Summary Report
The Challenges of
Security Sector Governance in West Africa
Hotel Ngor Diarama, Dakar, 17 February 2010
Co-organised by
The Africa Security Sector Network (ASSN)
The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF)
With the support of the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of France
Introduction
Significant strides are being made towards peace, democracy and sustainable
development across West Africa. These improvements have come with the
realisation that democratic governance of the security sector must go hand in hand
with other aspects of political good governance. Despite this positive evolution,
reflected in increasing support for security sector reform (SSR) within the region, the
deterioration of conditions in some countries and the security challenges faced by
the region as a whole due to emerging threats and mounting political, economic and
social challenges, reinforce the need for effective, well-managed and accountable
national security sectors within a strong regional framework of democratic
governance and conflict-prevention.
A number of important SSR-related initiatives are underway in West Africa. At the
continental level the African Union (AU) has committed its member states to carrying
out the necessary reforms in their security sectors. In the Quebec and St. Boniface
Declarations, the Organisation International de la Francophonie (OIF) also embraced
SSR. Efforts by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) have
complemented national efforts to improve security sector governance. The ECOWAS
Conflict Prevention Framework (ECPF) places a strong premium on democratic
security sector governance as a key element of the region‟s human security
architecture. It also provides an important mechanism for interaction and
collaboration both within the region and with international partners. Work towards an
ECOWAS SSR strategy and specific initiatives such as the development of a West
African Code of Conduct for Armed Forces and Security Personnel provide further
means to reinforce West African SSR capacities.
The development of the United Nations‟ approach to SSR has also drawn heavily on
African experience and expertise. This was highlighted at the International Workshop
1
on “Enhancing United Nations Support for Security Sector Reform in Africa: Towards
an African Perspective”1 which addressed some of the opportunities and challenges
for the UN in supporting SSR in countries in the region and contributed directly to the
development of the first UN Secretary-General‟s report on SSR.2 This evolution has
been critical to further enhancing UN support to nationally led SSR processes in a
wide range of different contexts within West Africa.
African states, institutions and individual experts have all been instrumental in
shaping the SSG/SSR discourse in West Africa, founded on the understanding that
an unreformed security sector represents a decisive obstacle to the promotion of
sustainable development, democracy and peace. Policy frameworks are becoming
established and capacities are being developed to support this agenda. An important
means of achieving this goal is the development of a regional framework and plan of
action to operationalise the component of the ECPF that focuses on security
governance. The draft ECOWAS SSR framework and plan of action were discussed
at a meeting of SSR/SSG experts organised by the ECOWAS Department for
Political Affairs, Peace and Security (PAPS) in Abuja 9-11 November 2009.
Following the meeting in Abuja, ECOWAS and the United Nations Office for West
Africa (UNOWA) hosted a joint meeting 18-19 February 2010 in Dakar that sought to
further advance the development of the draft SSR framework and the plan of action.
In order to support these positive developments, the Geneva Centre for the
Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) in partnership with the African Security
Sector Network (ASSN) brought together a number of key actors in a workshop held
on 17 February 2010 in Dakar. The workshop took place in the context of a research
project launched by DCAF-ASSN, with the support of the Ministry of Foreign and
European Affairs of France, that aims to better understand the dynamics of security
sector governance in West Africa. Drawing on national expertise, the project
analyses security sector governance in each of the nine francophone West African
states. This context-specific analysis is intended to generate policy relevant
recommendations that will contribute to ongoing SSR efforts at national and regional
levels.
In order to generate further momentum for the SSR discourse, the workshop brought
together a cross-section of practitioners, policy makers, academics and civil society
actors to gather insights from within the region and from the broader international
community. The workshop focussed on two sets of issues. First, it sought to develop
new insights through a comparative analysis of different national contexts in West
Africa (Session 1). National experiences and the question of how to situate them
within a concerted and coherent regional approach were an important theme.
Second, cross-cutting security sector governance issues for the region were
considered in different breakout sessions (Sessions 2-4). The fifth session closed the
discussions with an overview of the latest developments in the field of SSR.
In summary, the unique histories and experiences of different states are inseparable
from the security sector governance challenges they face. Presenting this ongoing
research at the ASSN-DCAF workshop provided a broad comparative and evaluative
perspective on security sector governance in West Africa from which to address
more specific topics. The workshop also served to support ongoing discussions
1
2
International Workshop on “Enhancing United Nations Support for Security Sector Reform in Africa: Towards
an African Perspective”, co-hosted by South Africa and Slovakia, Cape Town, 7-8 November 2007.
Report of the Secretary-General, Securing peace and development: the role of the United Nations in
supporting security sector reform, 23 January 2008, (A/62/659 – S/2008/39).
2
about the operationalisation of the ECPF, which offers an important means to build
synergies across approaches at national, regional and international levels.
National Contexts for Security Sector Governance and Reform
Understanding the specificities of each reform context is critical to linking national
and regional efforts while ensuring appropriate external support. Critical analysis that
pays due consideration to the diversity of experience from across the region is thus
essential in order to bridge gaps between strong normative regional policy
frameworks and support to reform efforts on the ground. The first panel looked
closely at four national case studies from West Africa with the goal of better
understanding the security sector governance challenges and the potential entry
points for SSR in each of these different national contexts.
Burkina Faso provided the first case study. The state faces challenges from growing
delinquency, organised and white collar crime, as well as corruption, which
endangers the integrity of the state apparatus. Beyond these internal challenges, the
location of the country at the centre of West Africa makes it vulnerable to a number
of „borderless‟ threats, including corruption, terrorism, hostage taking, embezzlement
and money laundering, the trade in drugs and precious gems, as well as cyber
crime. Given that this is not a post-conflict state, the long history of political
instability, the advance of poverty and the steep increase in insecurity, are the most
important factors to consider in launching an SSR process. For Burkina Faso,
meeting these challenges will above all require defining the respective roles of the
state, the security sector and the different actors charged with democratic oversight,
primarily the National Assembly, the justice sector and civil society. Due to the lack
of effective oversight of the security forces, an appropriate legal framework is
required for all constitutional and institutional actors involved in monitoring and
control of the internal security sector. This brief summary of the state security sector
showed that due to these factors, the security services have failed to overcome their
weaknesses and are still far from being able to assure the human security its
population deserves.
The second case study on the Côte d'Ivoire provided a rich comparison because of
its many differences, including the fact that it is a post-conflict context. Throughout
the post-independence era, continuing political stability seemed to make Côte
d'Ivoire an exception in a region troubled by coups and states of emergency. During
the regime of Félix Houphouët-Boigny, particular attention was paid to the armed
forces in the interests of preserving political stability, even at the expense of
democracy. However this stability could not stand up to the pressure exerted on it
during the problematic attempt to transfer political power from father to son. In 1999
the first coup mounted by the armed forces in the country's history marked the
transition to military politics, an event which exacerbated the problems of poverty
and crime, particularly the drug trade. With the conclusion of Ouagadougou peace
agreement in 2007, SSR and the closely related activities of Disarmament,
Demobilization, and Reintegration have become key issues in resolving the political
crisis. During this difficult post-conflict phase, re-professionalization is considered
essential to restoring the legitimacy of the security sector in the eyes of a people for
whom the armed forces have been more a source of insecurity than a source of
protection. Restoring the state monopoly of the use of force also means engaging
3
armed non-state actors who pose a particularly difficult problem, whether in the guise
of militias or private companies. This case study thus provided clear examples of
some of the SSR challenges that post-conflict states face.
In view of recent events, the meeting also provided an opportune moment to discuss
SSR in Guinea, which justified its selection as the third case study. As in other
countries in the region, Guinea was a one-party state where the regime relied on
militias which competed with the armed forces; a legacy that has made the military
into an instrument of power. This fact did not change when Lansana Conté came to
power at the head of a military regime that ruled by decree. Despite a certain political
opening in the early 1990s, the regime reverted to repression which continued until
Conté‟s death. This long period of authoritarianism is central to the two main
challenges that the country now faces; the indiscipline of the armed forces and their
abuse of the civilian population. Since the rise of Dadis Moussa Camara and the
political and security crisis that has characterised his marginalisation, hope for a
peaceful transition has been invested in the Joint Declaration of Ouagadougou of 15
January, 2010. Moreover an unprecedented opportunity for reform seems to have
been generated by widespread public determination to fight against impunity for the
first time in the history of the country, as well as the political will of the General at the
head of the transition, Sekouba Conati, to transform the military into a republican
armed forces. If an initial limited reform programme aims to improve the behaviour of
the armed forces and encourage them to keep to the barracks to ensure a minimum
of security for presidential elections, a more profound SSR programme would be
expected as an integral part of the agenda of the next elected president. The case of
Guinea aptly reflects the political nature of SSR and the important role it can play in
democratisation.
The fourth case study considered the example of Senegal, a West African state that
has never experienced a coup. Benefiting from a positive image among the
population, the armed forces play an important role in national life. Because of this
status as a legitimate national actor, Senegal appears to offer a model of security
sector governance that other countries in West Africa could draw upon. However,
while good relations between the people and armed forces have been maintained
over time, this is not the case for other elements of the security sector including the
gendarmerie, the judiciary and the police, which do not enjoy the same legitimacy in
the eyes of the population due to a reputation tainted by political interference and
corruption. The police service is the weakest link in the Senegalese security sector
and reform efforts in this area are a priority because of the key role played by the
police in assuring internal security and public order. This is especially true given the
important role of private actors such as vigilante groups and private military and
security companies, both of which are increasing at least partly as a result of a
widespread lack of confidence in the police. Thus in general terms, the case of
Senegal highlights a dangerous tendency to devote too much attention to the role of
defence matters in national SSR programmes at the expense of other concerns such
as policing and justice, both of which are key to internal security and the security of
the population.
Cross-cutting Issues in Effective and Sustainable SSR in West
Africa
4
A certain number of different cross-cutting issues are particularly important for
effective, sustainable SSR in West Africa. The break-out groups addressed four key
themes selected in the interest of deepening the discussion on particular aspects of
SSR.
The first of these cross-cutting themes addressed the role of non-state actors in SSR
processes. While acknowledging the key role played by states in guiding SSR
processes, security and justice services in West Africa are in many cases delivered
by a range of non-state actors. This session considered ways to acknowledge the
range of non-state actors that need to be taken into account in SSR policy
frameworks and situated within SSR programming. Often non-state actors enjoy a
great deal of legitimacy among the populace as a result of both culture and custom.
To the extent that these non-state actors play an important role in bringing security to
everyday life, they must be engaged in reform processes. Nevertheless, the
influence of these groups and in particular all behaviour that is abusive or does not
conform to human rights standards must be contained, hence it is necessary to
ensure such groups are subject to sufficient oversight and to evaluate their
legitimacy. While the monopoly of the legitimate use of force is supposed to reside
with the state, this is more often the case in theory than in reality, so the question of
engaging non-state actors raises the challenge of extending state security services
through SSR in order to better meet the security needs of the population. In so far as
each context is different, it is necessary to find unique and well adapted solutions.
The second session highlighted the role of gender in SSR. Noting the fact that the
exclusion of women limits economic and social development, discussions stressed
that gender considerations are essential to SSR partnerships involving civil society,
the media, the armed forces and other elements of the security sector. Such
partnerships can make SSR more effective and improve the legitimacy and
effectiveness of security sector governance frameworks in West Africa; ECOWAS,
the executive, ministries, members of parliaments and civil society all have a role to
play in such cooperation. The discussions also made clear that gender
considerations are integral to governance reform processes. These issues are thus
also a key element of the ECOWAS agenda for peace and security, especially as the
security needs of men, women, girls and boys differ considerably. Better addressing
gender issues implies a strengthening of capacity among the authorities concerned.
Democratic control and accountability was the third topic of discussion in the
breakout groups. Building trust between government institutions, security services
and citizens is an important starting point for sustainable and legitimate
development. While significant responsibility for ensuring the democratic governance
of the security sector lies principally with parliaments, various other stakeholders,
including civil society and media also have their roles to play; this is especially so in
states of emergency rule when the parliament may no longer fulfil its oversight
function. Regarding West African parliaments, it should be noted that the capacity of
public institutions to play this role of monitoring and supervision has changed with
the nature of the state. From the Second World War until the era of independence
and the emergence of one-party political systems, democratic control and
supervision was hardly possible and parliaments often neglected their role. In many
cases, bad habits have remained in the parliaments of the region despite the return
to multi-party systems. In order for parliaments to resume their role as defenders of
democracy through democratic control and oversight, it is necessary that
parliamentarians rediscover their critical voice and struggle against the consensus
5
that excludes certain issues from public debate, particularly regarding security and
defence. Capacity building among parliamentarians could thus provide a means of
supporting democratic security sector governance.
SSR in Africa has frequently involved significant support from external actors, and
the role of international actors and local ownership was the theme explored in the
fourth panel discussion. Maximising the effectiveness of these efforts and ensuring
that they support nationally driven SSR processes is an important challenge to be
met in building meaningful SSR partnerships between actors at international,
regional, national and local levels. These partnerships must reflect West African
realities and be anchored in respect for local ownership. A consequence of this
approach is that each actor involved in the process of SSR should be able to
express her position in order to create a sustainable process based on the principle
of participation. Local actors must be at the centre of planning and decision making
as they are the only ones who understand the relevant culture and history. At the
same time contributing a portion of the national government budget to SSR
programmes offers a means of securing the political as well as financial investment
of national actors, even if budgetary constraints mean that this contribution is more
symbolic than substantive. Similarly, donors who are the first to advocate the
benefits of local ownership should be more faithful to this principle in their
programming, especially in post-conflict situations since for the most part, their
budgets are insufficient to support a reform process in the long term. SSR should be
the subject of broader debate in order to better bridge the gap between theory and
reality on the ground. Nevertheless what is certain is that imposing reform models
can never lead to effective and lasting results; that a participatory process requires
dialogue; and that local ownership is the foundation of any possible progress in SSR.
A West African Approach to Security Sector Governance and
Reform
This concluding panel built on earlier discussions to consider the „state of the art‟ of
security sector governance and reform in West Africa. This discussion therefore fed
directly into issues addressed during the following two-day ECOWAS-UNOWA SSR
experts meeting. West Africa‟s security sector governance challenges can only be
addressed with coherent approaches that bring together the efforts of civil society,
states, regional actors and international organisations. Enhancing synergies,
including through the development of a community of practice, thus represents a
priority in order to operationalise a West African approach to SSR/SSG. Holding
such meetings is important in order to build consensus and to strengthen dialogue at
national, regional and international levels on SSR issues.
The role of organizations such as the African Union (AU) but also the regional
economic communities are essential. While the AU has always supported states in
their willingness to reform their civil-military relations and improve security sector
governance, its ability to offer more concrete support in the area of SSR is only now
emerging. The goal of the AU in developing a framework for SSR policy and
implementation in Africa is to increase support to member states that wish to
improve security sector governance. Drawing on the concept of human security, the
vision of security on which this framework is based is extremely broad, including all
forms of violence and crime. Included among the priority themes to be dealt with in
the governance framework are the challenges of crime and the privatization of
6
security, gender issues and the particular conditions facing post-conflict states. The
goal is to enable member states to respond to security challenges while
strengthening the rule of law. To achieve this goal, increased capacity within the AU
and perhaps even the creation of a dedicated SSR unit would be necessary.
Providing advice on SSR policy implementation, developing best practices and
training strategies in cooperation with regional economic communities will be central
to this ongoing process.
Regional economic communities are key partners for member states in SSR. In West
Africa the role of ECOWAS is of paramount importance to the development of
standards for better governance of the security sector. The end of the Cold War left
West African states without democratic processes or precedents and unable to
bridge the gaps or address the challenges of the latest violence and new security
threats. In response ECOWAS began to develop institutional instruments at the
regional level, starting in 1999 with the Protocol on Democracy and Good
Governance and leading ultimately to the ECPF. SSR and good governance of the
security sector are fundamental to the 14 goals set out in the ECPF, which is based
on a vision of human security.
Beyond the role of the AU and the regional economic communities, a broad range of
actors are involved in SSR in West Africa, each according to their unique
capabilities; the range includes civil society actors such as ASSN; international
organizations including the UN and the OIF; and diverse international partners such
as the European Union, DCAF and bilateral partners. Each of these partners is able
to support SSR processes in different ways and cooperation has already proven
successful on several fronts. More meaningful partnerships remain to be built as
need requires and in the spirit of cooperation and mutual respect.
In conclusion it was emphasized that despite the reform challenges that lie ahead,
there is no lack of expertise and wisdom among African experts. Among the
challenges that lie ahead both for states involved in reform and for those actors who
hope to lend their support, the gap between theory and practice remains significant.
Better integrating governance issues into reform programmes remains a challenge
given the current tendency to focus on more technical issues. Finally, participants
noted that even if regional and external actors have an important role to play,
responsibility for SSR remains in the hands of states. If SSR is ultimately a political
activity, the importance of mobilizing political will must not be underestimated.
Workshop Outcomes
The workshop was intended to serve as a platform for developing new insights and
building synergies to support SSR policy development and programmes. To support
this goal, the following workshop outputs will be developed:


In the mid-term, an edited volume and policy paper informed by the findings of
the workshop will be published.
In the longer term, the application of workshop findings and recommendations
should contribute to future policy development in support of the ECOWAS
Commission. Enhanced dialogue, networking and more effective policy advocacy
on security governance issues within the region represent key long term
objectives.
7