-up. 4. Demonstrate rappel, emphasizing the following points: correct body position and foot placement, correct use of brake hand, proper dialogue with belayer, and proper procedure throughout. 5. Allow each class member opportunity to rappel at least once. Closely supervise for safety considerations outlined above. 36 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 11 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: Intermediate 5th Class Climb TYPE OF UNIT: Field Experience EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to establish top-roped belay. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: Top-roped belay required (bowline-on-a-coil tie-in), helmets required for both belayer and climbers. instructor or trusted assistant. Belayer should be Close supervision required throughout. BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to apply climbing fundamentals to a moderate 5th class climbing situation. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: 1. Select moderate 5th class route (about 5.5-5.6). for selection: Criteria moderate length (50-60 feet), easy and safe downclimb available, absolutely secure anchor required for top-roped belay. 37 INTERMEDIATE 5th CLASS CLIMB CONTINUED: 2. Establish top-roped belay, explaining procedure to class. 3. Allow each class member opportunity to climb. Supervise closely for correct procedures throughout and adherence to safety considerations. 38 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 12 TIME REQUIRED: 2+ hours UNIT: Field Evaluation Day TYPE OF UNIT: Field Experience EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED: Complete set of class equipment, minus helmets. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A (No actual climbing involved) BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate all the field techniques experienced in the class. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: Class participants will be evaluated on their abilities to perform five or more of the following tasks (randomly selected). Criteria for evaluation: 1. degree of mastery of each technique. Tie one or more of the following knots: figure eight, bowline, bowline-on-a-coil, prussik, or double fisherman's knot. 2. Coil a climbing rope. 3. Demonstrate and explain toeing vs. edging. 4. Demonstrate and explain proper balance. 39 FIELD EVALUATION DAY CONTINUED: 5. Demonstrate and explain the three point rule. 6. Demonstrate and explain counterforce. 7. Demonstrate and explain one or more of the following jams: hand, thumb, finger, fist, foot, or toe. 8. Demonstrate and explain one or more of the following handholds: pinch, cling, 11 thank god 11 , downpressure. 9. Demonstrate and explain the setting up of a belay anchor. 10. Demonstrate and explain the setting up of a rappel anchor. 11. Demonstrate and explain the diaper harness. 12. Demonstrate and explain the Yosemite carabiner brake rappel system. ~ ' 40 DAILY LESSON PLAN CLASS: WEEK: Basic Mountaineering 13 TIME REQUIRED: 2 hours UNIT: Cross-Country Travel & Routefinding TYPE OF UNIT: Lecture EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED: None SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: N/A BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES: Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge of how to apply the principles of Basic Mountaineering to cross-country travel situations. OUTLINE OF CONTENTS: I. Routefinding: A. Sources of Information Topographic Maps: Briefly describe the map and its contents, giving directions on where to go for map training. B. Guide Books: Briefly revie\'1 the Sierra Club Climbing Classification System used in most guides. C. Rangers, guides, and other professionals. 41 CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL & ROUTEFINDING CONTINUED: II. Mountain Terminology Applicable to Routefinding and Cross-Country Travel A. Col: saddle B. Ridge: C. Couloir: deeply shaded gullies filled with ice or snow D. Cirque: head of a mountain valley, rounded like end of spur or arm a football stadium E. Talus: sloping rockfall composed of boulders and other large fragments F. Scree: sloping rockfall composed of the smallest fragments G. Moraines: piles of sand and rock at the terminus of a glacier, or debris left behind by a receding glacier III. General Principles of Routefinding A. Ridges: freedom from rockfall and avalanches, but exposed to weather B. Couloirs: dangerous during daylight hours as debris melts loose and slides down C. Moraines: insecure, precarious equilibrium, should be avoided D. 11 Climb with the eyes 11 : look far ahead, planning routes. Look for ridges with lower than average inclination, cracks, ledges, chimneys or related routes. E. Tilted slabs best climbed from the upslab side 42 CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL & ROUTEFINDING CONTINUED: IV. Cross-Country Travel A. Brush 1. Avoid if possible, even if route is significantly lengthened 2. Stay high, sticking to ridges as possible 3. Seek game trails 4. May be possible to proceed up stream channel to avoid brush B. Talus and Scree 1. Proceed steadily: momentum is the best defense against a teetering rock 2. Avoid the fall line of climbers above and below 3. If possible, avoid volcanic talus and scree: rapid disintegration leaves even huge boulders delicately balanced C. Streams 1. Cross at widest point 2. Unfasten waist band of pack 3. Wear foot protection -- tennis shoes preferable to boots 4. Loose clothing increases drag from rapidly moving water 5. If water is not clear, probe ahead with a pole 6. Face upstream on crossing 43 CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL & ROUTEFINDING CONTINUED: 7. If water boils above the knee, it is dangerous a. Leader must be belayed b. Belay should be placed as far above crossing as possible c. Personnel should stand by bank at point where belay pendulum would end (they serve as rescuers should the leader need assistance) d. Leader establishes handline for security of rest of party e. Last member belayed from far shore 44 SLIDE NARRATIVES 45 NARRATIVE SLIDE SET I INTRODUCTION Basic Mountaineering is a sport of seemingly endless variety. Depending on the climber's interests and the rock available, the sport can be practiced barely inches off the ground or from heights so dizzying that even the birds are careful. Some good climbers practice rock gymnastics which require no special gear -- not even footwear. Others wouldn't dream of heading to the rock without hundreds of dollars worth of gear. Some people climb for a little exercise and outdoor fun, nothing more. Others pursue risk, adventure, and a chance to test their limits. The style of climbing you choose is wholly determined by your own desires and inclinations. CLIMBING CLASSIFICATIONS Because climbing does exist in such variety, classification systems have been devised to describe the difficulty of any climb. The most common classification system was developed by the Sierra Club. Under the Sierra Club system, climbs are divided into six separate classes: CLASS I: Walking upright; no special gear required. CLASS II: Scrambling over rocks; special footgear required. Hands needed for balance. 46 CLASS III: Scrambling over steeper rocks. techniques required. Proper climbing Rope should be available, but not usually required. CLASS IV: Situations where the climber is exposed to the danger of a severe fall. CLASS V: Rope is necessary. Difficult climbing up nearly vertical rock faces. Rope and technical climbing gear required. CLASS VI: Climbing on rock where foot and hand holds are inadequate to support the climber. Direct aid in the form of stirrups and related gear is required. BELAYING Belaying is a climbing term which has nautical origins. On sailing vessels, wooden pins (belays) were provided for lowering canvas sails. The friction produced by wrapping a rope around the belay pin made it possible to lower heavy sails by hand. ln a similar manner, a person holding a climbing rope {_the belayer) can use friction to stop the downward plunge of a falling climber. In practice situations, the climber is protected by a top roped belay, that is, the belay rope is anchored above the climber. In most mountaineering situations, however, it is not possible to toprope the climber. In these situations, the climber utilizes either pitons, chocks, or bolts to create his own anchor points as he climbs. The belay rope is essential to safe climbing. Under no circum- s.tances should anyone venture more than five or six feet off the ground without the security of a rope and belayer -- and this is 47 regardless of whether the climb is top-roped or the lead climber is placing his own protection. EQUIPMENT Mountaineering gear comes in a confusing variety of ropes, slings, pitons, carabiners, and related equipment. Technical expertise is required for the safe use of such equipment. The beginner, however, can get started with little more than a pair of old 11 tennies 11 • Snug fitting shoes are all that is needed to practice beginning techniques close to the ground. Proper clothing depends on the weather. Obviously different clothing is required for a Himalyan ascent than is seen on sunny California boulders. In general, though, clothing should be comfortably loose, but not baggy. Denims are superior to shorts because of the protection provided against scrapes and scratches. When the beginner is ready to venture more than a few feet off the ground, safety demands the addition of two items of equipment: the belay rope and a helmet. PROPER USE OF LEGS The first rule to learn is that climbing is done almost totally with the legs. Old-timers like to emphasize this principle by referring to that animal which is perhaps the best climber of all of nature's realm--the mountain goat. Obviously, the mountain goat makes little use of hands and arms for scrambling up and down the treacherous slopes of his rocky domain. Yet, despite the obviousness 48 of this principle, an embarrassingly large number of beginners harbor the misconception that rock climbers are muscle-bound gymnasts who pull themselves upwards by the sheer power of bulging biceps. And because of this misconception, many potential climbers shy away from their first mountaineering experience on the grounds that they are 11 not strong enough 11 • This is an unfortunate misunderstanding. In reality, anyone having the strength to climb stairs has the strength to be a rock climber. The reason for the importance of one's legs while climbing is actually quite simple. The muscles of the leg, particularly the hamstrings and quadriceps of the thigh, are much larger and correspondingly stronger than their equivalents in the arm. It is possible to lift oneself with the legs (as in climbing stairs) almost indefinitely if a moderate pace is set. In contrast, not too many climbers are likely to be capable of more than a dozen or so pull-ups. Even the most diehard and gnarled mountaineer cannot do many pull-ups as compared to the number of stairs a rank amateur can ascend. then, are the most important climbing appendages. The legs If you have trouble remembering, then keep in mind our woolly champion, the mountain goat. BALANCE AND FRICTION Two of the most important climbing fundamentals, proper balance and good friction, are best treated together since it takes the right balance to get the best friction. The importance of one's legs in climbing has already been discussed. Since most of the body's mass is moved by the legs, it stands to reason that most of one's weight 49 will be supported by the feet. Thus the key to climbing, or at least the key to not falling, is to keep one's feet firmly in contact with the rock. Foot placement would be of no concern if rocks came equipped with perfectly level ledges and footholds. such is not the case. But, of course, Footholds will frequently be slanted slabs, dished-out areas, or rounded protuberances. The friction of rubber soles adhering to the rock surface is the element which keeps the climber from slipping off these less-than-perfect holds. Friction is thus the essence of climbing and correct balance is the essence of friction. The more weight a climber has pushing his soles into the rock, the better will be the resultant friction. Correct balance involves keeping the body as nearly vertical as possible. In this manner, the climber's entire weight will be directly over his feet, and gravity works in the climber's favor by pressing his feet to the rock. The problem is that beginners tend to like the false sense of security derived from leaning in towards ( 11 hugging 11 ) the rock. Instead of providing real security, leaning in can make climbing precarious. If your weight is not directly over your feet, gravity works against you. The body will have a tendency to pivot on its center of gravity--as the head and torso are pressed to the rock, the feet will be pushed in the opposite direction (away from the rock). Need more be said? As is true of most important concepts, there is more to balance than might first be suspected. In addition to maximizing friction, 50 proper balance has two additional benefits. If the body is kept vertical, much of one•s weight will be supported by bone structure. And the more weight that is supported by bone, the less there is to be held by muscle power alone. Thus, correct balance greatly reduces muscle fatigue and goes a long way towards preventing what is known in climber•s jargon as 11 sewing machine leg 11 (exhausted and trembly legs). One final advantage of correct balance needs to be mentioned. A stable and vertical body position is the ideal base from which to make subsequent moves. If a climber is leaning close to the rock, his vision will be reduced to the point he may not be able to look ahead for his next holds. And an awkward, unstable position might easily be lost in the process of reaching for that next hold. Balance, in all its aspects, is as important to proper climbing as is good friction, and these are the skills which should be learned first. SLAB CLif~BING The term 11 Slab 11 refers to sloping rock which lies at an angle of about 45 degrees. If the rock lies at a much lower angle, no technique is required to walk across it. And if the slab lies at a much steeper angle, then it becomes a face and is climbed with the aid of hand and footholds. It is only that midrange of about 45 degrees where neither face climbing techniques nor simple walking are effective, that the climber enters the realm of a new category of techniques: slab climbing. 51 More likely than not, slabs will not offer usable hand or footholds, they must be climbed relying primarily on friction. This discussion of slab climbing will thus be closely related to the previous discussion of friction and balance. The traditional method for climbing slabs is for the climber to lean forward and press his palms flat to the rock, while maintaining his weight predominantly over his feet (bending at the ankle helps}. But only orangutans and their close cousins have the flexibility to keep both hands and feet flat on steep slabs. The climber must compromise somewhere-- usually by leaning forward too far and not keeping his weight properly over his feet. A superior method is to climb slabs in a switchback fashion rather than making a bee-line for the top. Only by so doing can the climber get consistently good foot placement. Remember, the key to proper friction is to keep the foot flat on the rock and to keep the body•s weight directly over the feet. If the toe is straight uphill, the climber will unconsciously lift his heel as he leans forward to place palms against the rock. Lifting the heel removes about half the sole from the rock and thus cuts friction in half. At the other extreme, if the foot is placed sideways on the rock (perpendicular to the slope}, then the foot will roll to the downhill side--this too greatly reduces friction. The ideal foot placement is halfway between these two extremes; that is, the toes should point off at about 45 degrees to the side of straight uphill. The easiest way to keep the toes pointed in the proper direction is simply to climb 52 in that direction. Thus it is easier to zigzag or switchback up a slope than to head straight for the top. The hand nearest the slope is held against the rock to help maintain proper balance. If any cling holds are available, then the hands can be put to greater use. The essence of good slab climbing is "style". In other words, good footwork, balance, and methodic movement are more important than strength or brute exertion. The climber should at all times keep a keen eye for cups or other small undulations which will provide optimum foot placement. Large steps should not be taken and all movements must be deliberate and methodical. The purpose of moving cautiously is to minimize the chances of any action having the unexpected reaction of sending oneself sliding winsomely down the slab. Remember, friction alone holds the climber to a steep slab. Once he breaks loose, the next stop is ground level. Unless, of course, the climber is roped--and roped he must be on any slab more than about 10 feet in height. THREE POINT RULE Whenever a climber is about to make a move, he should ideally be in a stable and balanced position in which both hands and both feet are secure. No great risk is thus encountered by moving one hand or one foot--three points of contact still remain. is the three point rule: This then try to never move more than one appendage at a time and keep three points of contact with the rock whenever possible. But a surprisingly large number of climbers, beginners and advanced alike, frequently violate this rule. For them, ths 53 urge is sometimes strong to move both a hand and a foot at the same time. This urge must be resisted. If you are in the habit of leaving yourself with only two points of contact, sooner or later a foot or hand is going to slip. The sole remaining point of contact will not be enough to hold your weight and a fall could easily result. fall would most likely not be injurious. risk? If properly belayed, such a But why take a needless Remember the three point rule, and move only one foot or one hand at a time, not both together. FOOTHOLDS As the legs are more important than the arms in climbing, the finding of good footholds is a matter of prime concern. New climbers typically have hopes and expectations for broad or level footholds. But if the principles of balance and friction are kept in mind, then some mighty tiny looking holds will be found to be perfectly serviceable (assuming, of course, that anything can be kept in mind while groping up the face of a cliff). Should a potential foothold look at all suspect, it must be tested before one's entire weight is entrusted to it. When a foothold is level and spacious, no special skill is required. But if the hold appears otherwise, then the following techniques should prove of value: TOEING vs. EDGING: Holds of very small width are best approached with the side of the foot, not the toes. If the toes alone are making contact, then the foot must be held level by muscle 54 power. This places strain on the calves and 11 sewing machine leg 11 can result. In contrast, if the edge of the foot is placed on the hold, leg muscles can relax and let the bones do most of the work. Which side of the foot is edged onto a hold will depend largely on the direction the climber is moving. The important point to remember is that either edge of the foot is generally superior to toes alone. SLOPING FOOTHOLDS: These will be encountered either as shallow depressions in vertical rock or in the form of uneven ledges of varying size. The intent is to get as much of the boot on the sloping surface consistent with maintaining proper balance. This can be done by planting the foot with the toe facing uphill and by bending at the ankle to keep the leg vertical. KNEES: When the next good foothold is almost waist high, it can be very tempting to use the knee rather than putting out the extra effort to bring up a foot. made. But that extra effort must be Knees are finicky creatures and they are readily subject to injury. A good way to injure the knee is to place it on a rough rocky hold and then place the body•s entire weight on it. Thus, the foot must be brought up if at all possible. Doing so will place one is a better position to continue climbing. If a foot has reached the hold, one can easily stand on it. But if the knee has been used, the climber might find himself stuck and unable to rise to his feet. HANDHOLDS The importance of good footholds has been emphasized, but this does not mean that handholds are to be taken lightly. The value of 55 the security afforded by a good handhold cannot be underrated. searching for handholds try not to overextend yourself. should ideally remain at or below eye level. When The hands The problems involved in reaching high for that 11 Special 11 handhold are two-fold. The higher you reach, the more your body will be drawn into the rock-and this adversely effects balance. Further, reaching high overhead leads to the temptation to rely on the arms in 11 muscling 11 up the rock, which, of course, can quickly lead to fatigue. In most situations, therefore, it is best to make short moves and use intermediate holds as much as possible. The types of holds encountered and the methods of using them are as follows: CLING HOLD: The classic handhold is a protuberance of rock which can be grasped firmly by the hand. As the name implies, the climber merely 11 Clings 11 to this type of hold. Cling holds come in an endless variety of shapes and sizes, and they are the most commonly sought hold. FINGERNAIL HOLD: If cling holds are encountered which are too small to be grasped securely, they can still be used as holds. 11 11 fingernail 11 The fingers are curled down and the tips of the fingers (or fingernails 11 ) are brought down upon the hold. If properly executed, the fingernail cling can allow the climber to effectively utilize some surprisingly minuscule holds. THANK GOD HOLD: A cling hold which slopes downward and inward affords the climber with the best of all possible grips. If such a 56 hold is encountered near the end of a hard climb or at any other time when the climber is becoming fatigued, then the name for the hold is self-explanatory. A student once reflected that a particular 11 Thank God 11 hold felt so good she was tempted to move in with bed and board. Such a feeling of security is quite natural; however, it can lead to trouble. The climber should not rest unless his/her feet are on secure footholds. When resting, the climber's weight must be supported by bone structure, not muscle. If a rest pause is taken at a 11 Thank God 11 hold, the natural tendency is to have the arms supporting too much weight. Fatigue can set in, and the climber can find himself in trouble. 11 Thank God 11 holds can in fact be godsends, but they must not be relied upon excessively. PINCH HOLDS: The pinch hold is a specialized form of grip utilized on protuberances which are overhanging, or otherwise positioned in an awkward manner that does not allow them to be gripped as cling or fingernail holds. The climber simply pinche~ the hold, and by so doing gains a bit of security. DOWNPRESSURE: S.loping ledges, dished out areas, and a few other formations which might not otherwise provide handholds can be utilized by pressing down upon them. The heel of the hand is placed on th.e hold and the climber pushes himself up somewhat in the manner of doing a one-arm pushup. Great strength is not required because the climber most likely will be pushing himself up with his feet at the same time. 57 NARRATIVE SLIDE SET II MANTLESHELVING Mantles are flat ledges or shelves, as is found on many fireplaces. They are usually encountered as the last move over the top of a climb. But they can also occur intermediately, as when a ledge is come upon part way up a climb. The technique known as mantle- shelving is the most commonly utilized means of putting oneself up and over these ledges. Mantleshelving can be anything from very easy to extremely difficult depending upon the peculiarities of the mantle involved. The easiest to master is the classic mantle--a flat ledge at about chest height. Flat mantles over one's head are more difficult, but are still reasonable for the beginner. Only when the mantle is sloping or overhanging, or the ledge quite narrow, does mantling move into the realm of the expert climber. The classic mantle is accomplished with the hands placed about a foot apart, palms flat on the ledge, fingers pointing towards each other. Push off with the feet and simultaneously lift up with the arms and shoulder muse l es (in the manner of doing a pushup) . Do not attempt to muscle up with arms alone--especially if the mantle is the last move of a tiring climb. In one fluid motion, raise the body until the arms are fully extended and the elbows lock. This position can be maintained as the locked bones of the arms will do most of the 58 supporting work and the arm muscles can relax somewhat. Now lean forward and slightly to one side and bring the opposite foot to the ledge (no knees, please). Try to place the foot flat and as close to the body as possible. With the help of a gentle pushoff from the fingertips, straighten the leg and stand up. is to doing the classic mantle. And that is all there The essence of the technique is in smoothness and continuity of motion. Great arm strength is not required as the initial upwards thrust is provided by both arms and legs lifting in unison. Flat mantles higher than the climber's head can be gained in a manner similar to the technique just described. The only difference is that proper use of the feet is increasingly important, and a smooth continuous action is essential for success. Grasp the mantle with both hands and walk the feet up until the ledge is about chest high. Then quickly and smoothly shift the hands to the palm down position, thrust off with the feet, and lift yourself up as in doing a classic mantle. COUNTERFORCE AND LAYBACKS When pronounced hand and footholds are lacking, the climber is frequently able to make use of a combination of opposed forces. An example of this principle has already been seen in the "pinch" handhold. The opposing forces of the thumb pushing in the direction opposite to the fingers provides the inward force which gives the climber security. climber. Opposing outward pressures can also aid the For example, if a crack is too wide to be sucessfully p ' 59 jammed with hand or fist, the climber can grasp the crack•s edges and pull against the rock in opposite directions. These counterforce techniques are strenuous, but they can be effective if used sparingly. One of the most useful variations of counterforce is the undercling hold. The climber grips the bottom of a flake or undercut ledge and attempts to 11 PU11 11 himself towards the flake. At the same time, he leans out from the rock by pushing .. with his feet. 11 The counter- force provided by this opposing pushing and pulling holds the climber in a secure position and gives him the opportunity to reach for his next hand or foothold. The classic form of counterforce is known as laybacking. This involves a combination of pushing and pulling forces similar to the undercling hold, but the climber is actually able to ascend by using a continuous combination of these opposed forces. done in three basic situations: Laybacking can be at a corner where two rock faces meet (if there is a crack between them), along any crack which has one side offset sufficiently to allow room for the climber•s feet; and finally, up a vertical flake. Laybacking is the most strenuous form of counterforce, and the beginner will have difficulty ascending more than a few feet. The hands grip the close edge of the flake or crack and pull the body in while the legs push out. hands. The leading foot is kept just below the If higher, the strain on the arms becomes too great. lower, the feet will not maintain a good grip on the rock. If One foot or hand is slid upwards at a time, and in this manner the climber 60 shuffles his way up the rock. The arms are kept extended as much as possible in order to transfer strain from muscle to bone. But there are limits to the amount of strain even the bones can hold, and the beginner would be wise to limit his laybacking to short cracks and flakes. CRACK JAMMING The stresses of expansion and contraction build up in rock until the strain is relieved by the rock's splitting. fissures are useful to climbers. Most of the resulting Horizontal cracks can be of assis- tance by providing opportunity for conventional hand and footholds. But of particular value are vertical cracks--these frequently provide the only route up an otherwise smooth face. Vertical cracks up to about a foot in width are climbed by jamming a portion of the body into them. chimneys. Wider cracks which admit the entire body are known as The techniques of chimney climbing are distinct from crack jamming, and thus will be considered separately. Fingers, hands, fists, arms and shoulders; also toes, feet, legs, and even knees have all been utilized in one or another form of jam. fits. The idea is to shove into the crack whichever of the above The selected body member is then flexed or twisted into a position in which pressure is applied outwards to both sides of the crack. Sufficient pressure must be exerted to allow the "jam" to hold the body's weight either partially or in full. The climber is then able to move upwards by repeating a sequence of jams. easiest jams to accomplish involve the hands and feet. The The others 61 are awkward and strenuous and can require considerable determination to master. The ideal vertical crack for climbing is about 2 to 4 inches in width. Most new climbers can scoot up these with unexpected agility because cracks of this width accept the easy hand and foot jams. The climber begins by jamming both hands and both feet into the crack, and then he ascends by moving up one hand or one foot at a time. These ideal cracks will vary somewhat in size, and climbers have their individualities too (both in build as well as temperament). Thus, use may be made of either the hand or fist jam, and similarly either the toe or foot jam. The proper application of each jam is outlined below: HAND JAM: A hand is inserted into the crack, and then expansion is obtained by tucking the thumb underneath the palm. A variation involves creating expansion with the fingers instead of just the thumb. The fingers are pressed hard against one side of the crack in such a manner that the knuckles press tightly against the other side. The expansion created by both variations of the hand jam create the outwards pressure needed to hold the hand securely in place. FIST JAM: A hand is inserted into the crack, and then the fingers are curled into a fist. The expansion thus obtained can provide good security, particularly if the fist is janmed into a "bottleneck". In other words, the fist should be jammed in a wide portion of the crack and pulled back or down into a narrower portton. 62 To remove the fist jam, simply uncurl the fingers and the hand will slide easily back and out. TOE JAM: The knee is lowered to the outside in order to allow the tip of the foot (or toes) to be inserted sideways into the crack. Then the knee is raised up, all the way up, until it is flush with the crack. This motion of raising the knee twists the toes tightly into the crack. The resulting jam is extremely secure and will support one's entire weight. stand very long on a toe jam. But it is a rare climber who wants to They can be quite painful, especially if one is wearing tennis or jogging shoes. In order to remove the toes, the knee has to be again dropped to the outside. Keep in mind that removal can be difficult if one is in the habit of taking large steps. Thus the key to proper crack climbing is to proceed steadily, but gradually, taking steps of about 8 to 12 inches. FOOT JAM: the toe jam. The foot jam is accomplished in a manner identical to It is used in wider cracks which will accept the better part of the climber's foot, not just his toes. Climbing becomes more difficult when cracks are too narrow to accept either hands or feet. Narrow cracks do provide some useful holds but they are best climbed in combination with conventional hand and footholds. In fact, it may not be possible to free climb narrow cracks if there are no other helping holds. The following techniques are useful in gaining some assistance from narrow cracks: 63 OPPOSITION HOLDS: Place the fingers of both hands in the crack and pull in opposite directions as if trying to pull the crack apart. The security thus provided cannot be maintained long since this is a strenuous and fatiguing FINGER JAM: they will go. tec~nique. Place two or more fingers into the crack as far as Then twist the entire hand to tightly wedge the fingers within the crack. This sounds rather rugged, but finger jams are actually both practical and simple. In addition to their use in narrow cracks, they can be effectively employed in old piton scars and similar small holes. TOE-TIP JAM: If one is wearing flexible-soled shoes (_climbing, tennis or jogging shoes), it should be possible to wedge the tip of the toes into a narrow crack. Lower the knee to the outside, slip the tip of the shoe in sideways, then bring the knee all the way up and back to the crack. The only difference between this and a true toe jam is that a bit more courage is required to trust the body's weight to toe-tips alone. If narrow cracks seem overly challenging, then it would be wise to steer altogether c1ear of wide cracks. For it is th.e wide cracks (_greater than 4 inches) which are most difficult of all. They are too wide to jam with hands or feet, and yet too narrow to squeeze the entire body inside. A variety of wide-crack techniques have been developed, but they are all of limited practicality. In the end, it is up to the climber and his wits to come up with a successful combi.nation of jams and wedges. Ingenuity is thus the most important 64 element in the struggle to prevail over wide and difficult cracks. Of the existing wide-crack techniques, the following are the most practical and are of the greatest use to the new climber: THUMB JAM: The thumb may be used to jam a crack slightly too large for a secure fist jam. Press the edge of the hand (opposite the thumb) firmly to one side of the crack, and wedge the uplifted thumb to the crack•s other wall. much of a pull. Do not trust a thumb jam to hold Even the best jam will provide only limited security and it should be used primarily as an aid to balance. HEEL/TOE JAM: There are two popular techniques for jamming the foot into wide cracks. The first involves wedging the entire foot end-to-end with the heel on one side of the crack and the toes crushed to the other side. A variation is useful in cracks which are not quite wide enough to accept the full length of the foot. force is exerted by ankles and legs, and the foot is the crack. 11 A twisting torqued 11 into That is, the heel is pressed inward to one wall while the toes are pressed outward to the other wall. FOOT/KNEE JAM: The twisting heel/toe jam may be improved by pressing the knee firmly against the rock. This gives added security by employing two jams simultaneously (heel/toe and foot/knee). CHIMNEY CLIMBING When a crack widens to the point the entire body fits inside, then the crack becomes known as a chimney. Squeeze chimneys just barely admit the climber; others are so wide that the climber has difficulty bridging the gap with his body. But whatever the width 65 of a particular chimney, the principle for climbing is the same: the climber stays in the chimney by pushing outwards against both walls. Upwards progress is then made by sequentially releasing and applying outward pressure with different portions of the body. (Hopefully the climber remembers not to release all outward pressure at the same time.) Squeeze chimneys provide a reassuring sense of security because the harder they are to squeeze into, the harder it is to fall back out. Progress, however, can be painstakingly slow. Both heel/toe and foot/knee jams (see preceding section) may be applied to help the ascent. Also, one's hands can be of particular value. Palms are pressed (fingers pointing down) to the front wall at about waist height. The climber can then inch his way upwards by using both arms and legs simultaneously. But if the chimney is too narrow to accom- modate these techniques, upwards motion can only be obtained by squirming. Then progress is truly slow. Headway is gained much more rapidly when the chimney opens a bit wider. Shoulders, back, buttocks, and feet are pressed to the back wall and the position maintained by pressing knees and hands to the front wall. Once again, the hands are used about waist high, palms against the rock, and fingers pointing down. The climber then advances inchworm fashion by lifting his torso while knees and feet remain jammed, Next the torso is jammed with pressure from the arms and hands, and the legs are raised. In a continuing sequence of these motions, the climber can raise himself with reasonable ease p ' 66 and speed. Slightly wider fissures can be climbed with even greater facility and the ideal chimney is one with a width of about three feet. These ideal chimneys are climbed by pressing the feet against alternate walls in a process known as 11 Stemming 11 • Chimney stemming appears awkward at first, but it can be executed smoothly and speedily once mastered. The stemming process is as follows: 1. Press against the front wall with the right foot raised about hip high. Also press against front wall with the left hand, 2. Raise the left foot up under the buttocks and pressing against the back wall. Also press against back wall with right hand. 3. Lift the body away from the rear wall by pushing off with the right hand. At the same time, raise the body by pushing up with both legs. 4. Reverse the positions of both hands and both feet. Bring the right hand forward first, then follow with the left foot pressed about hip high to the front wall. Next lift the right foot up under the buttocks, and finish by shifting left hand to the back wall. 5. Continue upwards motion by lifting the body off the rear wall (this time with the left hand), and stand up on the feet. 67 This stemming process can be repeated almost indefinitely. If the climber becomes fatigued, he can rest by placing both feet against the front wall and locking his legs. DOWNCLIMBING Down may be the opposite of up, but downclimbing is not really the opposite of upclimbing. In truth, the two are almost identical since all of the fundamentals apply equally to both. Proper balance, friction, hand and footholds, use of the legs, and so forth, are just as important to downclimbing as to any other aspect of climbing. The only real difference between the two (other than the obvious) is that it is more difficult to see where one is going when downclimbing. The reason for this should be obvious too: the head (and eyes) lead the way in climbing up, but are forced to follow in the rear when going the other direction. When climbing down gentle slopes, the climber should face downhill in order to best see the way ahead. for descending friction slabs. This is particularly true Here the climber not only faces downhill, but he also sits down, keeping feet and palms flat to the rock. Never descend friction slabs standing up lest too much momentum be acquired and the descent becomes uncontrolled. When the route becomes a bit steeper, the climber should face sideways to the rock. This still allows good downward vision, but offers improved balance and also allows the climber to make use of available handholds. When the route down is truly steep, the climber should face in ~ ' 68 towards the rock. Downclimbing now becomes quite difficult, but is frequently necessary as the only way to recover after a false start up an unclimbable route. The climber must now make maximum use of all available handholds. Good handholds allow the climber to lean out with safety and thus have a better opportunity to look down for his next holds. Downclimbing is not, of course, the only way off a mountain. In addition to jumping and hanggliding, there is rappelling. The term 11 rappelling 11 refers to a controlled slide down a climbing rope and is often the favored means of descent. 69 BIBLIOGRAPHY CLIMBING GUIDES: Aleith, R.C. Bergsteigen: Basic Rock Climbing. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975. Banks, Mike. Mountain Climbing for Beginners. Stein and Day, 1978. New York: New York: Ferber, Peggy (ed.). Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills (3rd edition). Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1975. Leonard, Richard M., et al. Belaying the Leader: An Omnibus On Climbing Safety. San Francisco: The Sierra Club, 1956. Lyman, Tom. Bouldering and Outcrop Climbing. The Stephen Greene Press, 1978. Brattleboro: Lyman, Tom and Riviere, Bill. The Field Book of Mountaineering and Rock Climbing. The Winchester Press, 1978. Mandolf, Henry I. (ed.). Basic Mountaineering. San Diego: The San Diego Chapter of the Sierra Club, 1961. Mendenhall, Ruth and John. Beginner's Guide to Rock and Mountain Climbing. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1975. Robbins, Royal. 1971. Basic Rockcraft. Advanced Rockcraft. Glendale: Glendale: La Siesta Press, La Siesta Press, 1973. Smith, Howard E., Jr. The Complete Beginner's Guide to Mountain Climbing. New York: Pocket Books, 1977. Wheelock, Walt. Ropes, Knots, and Slings for Climbers. La Siesta Press, 1967. Glendale INSTRUCTOR'S REFERENCE MATERIAL: Kiddlas, John. The Rock Climbing Teaching Guide. Washington, D.C.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 1979. 70 Schneider, Anne and Steven. The Climber's Sourcebook. York: Doubleday, 1976. New MOUNTAINEERING MEDICINE AND RESCUE: Macinnes, Hamish. International Mountain Rescue Handbook. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972. Wilkerson, James A. Medicine for Mountaineering. The Mountaineers, 1979. Seattle: TEACHING METHODOLOGY: Rogers, Carl R. Freedom to Learn. Columbus: Merrill Publishing Company, 1969. Charles E. Scobey, Mary-Margaret and Graham, Grace {eds.). To Nurture Humaneness. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, 1970.