CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING:
11
A TEACHING GUIDE
A graduate project submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Recreation and Leisure Studies
by
Paul Arnold
~llweg
June 1980
The Graduate Project of Paul Arnold Hellweg is approved:
California State University, Northridge
ii
DEDICATION
This graduate project is dedicated to
Mr. &Mrs. Robert D. Hellweg
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank the many friends and co 11 eagues who cant ri buted
to this graduate project.
To begin with, the members of my Graduate
Committee -- Talmage W. Morash, George E. Welton, and John J. Bullaro
-- provided valuable support and guidance.
their assistance,
I thus wish to acknowledge
Also of great value to me was the technical
expertise provided by Mr. Sid Mountain.
Much of this project is an
attempt to formalize the rock climbing teaching techniques pioneered
by Mr. Mountain.
Three of the accompanying slides were taken by Jack Roberts
(Slide Set I, slides 1, 8, and 10).
All other slides are by myself,
but they were taken with the assistance of the following persons:
Steve Reichlin, John Anderson, Don Fisher, Gail Jarvis, Jay Sanzo,
Cindy Lee, Colleen Rooney, Eleanor Bianchi, Annie Larson, Scott
Bullock, Dave Lime, and Pat Witt.
The slide sets would not have
been possible without their assistance.
Finally, special thanks to Kathy Seacord for her editorial and
secretarial assistance, and to my parents for their love and support.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
Table of Contents
v
Abstract
vi
Introduction
1
Course Outline
5
List of Class Equipment
6
Lesson Plans
7
Narrative, Set I
44
Narrative, Set II
57
Bibliography
69
v
ABSTRACT
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING
A TEACHING GUIDE
by
Paul Arnold Hellweg
Master of Science in Recreation and Leisure Studies
This project provides a complete set of lesson plans and training
aids for the teaching of a university-level course in Basic Mountaineering.
The justification for this project is that it facilitates
the teaching process for a qualified mountaineering instructor who
lacks the organizational skills of the professional educator.
Central to this project are two slide sets with accompanying
narratives.
The slides present the fundamentals of climbing in a
concise, visual, easy-to-understand fonnat.
Subject matter starts
with basics and then proceeds to more advanced techniques.
The
slides thus present an overview of the entire semester and should
be used as introductory lectures.
vi
In addition to the slide sets, this project provides an entire
set of lesson plans for the teaching of a semester long course.
The
lesson plans provide guidance for the instructor by describing the
equipment required, the safety considerations, and the behavioral
objectives for each class.
For classroom sessions, the lesson plans
provide a detailed outline of contents.
For field sessions, each
lesson plan not only describes the type of activity to be conducted
but also gives criteria for selecting an appropriate climbing route.
The lesson plans and accompanying slides form the heart of this
project, but some additional materials are provided.
the following:
These include
an introduction, a sample course outline, a list of
all required equipment, and a bibliography.
In summary, this project
provides complete background material for the teaching of Basic
Mountaineering.
vii
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this project is to compile, in a logically
ordered format, all the material necessary to teach a universitylevel class in Basic Mountaineering.
the following minimum requirements:
The class instructor must meet
ability to lead climbs sub-
stantially harder than anything the class will be attempting;
demonstrated outdoor leadership experience; demonstrated mature
judgment; demonstrated safety consciousness; and, knowledge of
advanced first-aid procedures.
Preferably, the instructor should
also have university teaching experience.
It may not be possible,
however, to find a qualified instructor with both the requisite
climbing experience and teaching experience.
justification for this project.
Therein lies the
The intent is to facilitate the
instructional process for an otherwise qualified instructor who
lacks the organizational skills of the teaching professional.
To
this end, complete lesson plans and training aids have been provided
for the teaching of an entire semester length course.
This project presupposes a Basic Mountaineering Class of 15
weeks (one academic semester), meeting once weekly for a period of
two or more hours, and conducted at a university with a readily
accessible climbing area.
If no climbing area is available locally,
1
2
the same lesson plans are nonetheless applicable.
The only change
is that the weekly two hour climbing sessions would have to be
combined into one or more weekend climbing periods.
HOW TO USE THIS PROJECT
The new instructor should first become familiar with the lesson
plans in order to gain an understanding of how the class is structured.
Next, the slides and accompanying narrative should be
thoroughly studied before presentation.
Once all course materials
have been reviewed, the instructor should determine which portions
are applicable to the specific situation.
It is not intended that
the instructor adhere strictly to the materials provided -- available
time, weather, climbing facilities, instructor•s prerogative and
related variables are likely to effect the structuring of any course.
It is intended, however, that the accompanying materials provide
the new instructor with understanding(s) of an appropriate approach
to the teaching of mountaineering.
The lesson plans emphasize
attention to detail and safety consciousness throughout.
Addition-
ally, the lesson plans are presented in a manner such that they
provide a gradient approach to the teaching of mountaineering.
The gradient approach to teaching high risk activities has
proven successful at California State University, Northridge, where
it has been employed for the past fourteen years.
The concept behind
gradient education is that students be gradually exposed to new
material and that each installment is a logical outgrowth of
3
material already presented.
This approach to teaching is particularly
applicable to outdoor education because it appears to minimize the
stresses associated with high risk activities.
It is thus recommended that students learn all climbing fundamentals, including rappel and belay techniques, in the classroom
before venturing onto rock.
It is further recommended that the
initial climbing session emphasize mastery of fundamentals and
that practice be done on a boulder with minimal exposure (student•s
feet no more than six feet off the ground).
Follow-up climbing sessions should only gradually increase in
difficulty.
Students should practice both 5th class climbing and
rappel techniques on short routes (about 20 feet) before venturing
onto routes with increased exposure.
If the entire course is
conducted in this gradient manner, the instructor will find that
virtually all students are capable of overcoming their fears and
will successfully complete climbing problems of moderate difficulty.
TEACHING METHODOLOGY
The new instructor is invited to review the two books on
teaching methods recommended in the accompanying bibliography.
The
first, Freedom to Learn, discusses techniques for making instruction
more meaningful and significant to the student.
The second, To
Nurture Humaneness, discusses the role of humaneness in education.
This book would seem particularly appropriate for. a class in Basic
Mountaineering -- a class which by its very nature emphasizes close
jt······
4
personal contact between instructor and students.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A selected bibliography has been provided for the instructor.
In addition to the two books recommended above, the bi"bliography
includes reference works on mountaineering and related topics.
The
new instructor should pay particular attention to the references on
mountaineering first aid procedures.
5
COURSE OUTLINE
BASIC MOUNTAINEERING
WEEK #
LESSON
1.
Administrative Requirements (Classroom)
2.
Fundamentals of Climbing (Slides) & Equipment (Both in classroom)
3.
Climbing Techniques (Slides) &Basic Knots (Both in classroom)
4.
Proper Belay Techniques & Rappel Technique (Both in classroom)
5.
Climbing Fundamentals (Field)
6.
3rd and 4th Class Scrambling (Field)
7.
Beginning Rappeling (Field)
8.
Beginning 5th Class Climbing (Field)
9.
Chimney Climbing (Field)
10.
Intermediate Rappeling (Field)
11.
Intermediate 5th Class Climbing (Field)
12.
Field Evaluation Day (Field)
13.
Route Finding & Cross-Country Travel (Classroom)
14.
Review (Classroom)
15.
Written Final (Classroom)
TEXTBOOK:
Robbins, Royal.
Basic Rockcraft, La Siesta Press, $2.95
EVALUATION:
Field Evaluations:
50%
Written Fin a1:
50%
~
.
6
CLASS CLIMBING EQUIPMENT
Reference is made in the lesson plans to use of a complete set of
class climbing gear.
The following is the minimum amount of gear
required to teach a class of 25 students.
4 11mm climbing ropes, kernmantle, 150 ft.
5 Climbing helmets
25 Body slings, 111 webbing, 9 ft. lengths
25 Prussik loops, goldline, 4 ft. lengths
(also used for practice knot tying)
12 Carabiners, locking
24 Carabiners, non-locking
6
Runners, 1 11 webbing, 12 ft. lengths
6
Leaders, 111 webbing, 20 ft. 1engths
1 Expedition quality first-aid kit
7
LESSON PLANS
8
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
1
TIME REQUIRED:
1-2 hours
UNIT:
Administrative Requirements
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Activity Releases
Course Outlines
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should leave with a clear understanding of what will
be expected of them during the semester.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Hand out course outline and discuss with students.
Insure
that each student understands the course requirements.
2.
Briefly discuss safety considerations pertinent to the
climbing session.
Pass out activity releases and have
each student complete one.
3.
Take roll, add new students, etc.
9
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
2-A
TIME REQUIRED:
1
hour
UNIT:
Climbing Fundamentals
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Slide Projector
Slide Set #1
Narrative #1
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be ab 1e to describe the fo 11 owing fundamenta 1s:
climbing classifications, belaying, proper use of legs, balance/
friction, slab climbing, three point rule, and basic hand and
foot holds.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
Note:
Instructor should familiarize himself with narrati.ve
before class so that presentation may be conducted without
reading.
The sequence of slides is exactly geared to narration.
Slide lecture is intended to last 30-35 minutes, thereby
leaving time for introduction beforehand, and question/answer
10
CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS CONTINUED:
period afterwards.
SLIDE #
CONTENT
1
Introduction:
Climb with extreme exposure
2
Introduction:
Climb with minimal exposure
3
Classifications:
Class I
4
Classifications:
Class II
5
Classifications:
Class III
6
Classifications:
Class IV
7
Classifications:
Class V
8
Classifications:
Class VI
9
Belaying:
The Belayer
10
Belaying:
Leader placing protection
11
Belaying: Top-roped climb
12
Equipment:
A quick overview
13
Equipment:
All that is needed to get started
14
Proper Use of Legs:
Legs stronger than arms
15
Proper Use of Legs:
Resting on legs
16
Balance
Wrong
17
Balance
Correct
18
Balance -- Wrong
19
Balance -- Correct
20
Slab Climbing --Wrong
21
Slab Climbing -- Correct
22
Three Point Rule
11
CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS CONTINUED:
SLIDE #
CONTENT
23
Three Point Rule -- Wrong
24
Three Point Rule -- Wrong
25
Three Point Rule -- Correct
26
Footholds:
Toeing
27
Footholds:
Edging
28
Footholds:
Sloping
29
Footholds:
Incorrect use of knees
30
Footholds:
Lifting foot instead of knee
31
Footholds:
Can stand on foot, not knee
32
Basic Handholds
33
Fingernail hold
34
Cling hold
35
11
36
Pinch hold
37
Downpressure hold
38
Anyone can climb ...
39
If he has a belayer
Thank God 11 hold
12
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
2-B
TIME REQUIRED:
1 hour
UNIT:
Equipment
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Samples of shoes, boots, ropes, webbing, carabiners, and a
helmet.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to identify major items of climbing
gear, describe their characteristics, and know their function.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
I.
Shoes
A.
Any snug fitting tennis shoe, sneaker, or jogging
shoe is adequate
B.
Kletterschuhes:
soft rubber soles for improved friction
1.
Smooth soles:
2.
Lug soles:
intended for sandstone
intended for 11 gritty 11 or wet rock, also
superior for direct-aid climbing
13
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
C.
Climbing Boots:
heavier and narrower sole than hiking
boots
1.
Superior for climbing expeditions which imvolve
foot travel
2.
Superior for direct-aid
3,
Inadequate for narrow jam cracks
4.
Necessary for cold weather and high altitude climbing
"
II.
Clothing
A.
Proper clothing is function of weather conditions
B.
Long pants prevent cuts and scrapes (should be loose
fitttng)
III.
C.
Bare midriffs susceptible to rope burns-
D.
Scarves required to keep long hair safely tucked away
Climbing Ropes
A.
Natural fiber ropes (manila, sisal, etc.) are unsafe
B.
Nylon ropes are elastic and will better absorb forces
of a fa 11
C.
Kernmantle (llmm- Average 6,000 lb. strength)
1.
Core and sheath construction:
thousands of nylon
fibers run the length of the rope and are protected
by an outer sheath
2.
Favored for long climbs because smooth exteriors
generate less friction (when pulled through
carabiners, etc.)
14
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
3.
Superior coiling and handling characteristics
4.
Bright colors make them easier to tell apart when
more than one rope is utilized
D.
Goldline (7/16
1.
11
-
Average 5,000 lb. strength)
Twisted construction:
three main strands tightly
twisted around each other
2.
Major advantage is less expensive (approximately
1/2 price of kernmantle)
E.
Care of the climbing rope
1.
Inspect before and after each use
2.
Never step on a climbing rope
3.
Do not store a rope where it will be exposed to
sunlight
4.
Do not allow a rope to come in contact with
petroleum products
5.
Do not abuse the climbing rope
6.
Store the rope properly in a clean cool place out
of the sun, coiled loosely, and all knots removed
IV.
Nylon Webbing
A.
1 Tubular most common {approximately 4,000 lb. strength)
B.
Uses
11
1.
Swami belt:
a long piece tied around the waist
five or six times
2.
Runners:
9 to 20 foot lengths, used for anchors
15
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
3.
Body slings:
9 foot lengths used for tying
ndiapern harness
4.
Etriers:
short webbing ladders
C.
Water knot traditionally used to tie webbing
D.
Sewn webbing is stronger than tied:
knots reduce
strength, sewing (where done properly) does not
V.
Carabiners
A.
nsafety pinn - like devices used to clip elements of
the climbing chain together
B.
Aluminum carabiners rated to average of 3500 lb. strength
C.
Three general styles
1.
Oval:
least expensive and most popular, used for
most climbing purposes, superior for carabiner brake
rappels
2.
non:
stronger than ovals, used on hard leader climbs
3.
Locking:
special purpose carabiner used whenever
greater security is desired, most expensive
VI.
Helmets
A.
Protects falling climber, also protects from falling rock
B.
Must have suspension system which keeps hard outer shell
off of wearer's head
C.
nyn strap design superior to single chin strap
D.
Straps should be of non-stretchable nylon; elastic
straps poor
16
EQUIPMENT CONTINUED:
E.
Buckles or 11 011 ring fasteners superior to snaps (which
can come unsnapped)
V1I.
Found Equipment:
Climbing gear found abandoned must never
be used
A.
Nylon deteriorates in sunlight and heat
B.
Metal objects subject to impact stress hardening if
dropped
17
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
3-A
TIME REQUIRED:
1 hour
UNIT:
Climbing Techniques
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Slide Projector
Slide Set #2
Narrative #2
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to describe the following techniques:
mantleshelving, counterforce, crack jamming, chimney stemming,
and rappeling.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
Note:
Instructor should familiarize himself with narrative
before class so that presentation may be conducted without
reading.
narration.
The sequence of slides is exactly geared to the
Slide lecture is intended to last 30-35 minutes,
thereby leaving time for introduction and question/answer period.
18
CLIMBING TECHNIQUES CONTINUED:
SLIDE #
CONTENT
1
Introduction
2-11
Mantleshelving
12-13
Counterforce
14
Layback
15-22
Crack jamming
23-30
Chimney technique:
31-33
Downclimbing
34-42
Rappe ling
squeeze and stemming
19
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
3-B
TIME REQUIRED:
1 hour
UNIT:
Knots
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Practical Exercise
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
All climbing ropes
All prussik loops
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A (No climbing involved)
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to tie the five basic climbing knots
which wi 11 be used in the class:
bowline-on-a-coil, figure of
eight, double fisherman's, prussik, bowline.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Distribute the goldline prussik loops, one to each class
member.
Lay out the climbing ropes such that each end is
free for knot tying.
2.
Demonstrate the tying of each knot.
Proceed in a slow
manner, such that students can follow with their individual
ropes.
Explain the use of each knot:
20
KNOTS CONTINUED:
Bowline-on-a-coil:
For climber tie-in
Figure of Eight:
Places loop in rope for person or
for tie-in, also used in establishing rappel anchor
Double Fisherman's: Ties two ropes together
Prussik:
Used for self-belay
Bowline:
Places loop in rope, commonly
used for anchoring rope to tree
or boulder.
3.
Repeat each knot until class thoroughly familiar.
Supervise
closely to insure everyone is tying knots correctly.
21
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
4-A
TIME REQUIRED:
1 hour
UNIT:
Belay Technique
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Practical Exercise
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete class set of climbing equipment
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A (No climbing involved)
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate the correct procedure for
setting up and conducting a belay.
They should further be able
to demonstrate a complete knowledge of belaying terminology.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select an outside area near classroom. Area should have
trees, bike racks, or related features suitable to serve
as anchor points.
2.
Uncoil and lay out the four climbing ropes.
Loop a separate
piece of webbing around anchor for each rope, and clip in
with a locking carabiner (much in the same manner as
establishing a top-roped belay).
3.
Direct a student to tie into one end of each rope, utilizing
22
BELAY TECHNIQUE CONTINUED:
the bowline-on-a-coil knot.
4.
Demonstrate proper belaying technique, emphasizing that the
belayer must never remove the braking hand from the rope
(not even momentarily).
5~
Discuss the role of correct belaying terminology:
Climber:
6.
Be layer:
11
0n belayr
11
Belay on 11
11
Climbing 11
11
Cl imb 11
11
Slack 11
Give slack
11
Up rope 11
Take in rope
11
0ff belay 11
11
Belay Off 11
Allow each student opportunity to practice role of both
climber and belayer, in both up and downclimbing situations.
Supervise closely for safe procedure and correct use of
tenninology.
23
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
4-B
TIME REQUIRED:
1 hour
UNIT:
Rappel Technique
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Practical Exercise
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete set of class equipment
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A (No climbing involved)
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Each student should be able to demonstrate correct procedure for
arranging the Yosemite carabiner brake rappel system.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Use same outside area employed in lesson 4-A (Belay
Technique).
2.
Using same anchors, attach the middle of each doubled rope
to the anchoring carabiner (locking) with a figure of eight
knot.
3.
Explain procedure to class.
Demonstrate the tying of a diaper seat harness.
Have class
follow with their own body slings.
4.
Demonstrate Yosemite carabiner brake rappel system,
explaining its advantages over other systems (reliable,
24
RAPPEL TECHNIQUE CONTINUED:
safe, no extra gear required).
5.
Demonstrate self-belay with a prussik knot.
6.
Demonstrate a simulated rappel, emphasizing correct feet
and body position and proper use of braking arm.
7.
Allow each class member to practice a simulated rappel.
Supervise closely for correct procedure.
25
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
5
TIME REQUIRED:
2 hours
UNIT:
Fundamentals of Climbing
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
None
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
All climbing to be done close to the ground (student•s feet
never more than six feet off the ground), therefore, no belay
is required.
Class must be trained in spotting techniques and
a minimum of two spotters provided for each student actually
climbing.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate mastery of the following
climbing fundamentals:
proper use of hands and feet, proper
balance, and knowledge of three point rule.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select a practice boulder with an absolute minimum of
exposure.
At least one side should have a gently sloping
face for practice of friction and balance techniques.
26
FUNDAMENTALS OF CLIMBING CONTINUED:
2.
Instructor demonstrates and thoroughly explains all climbing
fundamentals:
proper balance, toeing vs. edging, necessity
of taking short moves, three point rule, and basic handholds.
3.
Allow each student opportunity to practice fundamental
techniques to the point of total familiarity.
students to spot each other.
Train
Closely supervise to insure
that each climber has a minimum of two spotters.
27
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
6
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
3rd & 4th Class Scrambling
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets; llmm rope
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Climbers and belayers both must wear helmets.
All climbers,
even on 3rd class, must be belayed.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate the ability to apply
climbing fundamentals to actual climbing situations.
Additionally, each participant should learn how to set up and
conduct a belay using no gear other than the climbing rope.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select a moderately long (50-60 feet) 3rd or 4th class route.
2.
Demonstrate the method of setting up a belay using rope only.
Required knots:
bowline (for anchor), figure eight (for
belayer tie-in), and bowline-on-a-coil (for climber tie-in).
3.
Allow each student opportunity to both climb the route and
to belay another student (under close supervision).
28
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
7
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
Beginning Rappel
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete set of class equipment
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
All rappelers must wear helmets and be on belay.
Instructor
must supervise closely to insure that every individual has
correct hook-up before descending.
Instructor must closely
supervise each stage of the descent -- watching for correct
balance, placement of feet, and overall safety consciousness.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate proper rappel technique,
including:
anchoring, harness and carabiner arrangement, body
position, and belay.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select beginning rappel site.
Criteria for selection:
about 20-30 feet rappeling distance (free of overhangs or
other obstructions), safe and easy access to top, and
absolutely secure anchor.
29
BEGINNING RAPPEL CONTINUED:
2.
Demonstrate Yosemite carabiner rappel hook-up.
3.
Demonstrate rappel, emphasizing the following points:
correct body position and foot placement, correct use of
brake hand, proper dialogue with belayer.
4.
Allow each class member opportunity to rappel at least
once.
above.
Supervise closely for safety considerations outlined
30
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
8
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
Beginning 5th Class Climb
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to
establish top-roped belay.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Top-roped belay required (bowline-on-a-coil tie-in), helmets
required for both belayer and climbers.
instructor or trusted assistant.
Belayer should be
Close supervision required
throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to apply climbing fundamentals to easy
5th class climbing situation.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select easy 5th class climb (about 5.1-5.3).
selection:
Criteria for
short length (about 20-30 feet), all or part of
climb should involve crack of 3-4 inch width, easy and safe
downclimb available, absolutely secure anchor for top-roped
belay.
31
BEGINNING 5th CLASS CLIMB CONTINUED:
2.
Establish top-roped belay, explaining procedure to class.
3.
Demonstrate the correct hand, fist, and foot jams required
to ascend the crack portion of the route.
Emphasize
necessity for short moves.
4.
Allow each class member opportunity to climb.
Supervise
closely for correct hand and foot placements, balance,
three point rule, etc.
32
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
9
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
Chimney Climbing
TYPE OF UNIT:
Demonstration - Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to
set up belay anchor.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Top belay required.
Climber and belayer must wear helmets.
Close supervision demanded throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate the fundamentals of
chimney technique.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select chimney climbing route.
Criteria for selection:
moderate length (about 15-20 feet), adequate width for
stemming (about 3 feet), easy and safe downclimbing route,
adequate site for top belay, absolutely secure belay anchor.
2.
Establish top belay position, explaining procedure to class.
3.
Demonstrate and explain the alternate hand and foot placements of correct stemming technique.
33
CHIMNEY CLIMBING CONTINUED:
4.
Allow each class member opportunity to climb chimney at
least once.
Closely supervise for correct procedure and
adherence to safety consciousness.
34
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
10
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
Intermediate Rappel
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete class set of climbing equipment.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
All rappelers must wear helmets and be on belay.
Instructor
must supervise closely to insure that every individual has
correct hook-up before descending.
Instructor must closely
supervise each stage of the descent watching for correct
procedure throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate proper rappel technique,
including:
anchoring, harness and carabiner arrangement,
correct body position, and belay.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select the intermediate rappel site.
Criteria for selection:
moderate length (about 50-60 feet), free of overhangs or
other hazards, safe and easy access to top, absolutely
secure anchor.
35
INTERMEDIATE RAPPEL CONTINUED:
2.
Set up belay and rappel, explaining each step to the class.
3.
Demonstrate Yosemite carabiner-brake rappel hook-up.
4.
Demonstrate rappel, emphasizing the following points:
correct body position and foot placement, correct use of
brake hand, proper dialogue with belayer, and proper
procedure throughout.
5.
Allow each class member opportunity to rappel at least
once.
Closely supervise for safety considerations
outlined above.
36
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
11
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
Intermediate 5th Class Climb
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT &SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Helmets, climbing rope, sufficient webbing and carabiners to
establish top-roped belay.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
Top-roped belay required (bowline-on-a-coil tie-in), helmets
required for both belayer and climbers.
instructor or trusted assistant.
Belayer should be
Close supervision required
throughout.
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to apply climbing fundamentals to a
moderate 5th class climbing situation.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
1.
Select moderate 5th class route (about 5.5-5.6).
for selection:
Criteria
moderate length (50-60 feet), easy and safe
downclimb available, absolutely secure anchor required for
top-roped belay.
37
INTERMEDIATE 5th CLASS CLIMB CONTINUED:
2.
Establish top-roped belay, explaining procedure to class.
3.
Allow each class member opportunity to climb.
Supervise
closely for correct procedures throughout and adherence
to safety considerations.
38
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
12
TIME REQUIRED:
2+ hours
UNIT:
Field Evaluation Day
TYPE OF UNIT:
Field Experience
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
Complete set of class equipment, minus helmets.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A (No actual climbing involved)
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate all the field techniques
experienced in the class.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
Class participants will be evaluated on their abilities to
perform five or more of the following tasks (randomly selected).
Criteria for evaluation:
1.
degree of mastery of each technique.
Tie one or more of the following knots:
figure eight,
bowline, bowline-on-a-coil, prussik, or double fisherman's
knot.
2.
Coil a climbing rope.
3.
Demonstrate and explain toeing vs. edging.
4.
Demonstrate and explain proper balance.
39
FIELD EVALUATION DAY CONTINUED:
5.
Demonstrate and explain the three point rule.
6.
Demonstrate and explain counterforce.
7.
Demonstrate and explain one or more of the following jams:
hand, thumb, finger, fist, foot, or toe.
8.
Demonstrate and explain one or more of the following
handholds:
pinch, cling,
11
thank god 11 , downpressure.
9.
Demonstrate and explain the setting up of a belay anchor.
10.
Demonstrate and explain the setting up of a rappel anchor.
11.
Demonstrate and explain the diaper harness.
12.
Demonstrate and explain the Yosemite carabiner brake rappel
system.
~
'
40
DAILY LESSON PLAN
CLASS:
WEEK:
Basic Mountaineering
13
TIME REQUIRED:
2 hours
UNIT:
Cross-Country Travel & Routefinding
TYPE OF UNIT:
Lecture
EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES REQUIRED:
None
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
N/A
BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES:
Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge of how to apply
the principles of Basic Mountaineering to cross-country travel
situations.
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS:
I.
Routefinding:
A.
Sources of Information
Topographic Maps:
Briefly describe the map and its
contents, giving directions on where to go for map
training.
B.
Guide Books:
Briefly revie\'1 the Sierra Club Climbing
Classification System used in most guides.
C.
Rangers, guides, and other professionals.
41
CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL & ROUTEFINDING CONTINUED:
II.
Mountain Terminology Applicable to Routefinding and
Cross-Country Travel
A.
Col:
saddle
B.
Ridge:
C.
Couloir:
deeply shaded gullies filled with ice or snow
D.
Cirque:
head of a mountain valley, rounded like end of
spur or arm
a football stadium
E.
Talus:
sloping rockfall composed of boulders and other
large fragments
F.
Scree:
sloping rockfall composed of the smallest
fragments
G.
Moraines:
piles of sand and rock at the terminus of a
glacier, or debris left behind by a receding glacier
III.
General Principles of Routefinding
A.
Ridges:
freedom from rockfall and avalanches, but
exposed to weather
B.
Couloirs:
dangerous during daylight hours as debris
melts loose and slides down
C.
Moraines:
insecure, precarious equilibrium, should be
avoided
D.
11
Climb with the eyes 11 :
look far ahead, planning routes.
Look for ridges with lower than average inclination,
cracks, ledges, chimneys or related routes.
E.
Tilted slabs best climbed from the upslab side
42
CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL & ROUTEFINDING CONTINUED:
IV.
Cross-Country Travel
A.
Brush
1.
Avoid if possible, even if route is significantly
lengthened
2.
Stay high, sticking to ridges as possible
3.
Seek game trails
4.
May be possible to proceed up stream channel to
avoid brush
B.
Talus and Scree
1.
Proceed steadily:
momentum is the best defense
against a teetering rock
2.
Avoid the fall line of climbers above and below
3.
If possible, avoid volcanic talus and scree:
rapid disintegration leaves even huge boulders
delicately balanced
C.
Streams
1.
Cross at widest point
2.
Unfasten waist band of pack
3.
Wear foot protection -- tennis shoes preferable
to boots
4.
Loose clothing increases drag from rapidly moving
water
5.
If water is not clear, probe ahead with a pole
6.
Face upstream on crossing
43
CROSS-COUNTRY TRAVEL & ROUTEFINDING CONTINUED:
7.
If water boils above the knee, it is dangerous
a.
Leader must be belayed
b.
Belay should be placed as far above crossing as
possible
c.
Personnel should stand by bank at point where
belay pendulum would end (they serve as
rescuers should the leader need assistance)
d.
Leader establishes handline for security of
rest of party
e.
Last member belayed from far shore
44
SLIDE NARRATIVES
45
NARRATIVE
SLIDE SET I
INTRODUCTION
Basic Mountaineering is a sport of seemingly endless variety.
Depending on the climber's interests and the rock available, the
sport can be practiced barely inches off the ground or from heights
so dizzying that even the birds are careful.
Some good climbers
practice rock gymnastics which require no special gear -- not even
footwear.
Others wouldn't dream of heading to the rock without
hundreds of dollars worth of gear.
Some people climb for a little
exercise and outdoor fun, nothing more.
Others pursue risk,
adventure, and a chance to test their limits.
The style of climbing
you choose is wholly determined by your own desires and inclinations.
CLIMBING CLASSIFICATIONS
Because climbing does exist in such variety, classification
systems have been devised to describe the difficulty of any climb.
The most common classification system was developed by the Sierra
Club.
Under the Sierra Club system, climbs are divided into six
separate classes:
CLASS I:
Walking upright; no special gear required.
CLASS II:
Scrambling over rocks; special footgear required.
Hands needed for balance.
46
CLASS III:
Scrambling over steeper rocks.
techniques required.
Proper climbing
Rope should be available, but
not usually required.
CLASS IV:
Situations where the climber is exposed to the danger
of a severe fall.
CLASS V:
Rope is necessary.
Difficult climbing up nearly vertical rock faces.
Rope and technical climbing gear required.
CLASS VI:
Climbing on rock where foot and hand holds are
inadequate to support the climber.
Direct aid in
the form of stirrups and related gear is required.
BELAYING
Belaying is a climbing term which has nautical origins.
On
sailing vessels, wooden pins (belays) were provided for lowering
canvas sails.
The friction produced by wrapping a rope around the
belay pin made it possible to lower heavy sails by hand.
ln a
similar manner, a person holding a climbing rope {_the belayer) can
use friction to stop the downward plunge of a falling climber.
In practice situations, the climber is protected by a top roped
belay, that is, the belay rope is anchored above the climber.
In
most mountaineering situations, however, it is not possible to toprope the climber.
In these situations, the climber utilizes either
pitons, chocks, or bolts to create his own anchor points as he climbs.
The belay rope is essential to safe climbing.
Under no circum-
s.tances should anyone venture more than five or six feet off the
ground without the security of a rope and belayer -- and this is
47
regardless of whether the climb is top-roped or the lead climber is
placing his own protection.
EQUIPMENT
Mountaineering gear comes in a confusing variety of ropes,
slings, pitons, carabiners, and related equipment.
Technical
expertise is required for the safe use of such equipment.
The
beginner, however, can get started with little more than a pair of
old 11 tennies 11 •
Snug fitting shoes are all that is needed to practice
beginning techniques close to the ground.
Proper clothing depends on the weather.
Obviously different
clothing is required for a Himalyan ascent than is seen on sunny
California boulders.
In general, though, clothing should be
comfortably loose, but not baggy.
Denims are superior to shorts
because of the protection provided against scrapes and scratches.
When the beginner is ready to venture more than a few feet
off the ground, safety demands the addition of two items of
equipment:
the belay rope and a helmet.
PROPER USE OF LEGS
The first rule to learn is that climbing is done almost totally
with the legs.
Old-timers like to emphasize this principle by
referring to that animal which is perhaps the best climber of all
of nature's realm--the mountain goat.
Obviously, the mountain goat
makes little use of hands and arms for scrambling up and down the
treacherous slopes of his rocky domain.
Yet, despite the obviousness
48
of this principle, an embarrassingly large number of beginners harbor
the misconception that rock climbers are muscle-bound gymnasts who
pull themselves upwards by the sheer power of bulging biceps.
And
because of this misconception, many potential climbers shy away from
their first mountaineering experience on the grounds that they are
11
not strong enough 11 •
This is an unfortunate misunderstanding.
In
reality, anyone having the strength to climb stairs has the strength
to be a rock climber.
The reason for the importance of one's legs while climbing is
actually quite simple.
The muscles of the leg, particularly the
hamstrings and quadriceps of the thigh, are much larger and correspondingly stronger than their equivalents in the arm.
It is possible
to lift oneself with the legs (as in climbing stairs) almost indefinitely if a moderate pace is set.
In contrast, not too many climbers
are likely to be capable of more than a dozen or so pull-ups.
Even
the most diehard and gnarled mountaineer cannot do many pull-ups as
compared to the number of stairs a rank amateur can ascend.
then, are the most important climbing appendages.
The legs
If you have trouble
remembering, then keep in mind our woolly champion, the mountain goat.
BALANCE AND FRICTION
Two of the most important climbing fundamentals, proper balance
and good friction, are best treated together since it takes the right
balance to get the best friction.
The importance of one's legs in
climbing has already been discussed.
Since most of the body's mass
is moved by the legs, it stands to reason that most of one's weight
49
will be supported by the feet.
Thus the key to climbing, or at least
the key to not falling, is to keep one's feet firmly in contact with
the rock.
Foot placement would be of no concern if rocks came
equipped with perfectly level ledges and footholds.
such is not the case.
But, of course,
Footholds will frequently be slanted slabs,
dished-out areas, or rounded protuberances.
The friction of rubber
soles adhering to the rock surface is the element which keeps the
climber from slipping off these less-than-perfect holds.
Friction
is thus the essence of climbing and correct balance is the essence
of friction.
The more weight a climber has pushing his soles into the rock,
the better will be the resultant friction.
Correct balance involves
keeping the body as nearly vertical as possible.
In this manner, the
climber's entire weight will be directly over his feet, and gravity
works in the climber's favor by pressing his feet to the rock.
The
problem is that beginners tend to like the false sense of security
derived from leaning in towards ( 11 hugging 11 ) the rock.
Instead of
providing real security, leaning in can make climbing precarious.
If your weight is not directly over your feet, gravity works
against you.
The body will have a tendency to pivot on its center
of gravity--as the head and torso are pressed to the rock, the feet
will be pushed in the opposite direction (away from the rock).
Need
more be said?
As is true of most important concepts, there is more to balance
than might first be suspected.
In addition to maximizing friction,
50
proper balance has two additional benefits.
If the body is kept
vertical, much of one•s weight will be supported by bone structure.
And the more weight that is supported by bone, the less there is to
be held by muscle power alone.
Thus, correct balance greatly reduces
muscle fatigue and goes a long way towards preventing what is known
in climber•s jargon as
11
sewing machine leg 11 (exhausted and trembly
legs).
One final advantage of correct balance needs to be mentioned.
A stable and vertical body position is the ideal base from which to
make subsequent moves.
If a climber is leaning close to the rock,
his vision will be reduced to the point he may not be able to look
ahead for his next holds.
And an awkward, unstable position might
easily be lost in the process of reaching for that next hold.
Balance, in all its aspects, is as important to proper climbing as
is good friction, and these are the skills which should be learned
first.
SLAB
CLif~BING
The term 11 Slab 11 refers to sloping rock which lies at an angle
of about 45 degrees.
If the rock lies at a much lower angle, no
technique is required to walk across it.
And if the slab lies at a
much steeper angle, then it becomes a face and is climbed with the
aid of hand and footholds.
It is only that midrange of about 45
degrees where neither face climbing techniques nor simple walking
are effective, that the climber enters the realm of a new category of
techniques:
slab climbing.
51
More likely than not, slabs will not offer usable hand or footholds, they must be climbed relying primarily on friction.
This
discussion of slab climbing will thus be closely related to the
previous discussion of friction and balance.
The traditional method
for climbing slabs is for the climber to lean forward and press his
palms flat to the rock, while maintaining his weight predominantly
over his feet (bending at the ankle helps}.
But only orangutans
and their close cousins have the flexibility to keep both hands and
feet flat on steep slabs.
The climber must compromise somewhere--
usually by leaning forward too far and not keeping his weight
properly over his feet.
A superior method is to climb slabs in a switchback fashion
rather than making a bee-line for the top.
Only by so doing can the
climber get consistently good foot placement.
Remember, the key to
proper friction is to keep the foot flat on the rock and to keep the
body•s weight directly over the feet.
If the toe is straight uphill,
the climber will unconsciously lift his heel as he leans forward to
place palms against the rock.
Lifting the heel removes about half
the sole from the rock and thus cuts friction in half.
At the other
extreme, if the foot is placed sideways on the rock (perpendicular
to the slope}, then the foot will roll to the downhill side--this too
greatly reduces friction.
The ideal foot placement is halfway
between these two extremes; that is, the toes should point off at
about 45 degrees to the side of straight uphill.
The easiest way
to keep the toes pointed in the proper direction is simply to climb
52
in that direction.
Thus it is easier to zigzag or switchback up a
slope than to head straight for the top.
The hand nearest the slope
is held against the rock to help maintain proper balance.
If any
cling holds are available, then the hands can be put to greater use.
The essence of good slab climbing is "style".
In other words,
good footwork, balance, and methodic movement are more important than
strength or brute exertion.
The climber should at all times keep a
keen eye for cups or other small undulations which will provide
optimum foot placement.
Large steps should not be taken and all
movements must be deliberate and methodical.
The purpose of moving
cautiously is to minimize the chances of any action having the
unexpected reaction of sending oneself sliding winsomely down the
slab.
Remember, friction alone holds the climber to a steep slab.
Once he breaks loose, the next stop is ground level.
Unless, of
course, the climber is roped--and roped he must be on any slab more
than about 10 feet in height.
THREE POINT RULE
Whenever a climber is about to make a move, he should ideally
be in a stable and balanced position in which both hands and both
feet are secure.
No great risk is thus encountered by moving one
hand or one foot--three points of contact still remain.
is the three point rule:
This then
try to never move more than one appendage
at a time and keep three points of contact with the rock whenever
possible.
But a surprisingly large number of climbers, beginners
and advanced alike, frequently violate this rule.
For them, ths
53
urge is sometimes strong to move both a hand and a foot at the same
time.
This urge must be resisted.
If you are in the habit of leaving yourself with only two points
of contact, sooner or later a foot or hand is going to slip.
The
sole remaining point of contact will not be enough to hold your
weight and a fall could easily result.
fall would most likely not be injurious.
risk?
If properly belayed, such a
But why take a needless
Remember the three point rule, and move only one foot or one
hand at a time, not both together.
FOOTHOLDS
As the legs are more important than the arms in climbing, the
finding of good footholds is a matter of prime concern.
New climbers
typically have hopes and expectations for broad or level footholds.
But if the principles of balance and friction are kept in mind, then
some mighty tiny looking holds will be found to be perfectly serviceable (assuming, of course, that anything can be kept in mind while
groping up the face of a cliff).
Should a potential foothold look
at all suspect, it must be tested before one's entire weight is
entrusted to it.
When a foothold is level and spacious, no special skill is
required.
But if the hold appears otherwise, then the following
techniques should prove of value:
TOEING vs. EDGING:
Holds of very small width are best
approached with the side of the foot, not the toes.
If the toes
alone are making contact, then the foot must be held level by muscle
54
power.
This places strain on the calves and 11 sewing machine leg 11 can
result.
In contrast, if the edge of the foot is placed on the hold,
leg muscles can relax and let the bones do most of the work.
Which
side of the foot is edged onto a hold will depend largely on the
direction the climber is moving.
The important point to remember is
that either edge of the foot is generally superior to toes alone.
SLOPING FOOTHOLDS:
These will be encountered either as shallow
depressions in vertical rock or in the form of uneven ledges of
varying size.
The intent is to get as much of the boot on the sloping
surface consistent with maintaining proper balance.
This can be done
by planting the foot with the toe facing uphill and by bending at the
ankle to keep the leg vertical.
KNEES:
When the next good foothold is almost waist high, it
can be very tempting to use the knee rather than putting out the
extra effort to bring up a foot.
made.
But that extra effort must be
Knees are finicky creatures and they are readily subject to
injury.
A good way to injure the knee is to place it on a rough
rocky hold and then place the body•s entire weight on it.
Thus,
the foot must be brought up if at all possible.
Doing so will place
one is a better position to continue climbing.
If a foot has reached
the hold, one can easily stand on it.
But if the knee has been used,
the climber might find himself stuck and unable to rise to his feet.
HANDHOLDS
The importance of good footholds has been emphasized, but this
does not mean that handholds are to be taken lightly.
The value of
55
the security afforded by a good handhold cannot be underrated.
searching for handholds try not to overextend yourself.
should ideally remain at or below eye level.
When
The hands
The problems involved
in reaching high for that 11 Special 11 handhold are two-fold.
The
higher you reach, the more your body will be drawn into the rock-and this adversely effects balance.
Further, reaching high overhead
leads to the temptation to rely on the arms in 11 muscling 11 up the
rock, which, of course, can quickly lead to fatigue.
In most
situations, therefore, it is best to make short moves and use
intermediate holds as much as possible.
The types of holds encountered and the methods of using them are
as follows:
CLING HOLD:
The classic handhold is a protuberance of rock
which can be grasped firmly by the hand.
As the name implies, the
climber merely 11 Clings 11 to this type of hold.
Cling holds come in
an endless variety of shapes and sizes, and they are the most
commonly sought hold.
FINGERNAIL HOLD:
If cling holds are encountered which are too
small to be grasped securely, they can still be used as
holds.
11
11
fingernail 11
The fingers are curled down and the tips of the fingers (or
fingernails 11 ) are brought down upon the hold.
If properly executed,
the fingernail cling can allow the climber to effectively utilize
some surprisingly minuscule holds.
THANK GOD HOLD:
A cling hold which slopes downward and inward
affords the climber with the best of all possible grips.
If such a
56
hold is encountered near the end of a hard climb or at any other time
when the climber is becoming fatigued, then the name for the hold is
self-explanatory.
A student once reflected that a particular 11 Thank God 11 hold felt
so good she was tempted to move in with bed and board.
Such a feeling
of security is quite natural; however, it can lead to trouble.
The
climber should not rest unless his/her feet are on secure footholds.
When resting, the climber's weight must be supported by bone
structure, not muscle.
If a rest pause is taken at a 11 Thank God 11
hold, the natural tendency is to have the arms supporting too much
weight.
Fatigue can set in, and the climber can find himself in
trouble.
11
Thank God 11 holds can in fact be godsends, but they must
not be relied upon excessively.
PINCH HOLDS:
The pinch hold is a specialized form of grip
utilized on protuberances which are overhanging, or otherwise
positioned in an awkward manner that does not allow them to be
gripped as cling or fingernail holds.
The climber simply
pinche~
the hold, and by so doing gains a bit of security.
DOWNPRESSURE:
S.loping ledges, dished out areas, and a few other
formations which might not otherwise provide handholds can be utilized
by pressing down upon them.
The heel of the hand is placed on th.e
hold and the climber pushes himself up somewhat in the manner of
doing a one-arm pushup.
Great strength is not required because the
climber most likely will be pushing himself up with his feet at the
same time.
57
NARRATIVE
SLIDE SET II
MANTLESHELVING
Mantles are flat ledges or shelves, as is found on many fireplaces.
They are usually encountered as the last move over the top
of a climb.
But they can also occur intermediately, as when a ledge
is come upon part way up a climb.
The technique known as mantle-
shelving is the most commonly utilized means of putting oneself up
and over these ledges.
Mantleshelving can be anything from very
easy to extremely difficult depending upon the peculiarities of the
mantle involved.
The easiest to master is the classic mantle--a
flat ledge at about chest height.
Flat mantles over one's head are
more difficult, but are still reasonable for the beginner.
Only when
the mantle is sloping or overhanging, or the ledge quite narrow, does
mantling move into the realm of the expert climber.
The classic mantle is accomplished with the hands placed about
a foot apart, palms flat on the ledge, fingers pointing towards each
other.
Push off with the feet and simultaneously lift up with the
arms and shoulder muse l es (in the manner of doing a pushup) .
Do not
attempt to muscle up with arms alone--especially if the mantle is the
last move of a tiring climb.
In one fluid motion, raise the body
until the arms are fully extended and the elbows lock.
This position
can be maintained as the locked bones of the arms will do most of the
58
supporting work and the arm muscles can relax somewhat.
Now lean
forward and slightly to one side and bring the opposite foot to the
ledge (no knees, please).
Try to place the foot flat and as close
to the body as possible.
With the help of a gentle pushoff from the
fingertips, straighten the leg and stand up.
is to doing the classic mantle.
And that is all there
The essence of the technique is in
smoothness and continuity of motion.
Great arm strength is not
required as the initial upwards thrust is provided by both arms and
legs lifting in unison.
Flat mantles higher than the climber's head can be gained in a
manner similar to the technique just described.
The only difference
is that proper use of the feet is increasingly important, and a
smooth continuous action is essential for success.
Grasp the mantle
with both hands and walk the feet up until the ledge is about chest
high.
Then quickly and smoothly shift the hands to the palm down
position, thrust off with the feet, and lift yourself up as in doing
a classic mantle.
COUNTERFORCE AND LAYBACKS
When pronounced hand and footholds are lacking, the climber is
frequently able to make use of a combination of opposed forces.
An
example of this principle has already been seen in the "pinch" handhold.
The opposing forces of the thumb pushing in the direction
opposite to the fingers provides the inward force which gives the
climber security.
climber.
Opposing outward pressures can also aid the
For example, if a crack is too wide to be sucessfully
p '
59
jammed with hand or fist, the climber can grasp the crack•s edges and
pull against the rock in opposite directions.
These counterforce
techniques are strenuous, but they can be effective if used sparingly.
One of the most useful variations of counterforce is the undercling hold.
The climber grips the bottom of a flake or undercut ledge
and attempts to
11
PU11
11
himself towards the flake.
At the same time,
he leans out from the rock by pushing .. with his feet.
11
The counter-
force provided by this opposing pushing and pulling holds the climber
in a secure position and gives him the opportunity to reach for his
next hand or foothold.
The classic form of counterforce is known as laybacking.
This
involves a combination of pushing and pulling forces similar to the
undercling hold, but the climber is actually able to ascend by using
a continuous combination of these opposed forces.
done in three basic situations:
Laybacking can be
at a corner where two rock faces
meet (if there is a crack between them), along any crack which has
one side offset sufficiently to allow room for the climber•s feet;
and finally, up a vertical flake.
Laybacking is the most strenuous form of counterforce, and the
beginner will have difficulty ascending more than a few feet.
The
hands grip the close edge of the flake or crack and pull the body in
while the legs push out.
hands.
The leading foot is kept just below the
If higher, the strain on the arms becomes too great.
lower, the feet will not maintain a good grip on the rock.
If
One foot
or hand is slid upwards at a time, and in this manner the climber
60
shuffles his way up the rock.
The arms are kept extended as much as
possible in order to transfer strain from muscle to bone.
But there
are limits to the amount of strain even the bones can hold, and the
beginner would be wise to limit his laybacking to short cracks and
flakes.
CRACK JAMMING
The stresses of expansion and contraction build up in rock until
the strain is relieved by the rock's splitting.
fissures are useful to climbers.
Most of the resulting
Horizontal cracks can be of assis-
tance by providing opportunity for conventional hand and footholds.
But of particular value are vertical cracks--these frequently provide
the only route up an otherwise smooth face.
Vertical cracks up to
about a foot in width are climbed by jamming a portion of the body
into them.
chimneys.
Wider cracks which admit the entire body are known as
The techniques of chimney climbing are distinct from
crack jamming, and thus will be considered separately.
Fingers, hands, fists, arms and shoulders; also toes, feet,
legs, and even knees have all been utilized in one or another form
of jam.
fits.
The idea is to shove into the crack whichever of the above
The selected body member is then flexed or twisted into a
position in which pressure is applied outwards to both sides of the
crack.
Sufficient pressure must be exerted to allow the "jam" to
hold the body's weight either partially or in full.
The climber is
then able to move upwards by repeating a sequence of jams.
easiest jams to accomplish involve the hands and feet.
The
The others
61
are awkward and strenuous and can require considerable determination
to master.
The ideal vertical crack for climbing is about 2 to 4 inches in
width.
Most new climbers can scoot up these with unexpected agility
because cracks of this width accept the easy hand and foot jams.
The
climber begins by jamming both hands and both feet into the crack,
and then he ascends by moving up one hand or one foot at a time.
These ideal cracks will vary somewhat in size, and climbers have
their individualities too (both in build as well as temperament).
Thus, use may be made of either the hand or fist jam, and similarly
either the toe or foot jam.
The proper application of each jam is
outlined below:
HAND JAM:
A hand is inserted into the crack, and then expansion
is obtained by tucking the thumb underneath the palm.
A variation
involves creating expansion with the fingers instead of just the
thumb.
The fingers are pressed hard against one side of the crack
in such a manner that the knuckles press tightly against the other
side.
The expansion created by both variations of the hand jam
create the outwards pressure needed to hold the hand securely in
place.
FIST JAM:
A hand is inserted into the crack, and then the
fingers are curled into a fist.
The expansion thus obtained can
provide good security, particularly if the fist is janmed into a
"bottleneck".
In other words, the fist should be jammed in a wide
portion of the crack and pulled back or down into a narrower portton.
62
To remove the fist jam, simply uncurl the fingers and the hand will
slide easily back and out.
TOE JAM:
The knee is lowered to the outside in order to allow
the tip of the foot (or toes) to be inserted sideways into the crack.
Then the knee is raised up, all the way up, until it is flush with
the crack.
This motion of raising the knee twists the toes tightly
into the crack.
The resulting jam is extremely secure and will
support one's entire weight.
stand very long on a toe jam.
But it is a rare climber who wants to
They can be quite painful, especially
if one is wearing tennis or jogging shoes.
In order to remove the toes, the knee has to be again dropped
to the outside.
Keep in mind that removal can be difficult if one
is in the habit of taking large steps.
Thus the key to proper crack
climbing is to proceed steadily, but gradually, taking steps of about
8 to 12 inches.
FOOT JAM:
the toe jam.
The foot jam is accomplished in a manner identical to
It is used in wider cracks which will accept the better
part of the climber's foot, not just his toes.
Climbing becomes more difficult when cracks are too narrow to
accept either hands or feet.
Narrow cracks do provide some useful
holds but they are best climbed in combination with conventional hand
and footholds.
In fact, it may not be possible to free climb narrow
cracks if there are no other helping holds.
The following techniques are useful in gaining some assistance
from narrow cracks:
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OPPOSITION HOLDS:
Place the fingers of both hands in the crack
and pull in opposite directions as if trying to pull the crack apart.
The security thus provided cannot be maintained long since this is a
strenuous and fatiguing
FINGER JAM:
they will go.
tec~nique.
Place two or more fingers into the crack as far as
Then twist the entire hand to tightly wedge the fingers
within the crack.
This sounds rather rugged, but finger jams are
actually both practical and simple.
In addition to their use in
narrow cracks, they can be effectively employed in old piton scars
and similar small holes.
TOE-TIP JAM:
If one is wearing flexible-soled shoes (_climbing,
tennis or jogging shoes), it should be possible to wedge the tip of
the toes into a narrow crack.
Lower the knee to the outside, slip
the tip of the shoe in sideways, then bring the knee all the way up
and back to the crack.
The only difference between this and a true
toe jam is that a bit more courage is required to trust the body's
weight to toe-tips alone.
If narrow cracks seem overly challenging, then it would be wise
to steer altogether c1ear of wide cracks.
For it is th.e wide cracks
(_greater than 4 inches) which are most difficult of all.
They are
too wide to jam with hands or feet, and yet too narrow to squeeze the
entire body inside.
A variety of wide-crack techniques have been
developed, but they are all of limited practicality.
In the end,
it is up to the climber and his wits to come up with a successful
combi.nation of jams and wedges.
Ingenuity is thus the most important
64
element in the struggle to prevail over wide and difficult cracks.
Of the existing wide-crack techniques, the following are the
most practical and are of the greatest use to the new climber:
THUMB JAM:
The thumb may be used to jam a crack slightly too
large for a secure fist jam.
Press the edge of the hand (opposite
the thumb) firmly to one side of the crack, and wedge the uplifted
thumb to the crack•s other wall.
much of a pull.
Do not trust a thumb jam to hold
Even the best jam will provide only limited security
and it should be used primarily as an aid to balance.
HEEL/TOE JAM:
There are two popular techniques for jamming the
foot into wide cracks.
The first involves wedging the entire foot
end-to-end with the heel on one side of the crack and the toes crushed
to the other side.
A variation is useful in cracks which are not
quite wide enough to accept the full length of the foot.
force is exerted by ankles and legs, and the foot is
the crack.
11
A twisting
torqued 11 into
That is, the heel is pressed inward to one wall while
the toes are pressed outward to the other wall.
FOOT/KNEE JAM:
The twisting heel/toe jam may be improved by
pressing the knee firmly against the rock.
This gives added security
by employing two jams simultaneously (heel/toe and foot/knee).
CHIMNEY CLIMBING
When a crack widens to the point the entire body fits inside,
then the crack becomes known as a chimney.
Squeeze chimneys just
barely admit the climber; others are so wide that the climber has
difficulty bridging the gap with his body.
But whatever the width
65
of a particular chimney, the principle for climbing is the same:
the
climber stays in the chimney by pushing outwards against both walls.
Upwards progress is then made by sequentially releasing and applying
outward pressure with different portions of the body.
(Hopefully the
climber remembers not to release all outward pressure at the same
time.)
Squeeze chimneys provide a reassuring sense of security because
the harder they are to squeeze into, the harder it is to fall back
out.
Progress, however, can be painstakingly slow.
Both heel/toe
and foot/knee jams (see preceding section) may be applied to help
the ascent.
Also, one's hands can be of particular value.
Palms
are pressed (fingers pointing down) to the front wall at about waist
height.
The climber can then inch his way upwards by using both arms
and legs simultaneously.
But if the chimney is too narrow to accom-
modate these techniques, upwards motion can only be obtained by
squirming.
Then progress is truly slow.
Headway is gained much more rapidly when the chimney opens a
bit wider.
Shoulders, back, buttocks, and feet are pressed to the
back wall and the position maintained by pressing knees and hands to
the front wall.
Once again, the hands are used about waist high,
palms against the rock, and fingers pointing down.
The climber
then advances inchworm fashion by lifting his torso while knees and
feet remain jammed,
Next the torso is jammed with pressure from the
arms and hands, and the legs are raised.
In a continuing sequence
of these motions, the climber can raise himself with reasonable ease
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66
and speed.
Slightly wider fissures can be climbed with even greater facility
and the ideal chimney is one with a width of about three feet.
These
ideal chimneys are climbed by pressing the feet against alternate
walls in a process known as 11 Stemming 11 •
Chimney stemming appears
awkward at first, but it can be executed smoothly and speedily once
mastered.
The stemming process is as follows:
1.
Press against the front wall with the right foot raised
about hip high.
Also press against front wall with the
left hand,
2.
Raise the left foot up under the buttocks and pressing
against the back wall.
Also press against back wall with
right hand.
3.
Lift the body away from the rear wall by pushing off with
the right hand.
At the same time, raise the body by
pushing up with both legs.
4.
Reverse the positions of both hands and both feet.
Bring
the right hand forward first, then follow with the left foot
pressed about hip high to the front wall.
Next lift the
right foot up under the buttocks, and finish by shifting
left hand to the back wall.
5.
Continue upwards motion by lifting the body off the rear
wall (this time with the left hand), and stand up on the
feet.
67
This stemming process can be repeated almost indefinitely.
If
the climber becomes fatigued, he can rest by placing both feet against
the front wall and locking his legs.
DOWNCLIMBING
Down may be the opposite of up, but downclimbing is not really
the opposite of upclimbing.
In truth, the two are almost identical
since all of the fundamentals apply equally to both.
Proper balance,
friction, hand and footholds, use of the legs, and so forth, are just
as important to downclimbing as to any other aspect of climbing.
The
only real difference between the two (other than the obvious) is that
it is more difficult to see where one is going when downclimbing.
The reason for this should be obvious too:
the head (and eyes) lead
the way in climbing up, but are forced to follow in the rear when
going the other direction.
When climbing down gentle slopes, the climber should face downhill in order to best see the way ahead.
for descending friction slabs.
This is particularly true
Here the climber not only faces
downhill, but he also sits down, keeping feet and palms flat to the
rock.
Never descend friction slabs standing up lest too much momentum
be acquired and the descent becomes uncontrolled.
When the route becomes a bit steeper, the climber should face
sideways to the rock.
This still allows good downward vision, but
offers improved balance and also allows the climber to make use of
available handholds.
When the route down is truly steep, the climber should face in
~
'
68
towards the rock.
Downclimbing now becomes quite difficult, but is
frequently necessary as the only way to recover after a false start
up an unclimbable route.
The climber must now make maximum use of
all available handholds.
Good handholds allow the climber to lean
out with safety and thus have a better opportunity to look down for
his next holds.
Downclimbing is not, of course, the only way off a mountain.
In addition to jumping and hanggliding, there is rappelling.
The
term 11 rappelling 11 refers to a controlled slide down a climbing rope
and is often the favored means of descent.
69
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CLIMBING GUIDES:
Aleith, R.C. Bergsteigen: Basic Rock Climbing.
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975.
Banks, Mike. Mountain Climbing for Beginners.
Stein and Day, 1978.
New York:
New York:
Ferber, Peggy (ed.). Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills
(3rd edition). Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1975.
Leonard, Richard M., et al. Belaying the Leader: An Omnibus
On Climbing Safety. San Francisco: The Sierra Club, 1956.
Lyman, Tom. Bouldering and Outcrop Climbing.
The Stephen Greene Press, 1978.
Brattleboro:
Lyman, Tom and Riviere, Bill. The Field Book of Mountaineering
and Rock Climbing. The Winchester Press, 1978.
Mandolf, Henry I. (ed.). Basic Mountaineering. San Diego:
The San Diego Chapter of the Sierra Club, 1961.
Mendenhall, Ruth and John. Beginner's Guide to Rock and
Mountain Climbing. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books, 1975.
Robbins, Royal.
1971.
Basic Rockcraft.
Advanced Rockcraft.
Glendale:
Glendale:
La Siesta Press,
La Siesta Press, 1973.
Smith, Howard E., Jr. The Complete Beginner's Guide to Mountain
Climbing. New York: Pocket Books, 1977.
Wheelock, Walt. Ropes, Knots, and Slings for Climbers.
La Siesta Press, 1967.
Glendale
INSTRUCTOR'S REFERENCE MATERIAL:
Kiddlas, John. The Rock Climbing Teaching Guide. Washington,
D.C.: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance, 1979.
70
Schneider, Anne and Steven. The Climber's Sourcebook.
York: Doubleday, 1976.
New
MOUNTAINEERING MEDICINE AND RESCUE:
Macinnes, Hamish. International Mountain Rescue Handbook.
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972.
Wilkerson, James A. Medicine for Mountaineering.
The Mountaineers, 1979.
Seattle:
TEACHING METHODOLOGY:
Rogers, Carl R. Freedom to Learn. Columbus:
Merrill Publishing Company, 1969.
Charles E.
Scobey, Mary-Margaret and Graham, Grace {eds.). To Nurture
Humaneness. Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, 1970.