Wichita State University Libraries
SOAR: Shocker Open Access Repository
Wind Energy Reports, no.7
Center for Energy Studies
The Use of Water Source Heat Pumps in South Central Kansas
Jay A. Fulton and Gary C. Thomann
Wichita State University
Recommended citation
Jay A. Fulton and Gary C. Thomann. The Use of Water Source Heat Pumps in South Central Kansas.
Wichita, Kan: Wichita State University, 1979. –86 p.
Digitized by University Libraries and posted in Shocker Open Access Repository
Citable Link: http://soar.wichita.edu/dspace/handle/10057/6063
Terms of use: in the Public Domain
.:2/
WER·7
WIND ENERGY REPORT NO.7
THE USE OF \'lATER SOURCE HEAT PUr'lPS
IN
SOUTH CENTRAL ~SAS
by
JAY A. FULTON
and
GARY C. THOMANN
WIND ENERGY LABORATORY
WICHITA STATE UNIVERSITY
WICHITA, KANSAS
AUGUST, 1979
697 . 07
Ful.
Wind Energy Report No. 7
WER-7
THE USE OF WATER SOURCE HEAT PUMPS
IN SOUTH CENTRAL KANSAS
KANSAS STATE LIBRARY
300 SW 10TH AVE RM 343
TOPEKA KS 66612·1593
by
Jay A. Fulton
and
Ga ry C. Thomann
Wind Energy Laboratory
l-Jichita State University
Wichita. Kansas 67208
August 1979
Sponsored by the City of Hichita Energy Office.
IHchita State University. and the State of Kansas.
KAN SAS STATE LIBRAR Y
300 SW 10TH AVE RM 343
TOPEKA Ki 66612-1593
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY_______________________________________________________ ii
INTROOUCTION____________________________________________________________
1
THEORY ANO OPERATION OF HEAT PUMPS______________________________________
2
AVAILABILITY OF WATER___________________________________________________
5
Geological restrictions.___________________________________________
Chemical restrictions_______________________________ _______________
legal restrictions_________________________________________________
5
7
8
SIZING A WSHP SYSTEM____________________________________________________
9
AVAILABLE WSHP SYSTEMS__________________________________________________
10
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ______________________________ ----------------_________ 12
Amount of energy required__________________________________________
14
Amount of cooling required_________________________________________ 17
Discount rate______________________________________________________
17
Cost of electricity_____ ___________________________________________ lB
Electricity price inflation______ __________________________________ 20
Cost of natural gas_______________ _________________________________ 23
Inflation of natural gas prices____________________________________
23
Lifetime of the systems ____________________________ ________________ 25
Performance factors of the systems_________________________________
25
Cost of the systems________________________________________________ 30
Maintenance costs__________________________________________________
32
ECONOMICS CALCULATIONS__________________________________________________ 33
'EXAMPLES________________________________________________________________ 37
OISCUSSION OF RESULTS FOR INDIVIOUAL RESIOENCES_________________________ 45
APPLICATION TO MULTIPLE OWELLINGS AND APARTMENTS ____________ ____________ 51
RECOMMENOATIONS_ ______ ___ _______________________________________________ 56
REFERENCES______________________________________________________________ 58
APPENOICES______________________________________________________________ 60
I. Investigation of Seasonal Performance Factor
II. Cash flows and results for simulations performed
USE OF WATER SOURCE HEAT PUNPS
IN SOUTH CENTRAL KANSAS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A water source heat pump (WSHP) operates similarly to a conventional
air-to-air heat pump except that instead of using the air as a heat source
or sink, a water reservoir, such as ground water, is used.
The conventional heat
pump system must exhaust heat in the summer into the hot air and draw heat from
the cold air in the winter.
In contrast, the WSHP,using ground water at a
temperature of about 60° F, has a relatively cool heat sink. in the surrmer and
warm heat source in the winter.
As a result, the water source system uses
less energy than the conventional system for the same amount of heat transfer.
With t he WSHP 1 ground water is suppl ied to the heat pump us; n9 a well and in-
jected back into the reservoir using a second well.
Hence. no net change
in the water table results.
The use of WSHp·s for South Central Kansas was investigated in this
study for use in single family dwellings and apartments.
The particular
topi cs addres sed were
1. Sys tem manufacturers and system costs
2. Water availability and well costs
3. The economi cs of water source systems compared to gas furnace/
electric air, electric resistance heat/ electric air, and air-to-air
heat pumps for heating and cooling.
The cost of various types of sys t ems for heating and cooling houses is
shown below.
These figures are typical costs for three ton units in a new
residence.
i1
Resistance furnace/electric air
$ 2550
Gas furnace/electric air
2775
Air source heat pump
2925
Water source heat pump (without well)
2925
As can be seen there is no large difference in the prices of the installed
systems.
However, the WSHP needs a water supply system, which adds appre-
dab ly to the cos t.
Approximately fifteen manufacturers of WSHP systems were found.
are available from about one ton on up to several tons.
Sizes
(A ton is 12,000
Btu/hour and a typical 1200 to 1500 ft 2 house requires a three ton unit.)
The claimed EER's of the water source systems range from 8.8 to 10.7 and the
COP's from 2.8 to 3.7.
The best water for WSHP use is available in the Arkansas River valley,
which in Wichita is about from Hillside wes t to Ridge Road .
In this area suffi-
cient water can be found from depths of 10 ft to no more than 40 ft . Water is
available east of Hillside and west of Ridge Road also, but the Kans.s Geological
Survey should be consulted in this area both for availability and water quality
before drilling . The cost for a two-well system for both supply and injection
is estimated to be $1300, although this price could be much less if the homeowner drilled the well himself.
To evaluate the WSHP for single family dwell ings, a "typical" 1200 to
2
1500 ft house which used 75 x 106 Btu each winter for heating and removed
6
35x 10 Btu each sunrner from the house for cooling was used. Current rates
for elect ricity and natural gas in Wi chita were used and two different es timates
iii
we~
made of the increase in utility costs in the future, called the moderate
and the high case.
These cases are
Electricity (first five years)
Moderate
12% year
High
14%
Electricity (after five years)
7%
8%
9.1%
14%
Natural gas
The different heating and cooling systems were priced as already mentioned,
and the well system was assumed to cost $1300.
The WSHP was assumed to have
the same maintenance costs as the conventional heat pump system but it was
assumed that the WSHP had an additional $25 per year maintenance cost when
compared with systems using a gas furnace or resistance heating.
System life-
time was assumed to be 15 years in each case, and the savings in utility bills
were found each year from the difference in yearly expenses using the WSHP and
each of the conventional systems.
Each year1s savings was discounted to a
present value using a 7% per year discount rate.
The total savings were found
by summing the present values of all the years' savings and this was compared
to the additional cost of the water source system.
It was found that heating
was more important than air conditioning in determining the economics.
The
following results were found.
1. The water source system does not compare well with the gas furnace/
electric air system.
Natural gas is much cheaper than other fuels
and economically it is virtually the only way to heat a residence
in the midwest if it is available.
2. The water source system is much more economical than resistance heating
with a conventional air conditioner.
The present value of the savings
over a 15 year period is about $5000 for the typical residence.
iv
3. The WSHP is more economical than the conventional heat pump for a
typical residence; the present value of the savings is about $900
over the fifteen years.
The economics of the water source system is penalized by the $1300 cost
of the well. and in cases where a well is available or can be drilled more
cheaply, the economics would be better.
No credit was given for other uses
of a well system. such as lawn watering, in this study.
If several houses
in a new subdivision would share a well each dwelling would have a cheaper
well cost, and this would also make the economics look much better.
To determine the use of water source systems for apartments, the Maple
Garden complex was analyzed.
This complex has water source units and uses a
single large well shared by 171 apartments.
Based on the cost data obtained
for these apartments, the economics were determined for a hypothetical 1000 ft
2
apartment using a \OJSHP instead of resistance heating with conventional air conditioning. (Many of the apartments in the Wichita area use resistance heating
so this comparison was made.) Over the assumed fifteen year lifetil,le the present
value of the savings was $1500. which is a large savings for the renter.
In this study Wichita electric and gas rates were used .
In areas where
electric or gas rates are higher the economics could be further improved for
the water source system.
The following recommendations are made.
1.
In the near future, natural gas should be used for heating.
priced that other heati ng methods cannot compete with it .
It is so underIf the price
per Btu of natural gas rises to more closely correspond with
t~at
of other
fuels, this situation should change, but the present natural gas pri cing
regulations should not let this happen very quickly.
v
This recommendation
arises from economic considerations and not from fuel conservation
factors, which could lead to a quite different conclusion.
2.
nesistance heating should be discouraged or banned in both single
family residences and apartments.
3. Water source systems should be used in new installations instead of
resistance heating systems or conventional heat pump systems.
systems are especially good where wells are available or can be
shared by several units.
vi
WSHP
THE USE OF WATER SOURCE HEAT PUMPS
IN SOUTH CENTRAL KANSAS
INTRODUCTION
A significant portion of the energy consumption of Wichita is due to
the need to heat and cool private homes.
Therefore any means of improving
the energy efficiency of heating and air conditioning systems could potentially
save an enormous amount of energy.
The purpose of this report is to present
the results of an investigation into a particular device which promises to
decrease the amount of energy necessary to provide heating and cooling:
the water source heat pump (WSHP) .
The aim of this study was to attempt to evaluate WSHP's from the prac-
tical sta ndpoint of a Wichita resident who might consider purchasing such a
system.
The fundamentals of water source and other systems were reviewed.
The availability of ground water in the Wi chita area was established.
Distri butors and in stallers of WSHP' s were found in the vicinity.
The costs
of purchasi ng, ·installing, and maintaining WSHP's and other types of heating
and air conditioning systems were researched.
An investi gation of the amount
of energy required to heat and cool a typical home was performed.
I
Finally,
a comparison was made of the value of WSHP's and conventional systems, taking
into account the anticipated trend in energy prices, the different performance
ratings (EER, COP, etc.) of competing systems , and the ti me value of money. On
the basis of the work outlined above , guidelines were developed to assist
those interested in WSHP systems.
1
2
THEORY AND OPERATION OF HEAT PUMPS
A heat pump performs the task of moving energy in the form of heat
from a region of low temperature to a region of higher temperature.
For
instance. in the winter, heat is moved from the cool outside air into a
warm house.
During the summer, heat is taken from a cool house and rejected
into the hot atmosphere .
Since it is thenmodynamical1y unnatural for heat
to move in this direction, the heat pump requires external energy to accomplish the heat transfer.
Furthermore , the greater the difference between
the temperature of the two regions, the greater the amount of external energy
needed.
The primary components of a heat pump are shown in Fig. 1.
In the
cooling mode, heat ;s absorbed by the refrigerant (freon) in the indoor coil
or "evaporator" and rejected from the refrigerant in the outdoor coil or
"condensor." The energy required to perfonn this task is input from the
compressor. which uses electricity as an energy source.
To provide heat. the direction of refrigerant flow is reversed .
Heat
is absorbed by the refrigerant in the outdoor coil and rejected from the
refrigerant in the indoor coil.
Again. energy is provided to accomplish this
task through the compressor.
I
Most heat pumps transfer heat between the inside air and the atmosphere.
Such heat pumps are referred to as lIair source," "air-to-air," or "air cooled"
heat pumps.
Since the indoor temperature of a residence is normally maintained
between 65°F and 80°F year round, there is a temperature difference through
which heat must be transferred of up to 25°F in the summer and over 65°F during
the winter.
3
HEAT fROM l;lSfDE OF rlOUSE
EVAPORATOR
ENERGY
NECESSARY
TO
EXPANSION
VALVE
0'
CAPILLARY
TRANSFER
HEAT
TUBE
CONDENSOR
RE FRIGERANT
FLOW DI RECTION
HEAT REJECTED HlTO S HE TYPE OF HEAT SINK
(IIORHAlLY OUTSIO£ A!R j
Fi gure 1.
The primary components of a heat pump .
A heat PWi'lP which exchanges heat between a supply of water and the
indoor air is called a "water-source," "water-to-air," or "water-cooled!!
heat pump.
The difference between a water-source heat pump (WSHP) and an
air-source heat pump (ASHP) is that the outooor coil of the ASHP is traded
for a water-to-refri gerant heat exchanger.
Whether or not a WSHP
i~
more energy efficient than an ASHP depends on
which system t ransfers heat between the smaller temperature difference.
In
the Wichita vicinity, it is practical to use ground water as a heat source or
4
heat sink. This water maintains a relatively constant temperature of about
60°F throughout the year.
Thus the temperature difference between the inside
air and the ground water is never greater than about 20° F.
In fact, during
the cooling season heat is actually transferred in the natural direction (from
warm inside air to cool water) thereby requiring a mini mum amount of external
energy in the form of electricity to perform the transfer.
For residential purposes the ordinary system configuration would be as
shown in Fig. 2.
Water is pumped from the ground. circulated around a heat
exchanger, and disposed of in a return well, sewer, or by other means.
I ~------ ______, .
. ~
'--~-. ---
.c
...
DI SCHARGE WELL
SUPPLY WELL
AQUIFER
Figure 2. An example of a configuration which could be
used ir. a water source heat pump application .
Other
5
configurations could be usedj for instance. use could be made of a holding
tank or swimming pool to supply water which would be utilized over and over
agatn. Regardless of the source of water, the water must be able to absorb
or provide all heat required.
Unless the vo lume of water is very great, means
must be provided to remove heat from or add heat to the water supply itself.
Ground water is especially adaptable to WSHP systems because the volume is so
great that all heat is easily absorbed or supplied.
AVAILABILITY OF WATER
There are three concerns which affect t he use of water in conjunction
with WSHpt s . These are geologica l, chemical, and legal restrictions.
Geolo-
gical restrictions are related to the accessibility of the ground water to
the user.
Depth to water and the penetrability of the material overlying the
water are examples of geologica l restrictions.
The presence of undesirable
chemicals which could impede the transfer of heat or the lifetime of the system
is a chemical restriction.
Finally, laws pertaini ng to the drilling of wells
and the disposal of water are some of the legal restrictions which may be encountered.
A) Geological Restr ictions
Ground water is available in the City of Wichita from approximately
Hillside Avenue to Ridge Road. l The water may be found in well s as shallow
as ten feet below the surface of the land but never deeper than forty
feet.
Estimates of the rate at which water may be withdrawn over this
entire area far exceed the amounts necessary to supply residential users
with heat pumps.
A map of Sedgwick county showing the approximate availa-
bility of ground water is given in Fig. "3.
6
questi onabl e
Figure 3.
~
good
~
best
m
A map of Sedgwi ck Coun ty showing the
approx imate ava il ability of ground water.
To the east of Hill side (approximately) there i s less chance of finding
water.
Accord ing to the State Geological Survey this area is li the most
diffi cult area in the county in whic h to ob ta in a ground water supply . II
There are several residences east of Hillside wh ich rely on well water to
7
supply all their domestic needs, however.
The water, when found, is nor-
mally less than 150 feet deep and has a high percentage of dissolved solids.
Occurrence of ground water in this area is less frequent than to the west.
but there are many active wells capable of .supplying water for heat pump
utilization.
Water is available to the west of Ridge Road also, according to the
Kansas Geological Survey's 1965 report (reference 1).
Dr. Robert Berg,
chairman of the Geology Department at WSU disagrees. however, noting that the
elevation above sea level at Ridge is nearly the same as Hil1side. 2 According to Berg, the likelihood of finding water to the west of Ridge is no better
than to the east of Hillside.
B) Chemical Restrictions
Most of the ground water found in the Wichita vicinity is suitable
for use with heat pumps.
There are, however. areas in which the water
contains a relatively high proportion of dissolved calcium and magnesium
salts.
Such dissolved solids are the primary causes of scale buildup in
pipes.
The effect of these solutes is difficult to estimate, though it
;s expected that they will increa se maintenance problems.
Scale not only
impedes the flow of water through pipes, it also increases the resistance
to heat transfer through the pipe walls.
Ground water found to the west
of Hi l l side in the Arkansas River Valley is normally free from undes irable
elements in si gnificant quantities.
To the east of the county the water
is less pure and detrimental elements are more likely to be found.
The
presence of dissolved solids is highly variable, and information on the
chemical nature of waters at a specific location can be found in reference 1.
A high proportion of dissolved solids does not preclude the use of a WSHP,
although the presence of such materials can cause additional maintenance
probl~s.
8
C) legal Restrictions
There are currently no legal barriers which prevent a homeowner
from drilling a well on his own property.
The only potential hazard is
that the draw down from a new well hampers the output of another well.
In such a case the new well may be shut down.
All well drillers must be licensed by the Kansas State Department
of Health and Environment.
They are required to follow regulations re-
garding distance from property lines, septic tanks, etc., and also rules
governing proper casing and sealing of the well.
larger wells, which may be used to supply water to several WSHP's
may fall into a commercial well category.
For such wells an application
for water rights must be made to the Department of Health and Environment
Division of Water Resources.
Approval of the application depends on the
number of current wells within a half mile radius of the proposed well .
Some problems may occur with disposal of the effluent water from
WSHP's.
Normally. the homeowner has no use for the water after it has
passed through the water-to-freon heat exchanger.
Therefore it is neces-
sary to provide for discharge of this water which will flow at rates of
less than fifteen gallons per minute (gpm).
An excellent means of handling the discharge from a WSHP is to use
a di sposal well which funnels the water back into the water table.
Such
a well should be installed as carefully as the supply well to assure that
no bacteriological contaminants are inj ected into the water supply .
There
are no restrictions on disposal wells for domestic use at the present time.
Within the City of Wichita, heat pump users may utilize the city's
sewer sys tem for disposal of the effluent water from WSHP's.
If the water
9
is contaminated it must be sent through the sanitary sewer system.
In
this case, the quantity of water is limited to the amount which would be
discharged by a three-ton unit.
Thus homes which have WSHP's that are rated
at or less than three tons (36,000 Btu's) may use the sanitary sewer system.
For water which is not contaminated, as should be the case with WSHP's.
the storm sewers may be used to discharge water.
These sewers are quite
capable of handling all the water which would be discharged from WSHP's.
Although there are no insurmountable difficulties currently affecting the
discharge of water through the city sewer system, it is likely that regula-
tions will be passed in the future if WSHP's are widely used.
SIZING A W
SHP SYSTEM
Methods of sizing heating and air conditioning systems are covered in
detail in the ASHRAE "Handbook of Fundamentals. u3
It is especially important
that care be taken to properly size the system to provide adequate heating in
the winter.
All heating and air conditioning contractors should be able to
.
properly determine the necessary capac; ty of heat pump systems .
A Wichita home with sufficient insulation to meet City Code requirements
(R-19 in the ceilings and R-11 in the walls) would require a heat pump with
approximately one ton (one ton =12.000 Btu) of capacity per every five to seven
-hundred square feet of floor sp-ace-:-- The -capaci ty i s ~ i~~ -d;,pe~d-;;~t~ -~ariab1es - - such as amount of window space, exposure to the environment, etc.
Poorly insulated homes do not have balanced heating and cooling requirements.
For such homes it is necessary to greatly oversize the cooling capacity
of a heat pump to meet all demands for heat . Over-sized systems do not operate
10
It peak efficiency, do not dehumidify properly , and have a much greater first
cost than those that are properly sized.
Thus heat pumps are better suited
for well insulated homes with balanced heating and cooling requirements .
AVAILABLE WATER SOURCE HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS
- _.- --- - - - -- -- - Performance ratings of some available WSH~ systems are given in
-~ -
Table 1.
-- - ~ - - -- --- - - - -
The "Energy Efficiency Ratio" (EER) is the result of dividing
the cooling capacity in British thermal units per hour (Btuh) by the
power input in watts at a given set of rating conditions.
in Btu/watt-hour.
EER is expressed
The "Coefficient of Performance" (COP) is the result of
dividing the total heating capacity of a heat pump (excluding s upplemental
resistance heat) in Btuh by the total electric input in Btuh (Btuh = watt s x
3.412).
In both EER and COP calculations the energy input to all circulating
fan s and operating circuitry should be inc l uded.
Values of EER and COP s hould be used only for comparison of similar systems.
They are established under rigid test conditions in a laboratory and these
conditions do not necessarily approximate those in an actual home.
Most of the systems shown in Table 1 are rated under the Ai 'r -conditioning
4
and Refrigeratio n Institute (AR!) Standard 320-76.
These conditions are
given in Table 2.
Notice that the inlet water temperature for cooling is
85°F and for heating is 70°F.
Both of these temperatures are considerably
higher than the 60°F ground water found in Wichita.
Thus it could be ex-
pected that the published values f or EER and COP are not very accurate indi-
cations of the actual performance of WSHP's in Wichita.
"
11
--------
-Perfonnance Ratings Of Availabl e WSHP Systems with
Approximately Three Tons of .Rated Cooling Capacity.
Table L
Cooling CAp.
( Btuh )
Heating Cap.
( Dtuh)
EER
COP
Enercon
35 , 000
41,000
•••
3.0
Solar K1 ng
35,000
41 ,000
•••
3.0
Weathermaker
33,000
38,000
'.5
2.'
Comnand-Alre
32,500
3 ton
42,000
3 ton
'.2
'.6
'.7
10.5
3.6
2.7
3.2
3.7
10 . 7
3.1
3.3
Manufacturer
Trade-Name
American Afr Filter Co . •
Inc .
American Sola r King
Corporation
Carrier Alrcondltlonfng
.
--- -. - -- --~-----
<
CoqIany
COIIIIIlnd-Af re Corp.
---
"Edison
Florida Heat Pump Co.
Energy Miser
33 ,000
Friedrich Afrconditfoning
Climate Master
34,500
40,000
45,000
Heat E)changers Inc .
Koldwave
34,000
40,000
International Envi ron-
Paramount
35,500
35 .000
Hydrobank
33,000
Energy Exchange
33 , 000
40 ,000
40 ,000
,..
,.,
,. ,
&Refrigeration Co.
I!II!ntal Corporation
lear Ziegler, Inc.
Northrup, Inc .
Efficiency
3.2
3.2
Systems
Singer Company
Electro-Hydronfc
33 ,000
35 , 500
'.4
2.9
"So lar Oriented" Envlronmental Systems
SOESI Power
Systems
33,000
40,000
'.7
3.2
"Wl!atherkfng Inc.
Weatherktng
34 , 000
34,000
*Wescorp
Solar System
36,000
44 , 000
10.9
2.'
3.8
,. ,
"These systems are not necessarily rated under the same conditions (ARI Standa rd 320-76)
as the rest.
Table 2.
Operating Conditions fo r ARI Standard Ratings .
ARt STANDARD RATING
CGrlOJTlONS fOR ...
AIR EIITERING
INDOOR COIL
WATER
TEMP .
AIR TEMPERATURE
SURROUtlDJNG UNIT
ORY BUlB
TEfIII. Of
WET BULB
TEMP. Of
JN
OUT
DRY BULB
Heating
70
60 (max)
70
--
70
Cooll n9
.0
67
85
95
80
..
12
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
A homeowner who is interested in installing a heating and air conditionIng system Is very lIkely concerned about obtaining the most economical system
avaIlable.
sys~,
Water source heat pumps will have a higher first cost than other
but should be cheaper to operate.
Thus it ;s necessary to estimate
the potential money savings that could be attributed to the better performance
of the WSHP and weigh the savings against the additional first cost of the
system.
WSHP systems are less expensive to operate than some other heating and
air conditioning systems because they require less energy to provide a given
amount of heating or cooling.
The amount of energy which they save is rela-
tivelyeasy to predict because heating and cooling demands are nearly constant
over long periods of time.
Cost savings, however, are more difficult to deter-
mine since the future of energy prices is uncertain .
Estimates of the cost
savings of WSHP systems are made by using carefully researched forecasts of
future energy prices.
All economic calculations performed in this study will make provisions for
the "time value of money"S which dictates that the further in the future a certain sum of money is received , the less the present value of that sum of money.
This effect is due to the investment potential of money.
The time value of money
is nonnally expressed by discounting future payments by a value known ·as ,the dis .. ·
count rate.
The discount rate is closely related to interest received on invest-
ments and the cost of borrowing money.
If an economic study is performed in
which money is to be received more than a few years in the future, it is very
hazardous to ignore money·s time value.
13
The technique used to express the economic worth of the WSHP was to esti..te its "Net Present Value" relative to a competing system.
The Net Present
Value is found in the following manner:
1) Determine the operation cost savings for each future year.
Z) Discount the future savings to determine the equivalent present value.
3) Total the present values of all future savings .
4)
Subtract from this total the extra cos·t of the WSHP.
If the result is positive, then the WSHP is a better investment that the system
to which it is being compared. If the result is negative, then it would not
be wise to invest in a WSHP.
In order to perform the economic analysis presented here it was necessary
to make several assumptions.
The analysis required exact specifications of
several parameters which in actuality have a wide variance.
Attempts were
made to obtain. typical values wherever possible, however, often only the range
of variables could be spec.ified.
In these cases, upper and lower bounds were
set on variable ranges to give an indication of possible outcomes.
The calculations performed in the study were intended to represent the
"typical" Wichita home.
This home, if it exists, has between 1200 and 1500
square feet of floor space.
The home is insulated according to City Code
requirements and requires a three ton (36,000 Btu) heating and air conditioning
system.
The family is reasonably concerned with energy conservation, yet likes
to remain comfortable in both winter and summer.
Though perhaps such a home
is representative of only a very few actual dwellings, it will serve as a
basis for presentation of the economic study.
Calculations for other specific
homes may be done with a minimum of effort once the algorithm has been established.
14
The variables which were used in the economic analysis were:
1) Amount of heat energy required
2) Amount of cooling required
3) Discount rate
4) Cost of electricity
5) Inflation of electricity prices
6) Cost of natural gas
7) Inflation of natural gas prices
8) Lifetime of the system
9) Performance factors of the systems
10) Cost of the systems
11) Maintenance costs
These parameters and the actual values which were used are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
1) Amount of heating energy required.
The amount of energy purchased to heat a home is dependent on
house size, insulation quality. exposure, architecture, family habits,
and many other more subtle influences.
Two techniques were used to
estimate the total number of Btuls required to heat the home for a year.
The first method was to collect over a year's supply of past utility
bills of several persons who live in homes which approximate the
typical description.
If they used natural gas for heat, the average
amount of natural gas used during the summer months was determined.
This number. the base amount, represented the quantity of natural
gas used for water heating and cooking, etc.
The base amount was
15
deducted from the total amount of natural gas used during the winter
months to determine the total quantity of gas purchased for heat.
obtain the total amount of actual heat
ener~YI
To
the quantity of gas used for
heat was multiplied by (1,000,000)·(.65) Btu/Mef, where 1,000,000 is
the approximate number of Btu's per thousand cubic feet (Mef) of gas
and .65 is the average efficiency of due ted gas heat. 6 A similar
method was used for homes with electric heat, however it was slightly
more difficult to determine the base amount of electricity required
to serve purposes other than heating or cooling.
In this case. the
total number of kiloWatt-hours (kWh) used for heating was multiplied
by 3412·SPF Btu/kWh where 3412 is the number of Btu's per kWh and
SPF is the seasonal performance factor of the heating system.
The second technique estimated the total amount of heating energy
required from Fig. 4 and Table 3.
The heat loss of a home may be assumed
to be linear and inversely proportioned to outside temperature. 7 Furthermore, no heat is required from the heating system until the outdoor temperature dips below 65°F.
Thus a graph was made of the heat loss of a
home as a function of temperature by locating the heat loss at the winter
design temperature (36,000 Btu/hr at approximately 5°F for the typical
Wichita home) and drawing a straight line between this pOint and 65°F
on the temperature axis (Fig. 4).
Using National Weather Service (NWS)
supplied data on the frequency distribution of temperatures in Wichita
and the graph of Fig. 4, the total heat loss of the home was estimated
as indicated in Table 3.
The empirical and theoretical techniques yielded
results which were very close to one another: approximately 75,000,000 to
85,000,000 Btu's of heat per year are required for the typical 1200- 1500 ft2
Wichita home.
16
60
~
"
0
~
50
WICHITA DESIGN
CO ND ITIO NS
~
'"
.,"
'"•
0-
40
30
~
~
0
.,
'"'"
~
20
10
~
-20 -10
Figure 4.
Table 3.
10
20 30·
temperature OF
80
Heat loss vs . outdoor temperatures for a typica l Wichita
house of 1200 - 1500 ft2.
Heat loss calculations for a typical 1200 - 1500 f t 2
\IIichita house.
Mid-Point of
Temperature Interval
62
57
52
47
42
37
32
27
22
17
12
7
2
-3
-8
0
Heat loss
Per Hour
(from Fig. 4)
Number of Hours
Per Year
(from NWS)
Heat Loss
Per Year
3,000
4,500
8,000
11,000
14,000
17,000
20,000
22,500
26,000
28,750
32,000
35,000
38,000
40,750
43,750
641
603
589
592
611
589
607
426
273
161
85
45
14
3
1
1,923 ,000
2,713,500
4,7 12,000
6,512,000
8,554,000
9,928,000
12,140,000
9,585,000
7,098,000
4,628,750
2,720,000
1,575,000
532,000
122,250
43,750
17
2) Amount of cooling energy required.
The amount of cooling energy required by a home is dependent on
several variables just as heating energy is.
No simple analytical
technique was found to estimate the cooling energy per year and only
empirical information was used for cooling estimates.
Using utility
bills, the cooling energy was estimated by subtracting the energy used
for lights. applicances, etc .• from the total kWh used during the
summer season.
The total number of kWh used per year for cooling was
multiplied by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) of the air conditioner.
On the bases of studies of several typical Wichita homes,
the amount of cooling energy was estimated to be 35,000,000 to 40,000,000
Btu/year for a 1200 - 1500 ft2 house.
3) Discount rate.
As mentioned earlier, all calculations performed in this study
wi 11 include the effect of the time va 1ue of money .
I n order to do
this, an interest rate must be assi gned to represent the rate of return
that a typical Wichita homeowner must receive on an investment to make
it worthwhile.
For an investment with some risk, such as a WSHP might
be perceived, a homeowner might desire a long - term return of lOX/year.
An investment is normally taxable; assuming a homeowner to be in the
30% tax bracket brings the investment return down to 7%. Electricity
bill savings are not taxed for an individual (they are for a business),
but since other investments are, a discount rate of 7% seems reasonable.
An alternate view is to assume that money is to be borrowed to
install the heating and air conditioning system .
In this case the
18
homeowner would expect operating costs on the WSHP to be low enough
to recover the additional loan money and interest.
If it was assumed
that the money could be borrowed at 10% per year, and also assuming
a 30% tax bracket for the homeowner. the discount rate would again
~n.
Although considerable variation in investment returns, loan
interest rates, and individual tax brackets can be expected to occur,
the 7% figure will be used here as representative.
4) Cost of electricity.
The cost of electricity for residential customers in Wichita varies
according to the type of heating system, the amount of electricity used
by the customer, and the cost of the primary fuel used by KG&E to generate the electricity.
Furthermore, the cost of electricity used to
air condition is considerably greater than the cost of electricity used
to heat.
For this study it was necessary to determine the cost of
electricity for both heating and cooling purposes.
Typically, if a home is heated by electricity all other appliances
are likewise powered by electricity.
That is, it is rare to use natural
gas to heat water when electricity is used for space heating.
This
being the case, homes that are heated by electricity qualify for the
lowest available electric rate.
Currently, that rate is 2.085 cents
per kWh during the winter, if it is assumed that the first 100 kWh per
month are used for purposes other than heating.
The cost of electricity for cooling is not as easy to determine
from KG&E's rate schedules.
During the summer, the rate for energy in
19
excess of 1150 kWh is 3.452 cent/kWh. However. the typical demand
•
for electricity for purposes other than cooling is from 800 to 1000
kWh per month.
Thus some of the energy used for cooling purposes is
cheaper 'than others. Further complicating the matter, the cost for
energy above 150 kWh is slightly higher for people who have natural
gas heat than it is for people with electric heat.
In order to per-
form calculations, it will be assumed that the rate for cooling energy
is the highest available rate for all homeowners.
rently 3.452 cents per kWh.
This rate is cur-
This assumption penalizes the economic
appearance of heat pumps, but only slightly.
An additional problem in determining the price per kWh is caused
by the Retail Fuel Adjustment Clause Rider.
The cost of primary fuel
is passed on to the consumer through this mechanism.
When KG&E applies
to the Kansas Corporation Commission (KCC) for approval of a rate
schedule~
year.
the cost of fuel is based on the cost of fuel during the previous
If the price of fuel increases after the rate schedule has been
approved. KG&E computes the difference in the current cost of fuel and
the cost of fuel included in the rate on a per kWh basis.
The addi-
tional cost or credit is passed along to the customer as a fuel adjustment charge.
The fuel adjustment currently is about .2 cents per kWh;
it varies monthly according to the type of fuel available.
The effect of the fuel adjustment clause is to increase the cost
of electricity for heating to about 2.285 cents/kWh and 3.652 cents/kWh
for cooling.
These are the values that will be used for the current
cost of electricity.
KANSAS STATE LIBRARY
300 SW 10TH AVE AM 343
TOPEJ(A Q
20
86612-1593
5) Electricity price inflation.
The average price per kWh for residential KG&E customers in8
creased ten percent from 1977 to 1978. This increase is only slightly
higher than the overall rate of inflation experienced during that
period.
However, the increase from 1976 to 1977 was an overwhelming
21.6~ ,
for an average increase of 15.8% per year over the past two
years.
This trend in electricity prices illustrates a phenomenon
typical of energy prices.
Rather than changing at a constant rate,
the price of energy tends to increase in steps.
For ease of computa-
tion, it was assumed in this study that the price of both natural gas
and electricity would increase in a continuous fashion.
This required
the use of long term inflation rates somewhat lower than those experienced
in the past few years.
It is believed. however. that the rates used will
adequately describe the trend over the next fifteen years.
There are three types of costs which contribute to the rise in
electricity prices.
The first is very obvious: fuel costs.
As the
cost of primary fuel sources such as natura1 gas, oil. coal, and uranium increases. so must the cost of the electricity generated from these
sources.
Not many years ago, the cost of fuel was a small portion of
the price paid for electricity; now it is responsible for about fifty
percent of the purchase price . A second cause of electricity price
increase is inflation itself.
As the Consumer Price Index escalates,
indicating higher costs of living, utility company operating costs go up.
Employees need to be paid more and
materi~ls
get more expensive.
In-
creases due to overall inflation are compensated somewhat. however,
since the salaries of most homeowners are correspondingly increased.
21
The final factor which, influences the rise of electricity prices is
the cost of improving and expanding service.
In order to meet balloon-
ing customer demand for energy, KG&E has been adding additional generating
capacity to its system, and they will continue to do so at least through
1984.
The Kansas Corporation Commission prohibits utility companies
from increasing rates for new facilities until the facilities become
operational, however, once they come "on line" the company has a sub-
stantial debt to recover.
It is the addition of new generating plants
that is mainly responsible for the "step-change ll character of energy
prices.
Of the three causes of electricity price inflation, not all
Of the three causes of electricity price inflation. not all are
active at the same time.
During the late 1960's, for example. the cost
of fuel was actually decreasing from year to year.
Unfortunately. at
the present and in the foreseeable future each of the causes of electricity price increase will continue.
Gas and oil costs are climbing
at a record pace, inflation is extremely high, and more and more expansion of service is being required to meet all customer demand.
The
cumulative effect is the continued painful acceleration of · electrical
energy prices which has been experienced for the past few years.
The exact amount that electricity prices will increase during
the next several years is impossible to predict, however it is possible
to estimate a reasonable range for use here.
In an attempt to discover
what is and is not reasonable, several sources were consulted, including KG&E. the Edison Electric Institute, the Kansas Corporation Commission. and various other economists.
Though they do not all agree,
they did represent views ranging from very optimistic to exceedingly
pessimi stic.
22
The Edison Electric Institute is a national organization which
has a reasonably good track record for forecasting electric utility
trends.
They suggest that the average residential price for electricity
9
will increase slightly above the overall inflation rate through 1995.
Depending on what happens in the rest of the economy. this
co~ld
mean price increases of from perhaps 7% to 12% per year, depending
upon the general rate of inflation.
KG&E tends to agree with the Edison Electric Institute, accord·
.'
;ng to Rich Mosher, 10 an englneenng
cansu 1tant t a the Marketing Depa.rt-
ment .
He added, however, that a lot depends on what happens to the price
of fuel in the next few years.
During the winter KG&E used a signifi-
cant amount of fuel oil. the price of which is not controlled by federal
inflation guidelines.
Other sources tended to have more pessimistic views of the future
of energy prices.
The Wichita Eagle and Beacon predicted that the cost
of electricity will increase at a rate of about 12.5% per year for
ll
the next five years due to the cost of construction alone.
Combining
this with projections of fuel price increases of up to 14% per year
would yield increases exceeding 20% per year.
These predictions,
though high, could possibly occur, given a certain set of circumstances.
Utility prices are regulated, however. and it is more likely that such
increases will not be allowed due to political intervention.
Based on the information gathered in this study, two fuel inflation estimates will be used. one moderate and one high.
of low increases will not even be considered).
cases are shown in Table 4.
(The possibility
TtJe values for the two
23
Table 4.
Moderate and high price inflation for
electricity and natural gas prices.
Electricity price -increases (first 5 years)
El ectri city price increa.;es (after 5 years)
~atural gas price increases
Moderate
12%/year
7%
9.1%
High
14%
8%
14%
The difference in the two is partially dependent on the underlying
general inflation.
For the high case 10% genera'l inflation is assumed
for the first few years with slightly fower increases after that .
For
the moderate case approximately 8% is assumed for the next few years
with perhaps 5.5%thereafter.
Obviously, these values are only esti-
mates and the reader can assume whichever of these he desires or
come up with his own prediction.
Hopefully, however, these values
do bracket fairly well most people's expectations.
The natural gas
price increases shown in the table are discussed next.
6) Cost of natural gas.
The current rate schedule for residential customers of the Gas
Service Company is shown in Table 5.
As can be seen in the table~
the price of gas depends on the amount used per month.
Most natural
gas customers use gas not only for space heating but also for water
heating.
Therefore. the first three thousand cubic feet (Mcf) of gas
used by the customer may be thought of as dedicated to this alternate
use.
Using this logie, the price of gas for space heating purposes
is $1.393 per Mcf.
7) Inflation of natural gas prices.
The National Gas Policy Act of 1978 allows for the incremental
deregulation of natural gas prices.
The Act sets the price of gas
24
Table 5.
The current rate structure for Gas Service Co.
customers in ~Jichita.
1st Mef
Each of next
two Hef
Additional Mef
$3.028
$1.4724
$1.393
from now until 1985 with price increases partially determined by
whether the gas is classified as "new" or "old," The gas used by
residential customers in Wichita i s a mixture of the old and new gas
in unpredictable proportions, so there is some difficulty in making
future estimates.
In addition. by allowing producers the incentive
to develop new nas supplies the Act should help to increase the
availability of new natural gas.
The American Gas Association (AGA) is an organization much like
the Edison Electric Institute.
They have made predictions of the
average price for residential use of natural gas based upon different
. 12 From t he present through 1990, AGA exsupply and demand 5cenarl0S.
pects the price of natural gas to increase from 7.48% to 9.10% per
year.
These percentages are based upon an average overall inflation
rate of 5.5%; this 5.5% rate is probably conservative.
Other persons
who are in a position to predict future gas prices, such as Roy
Sundman of the Kansas Corporation Commission,13 expect the price to
rise as much as 14% per year, especially during the next few years.
On the basis of the available information, the values shown in
Table 4 were used.
25
8) Lifetime of the system.
The effective lifetime of a water source heat pump system could
possibly have a wide range of values.
According to a statistical
study performed in 1975 and 176 by Akalin. 14 the average service
life of a residential air source heat pump is eleven years.
Unfor-
tunately. Akal;n did not have a very broad data base, so his results
are somewhat suspect.
For the purposes of this study. the service
life of all equipment will be assumed to be fifteen years.
9} Performance factors of the systems.
The quality of heating and air conditioning equipment is expressed
in terms of a performance factor which relates the amount of energy
input to the system to the amount of heating or cooling produced
by the system.
The types of systems to be considered in this report
and thelr performance factors are given in Table 6.
Because of the confusion which is often encountered when disCussing performance factors, it is useful to discuss them briefly.
In general, a furnace is a device wich converts energy from an easily
handled form into heat.
For instance, ~nergy in the form of natural gas
is burned in a gas furnace to produce heat and energy in the form of
electricity is forced through a high resistance coil to produce heat
in an electric furnace.
The perfonnance of a furnace is expressed as
"efficiency"; it relates the amount of energy input to the furnace as
either natural gas or electricity to the amount of heat produced.
efficiency will always be a number less than one.
The
26
Table 6. Perfonnance factors of the system studied.
SYSTEM
PERFORMANCE
GAS FURNACE
EFFICIENCY
EFF
.65 BTU/BTU
ELECTRIC FURNACE
EFFICIENCY
EFF
.95 KWH/KWH
ELECTRIC AIR
CONDITIONING
SEASONAL ENERGY
EFFICIENCY RATIO
SEER
AIR SOURCE
HEAT PUMP
HEATING
COOLING
WATER SOURCE
PUMP
HEATING
COOLING
SEASONAL PERFORMANCE SPF
FACTOR
SEASONAL ENERGY
EFFICIENCY RATIO
SEER
SEASONAL
PERFORMANCE
FACTOR
SPF
SEASONAL ENERGY
SEER
7.0 - 9.5 BTU/Watt
1.5 - 2.5 BTU/BTU
7.0 - 9.5 Btu/Watt
2.5 - 3.7 BTU/BTU
9.5 - 11.0
The average annual efficiency of a typical gas furnace has been es6
timated to be 65%by the American Gas Associati.on.
This means that for
every 100 Btu's of energy input to the furnace, 65 Btu's are transferred
into the home in the form of heat.
gas contains 1.000,000 Btu's.)
(Typically, one Hcf of natural
Some manufacturers will claim higher
efficiencies. however their claims often do not include the effects
of age and cycling which are experienced by an actual furnace.
The efficiency of an electric furnace has been estimated to
be 100% by General Electric Company, 98% by the American Gas Association, 95% by the National Well Water Association, and 92% by the
.'
t'
15,6,16,17
Federal Energy Admlnlstra 10n.
Variance in the efficiency
27
of electric furnaces ;s due to heat loss in the ductwork which trans-
ports the heat to the space where it is needed.
Because of the range
of values found from different sources, it was decided to use 95% as
the typical efficiency of an electric furnace.
A heat pump, regardless of whether it is water or air source,
does not simply convert energy from one form into another.
it
~6'"
heat in opposition to the natural flow.
Rather.
Thus it is possible
for more energy in the form of heat to be obtained from a heat pump than
the amount of electrical energy input to the heat pump.
As was indi-
cated earlier, a heat pump operates in the same manner regardless of
whether it is heating or cooling a home.
The only difference is the
direction in which heat is being transferred.
For reasons unknown to the authors. it has become standard practice
to describe the cooling performance by the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
and the heating perfonnance by Coefficient of Performance (COP).
In
general. the EER relates the Btu's of cooling provided by a heat pump
to the input electrical energy in Watts.
The COP, on the other hand.
relates the Btu's of heating provided to the input electrical energy
e~pkeh~ed ~n Btu'~.
The basic difference between EER and COP is merely
the units in which they are expressed.
The relationship between EER
and COP is EER = COP x 3.412.
In order to compare one heat pump model to another it is
to test them under identical operating conditions.
necessa~
Thus the Air-Condi_
tioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) has defined conditions for
testing heat pumps.
Three sets of conditions are currently specified
for air source heat pumps: one each for low temperature heating. high
temperature heating. and air conditioning.
The performance factors
28
derived from tests under these conditions are known as the low Temper-
ature Standard COP, the High Temperature Standard COP and the Standard
EER. respectively.
Most manufacturers include the High Temperature
Standard COP and the Standard EER along with the information supplied
about their heat pumps.
These ratings, usually called simply COP and
EER. are useful only for qualitative comparison of devices; they are
not sufficient to describe the operation during a heating or cooling
season in which the operating conditions fluctuate.
During the heating season, the average value of the COP of a heat
pump is called the Seasonal Performance Factor (SPF).
SPF is defined
as the ratio between the total annual amount of heat provided by a heating
system to the total annual amount of energy input to the system.
is dimensionless (the units are Btu/Btu or kWh/kWh).
SPF
Analytical
determination of SPF depends on the heating capacity of the system,
the input energy to the system. and the heating requirements of the
home (or other structure) all of which are a function of the weather
conditions to which the home is subjected.
An example of the theoretical determination of SPF of a Coleman
air source heat pump is included in Appendix I.
The Standard COP of
the system was given by the manufacturer to be 2.9 at 47°F.
The cal-
culated value of the SPF was found to be 2.45, a decrease of 16%
from the Standard COP.
is still doubtful.
Unfortunately, the accuracy of this estimation
According to a study for the National Bureau of
Standards)B the actual SPF of an air source heat pump may be considerabl y lower than the value calculated from the manufacturer's specifications.
They attributed the discrepancy to "adverse effects of frost
buildup and defrosting of the outdoor coil."
29
Using the insight obtained from the investigation of SPF's, it was
decided that the SPF of a h1gh quality a1r source heat pump heat1ng system
would be between 2.0 and 2.5.
The 2.5 value represents the SPF wh1ch
would be calculated using the procedure described above, and the 2.0
value was obtained by further dim1nishing the SPF as suggested in the
National Bureau of Standards study.
These values appear to be fair
assessments of the upper and lower bounds of SPF systems with standard
(47°F) COP's of around 3.0, hwoever it is more probable that the actual
SPF will be about 2.0.
During the cooling season, the Seasonal Energy Efficiency
Ratio (SEER) relates the amount of energy input to an air source heat
pump to the amount of cooling provided by the heat pump.
SEER is the
average value of the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) over a cooling
season.
As with SPF, analytical determination of the SEER depends
on the cooling capacity of the system, the 1nput energy to the
system, and the cooling requirements of the home all of which are a
function of the weather conditions to which the home is subjected.
Currently. high quality air source heat pumps have Standard EER's of
about 9.0 to 10.5 under ARI standard rating conditions.
These conditions
specify the outside temperature to be 95°F and the relative humidity
to be 40%. During a season of operation in Wichita, these conditions
are probably close to typical.
However, the effect of cycling (turn-
ing on and off), and periods of adverse conditions will tend to decrease the SEER from the Standard EER.
As an estimate here, the
range of SEER's will be assumed to be 7.0 to 9.5, corresponding
approximately to systems with Standard EER's of 9.0 to 10.5.
30
For water source heat pumps there is little variance in the
perfonmance factors due to weather conditions, because ground water
temperatures remain nearly constant.
Thus the Standard COP and EER
values given in Table 1 describe the performance of water Source systems
relatively well.
For the typical home. however. the heating capacity
of a WSHP will not be sufficient to provide all heat necessary during
extremely cold weather.
For these circumstances, supplemental resis-
tance heat is provided.
The effect of this is to decrease the SPF of
a WSHP from the published Standard COP.
A relationship between the
SPF and the Standard COP of a WSHP can be determined from the frequency
distribution of temperatures and the heat loss of a house as a function
of temperature (Fig. 4).
For Wichita. the relationship is
.95x COP
SPF ." COP x .03 + .97 x .95
where .95 is the efficiency of ducted electrical resistance heat.
In
the computer program used to perfonn the economic calculations the
Standard COP of the WSHP was assumed to be 3.0.
The SPF was calculated
wlthin the program.
Furthermore, lt was assumed that the SEER of the
~/SHP
These values seen to be reasonable. if not con-
would be 10.0.
conservative.
10) Cost of the systems.
A list of heating and air conditioning systems in order from
lower to higher cost would be: electrical resistance furnace with electric
air conditioning, natural gas furnace with electric air conditioning.
and either the air source heat pump or the water source heat pump.
31
The installed costs of each of these systems varies according to
manufacturer, dealer, and quality.
The range of prices is given in
Table 7.
Table 7.
Typical costs of heating and air conditioning systems
for a new installation.
Cost per ton
Typical System
(3 ton)
Electrical resistance furnace
W/electric air conditioner
$800 - $850
$2400 - $2550
Gas furnace
W/electric air conditioner
$850 - $925
$2550 - $2775
Air Source heat pump
$875 - $975
$2625 - $2925
Water SOu rce heat pump
(not including water supply)
$875 - $975
$2625 - $2925
System
Water source systems require an additional expenditure for t he
water supply system.
Of course, if the homeowner already owns a
water system capable of supplying the WSHP little additional cost
is invOlved.
The costs of a supply well. disposal well. pump . pressure
tank, and all associated plumbing materials are shown in Table B.
If a disposal well is not used, the costs will be less.
The cost of the water supply system could vary due to several
reasons.
Additional expense would be incurred if one well is further
than 60 feet from the house and additional water lines were needed.
The cost of laying water line consists of the price of the pipe and
the labor charge for digging a ditch.
The cost of labor is approximately
$25 . 00/hour. and pipe costs approximately 40¢/foot (PVC 3/4 inCh).
Esti -
mates of the cost to lay pipe over a distance of fifty feet ranged f rom
$150 to $200 depending on the soil conditions .
The expense of the water
32
Table B. Costs for installation of supply and disposal well.
2 wells. 40 ft @ $7.00/ft
Seal. 2 ea. @ $15.00
Pipe. PVC 60 ft @ .40/ft
Labor to lay pipe
Cable. 35 ft @ .40/ft
Pump
$ 560
30
24
200
14
300
75
20
10
15
10
50
Pressure tank
Fittings
Air volume control
Pressure switch
Other
Labor on pump installation
TOTAL
$ 1308
system could be cut down by purchasing a cheaper pump. or omitting
some of the items such as the pressure tank and air volume control.
All things considered. it is not likely that the actual cost of a water
supply system will vary from the value in Table 8 by more than $200.
11) Maintenance costs.
For this report it was desired to determine how the maintenance
costs of different types of heating and air conditioning systems com-
pared with one another.
The only statistical information found On
maintenance costs dealt with heat pumps and was done by American
ElectriC Power company.19
In their study, AEP found that the average
annual maintenance cost for electric heat pumps is $29.06 for heat
pumps that are younger than five years old, and $102.37 for heat
33
•
pumps that are between five and nine years old inclusive.
They also
discovered significant variance between the maintenance of different
brands of heat pumps.
For instance, the average annual maintenance
cost of the three best selling heat pumps after five years of operation
was only $41.40, .s compared to $102.37 for all brands.
Though the above-mentioned study did give an indication of the
maintenance costs which could be
~~pected
from heat pumps, no informa-
tion was found to document the cost of maintaining other types of
systems.
To alleviate this problem. several heating and air condition-
ing service companies 1n Wichita were consulted.
The consensus of all
contractors questioned was that heat pumps do have higher maintenance
costs than a system with a gas or electric furnace.
The additional
cost was estimated to be about $20 to $30 per year.
Maintenance expenses of a water source heat pump should not be
more than those for air source heat pumps in most cases.
Additional
maintenance will be required for the water supply system, but less
will be required for the WSHP itself since it is installed inside
the house and not subject to outdoor weather conditions.
It will be
assumed here that maintenance costs are the same for all heat pump
systems.
gONO/~IC CALCULATIONS
The six steps used to determine the net present value of the water source
heat pump as compared to other SystelilS are:
1) Compute the price of energy for future years.
2) Compute the heating and cooling costs of each system for each
future year.
34
3) Find the difference between the heating and cooling costs of the
WSHP and the other system for each future year,
4) DisCount the savings from each future year to obtain the present
value.
S) Sum each year's discounted savings to obtain the total present value
of all the future savings,
6) Compare the extra cost of the WSHP to the present value of the savings,
The costs for .heating and cooling in the future are ~erfved from pres~
util '
lty rates and the increase in these rates shown in Table 4. For example
the heatl'ng costs for the first year. Ch ()
'h an ai r-to-air heat pump
1 • Wlt
WOuld be
9
Wh)( (first year electric rates for heating)
3412 x SPF
Wh - Btu's of heating required each year
SPF - SPF of the heat pump
The .he a t'lng costs for the nth year are
n>5
71 - inflation of electricity rates for the first 5 years
12 - inflation of electricity rates after the first 5 years
35
Twa equations have to be used since it is being assumed that there is a differ_
ent inflation rate for electricity for the first 5 years than that existing
thereafter.
The costs of heating in the first year for gas furnaces, resistance
furnaces
• and the liSHP are
= ~/b x (first
year gas rate)
Gas furnace
6
10 x effi ei eney
Wh x (first year electric rate for heating)
=~~~~~~~~----~
Resistance furnace
3412 x efficiency
= Wh x (1st
yr.elee.rate for heating) x
3412
f·97 +
\~
Sim·l
1
.03
efficiency of resistance heat
)
Water SOurce heat pump
ar calculations can be done for cooling costs. except that summer elec-
t •.
leal rates are used. For an air conditioner, the first year cooling costs
are
g'
lYen by the equation
Ce(l)
=
We x (first year electric rates for sUll'mer)
1000 x SEER
W _ Btu's required for cooling
e
SEER - System SEER
36
A quick example can be done looking ahead to Figs. 5 and 6.
heating cost for the gas furnace.
Consider
Using the parameters shown in Fig. 5, the
first year heating costs for the gas furnace are
75 x 10 6 x 1. 393 _
$161.
.65 x 106
The heating costs for the seventh year will be
These values are shown in Fig. 6 under the heating costs for the conventional
system.
Similar calculations can be done for cooling costs or costs for the
WSHP system.
The difference in heating and cooling costs between the WSHP system and
the conventional system is found for each year.
Additional maintenance is
added to the WSHP costs for each year it is competing against a gas or electric
furnace.
This difference is the savings using the WSHP, and it is discounted
back to a present value.
If Sn is the savings in year n, then the present
va1ue of the savings is
(l+r)n
r - discount rate, 7% used in this report
The present value for all future savings is
K
PV'L
n-l
Some examples will now be shown.
(l + .07)n
37
IXAMPlES
Since the economic calculations were very tedious, a digital computer
was programmed to perform them.
As an example of the calculations performed
by the computer, consider the example presented in Figure 5.
Here a WSHP is
being compared to a conventional system consisting of natural gas heat and
electric air condition ing.
are shown in the figure.
All necessary parameters to make the calculation
The performance factors specified were all interpreted
as average values by the program except for the "COP OF THE WSHP" which was as~
sumed to be a Standard COP.
f :TUH REQUIRED TO F-PC~JIDE HEAT. •• 75000000 .
f:TUH REWIRED TO coce ......... . 3580.312100 .
INITIAL COST Cf" ELEC. (HEAT) ••••
.022;::5
HIITIAL COST C. ELEC. (COOL; ••••
.03652
ELEC . FF'IGE INFLATlCti (1ST 5 YRS)
. IE'080
ELEC . F'RICE I~FLATlCii !THEREAFTEF: )
.0713
1 . ~: ·j30B
INITIAL COS T OF NFtT. GAS IZ / t-!cn.
I~ AS F'RICE INFLATIOII •• • • •• •.••••••
. 0 9100
. .7'6(100
O(I£F'ALL INFLATlOrl RATf ••• • •• •••• •
COP OF THE I,ISHI' •••• • •••.•••••••••
EER OF THE I·ISHI' I COOL HIC. J •.••.•••
[ FFI e IErIC( OF THE CCfIU. ':: (~, TEi·I •••
EER OF THE CO~~JEtITlC~IFtL :</C .•••••
LIFETIME IN 'lEAPS •••• • • • •••••.•••
HlCO~IE TAX BRACKET •••••••.•••••••
D1SCOWT F~ATE •• •••..•••••• •• •• •••
EFFECTIVE DISCOUm RATE . .••••.•••
COST C. THE CONUEtiTlONFtL S'ISTEt·I • ••
C(r3T OF THE I,SHP SiSTEr·l • • •.••• ••••
EXTRR NAINT . OF l·jSHP PEF: YfAR • ••••
Figure 5.
3.0(1
1B. 00
7 . 00
15
. :;:000
. 10tl(le
. 070(te
2775 .
4225.
2:,.0121
Values for a compari son of a W
SHP to a conventional system
with gas furnace and electric air conditioning (air-to-air).
As can be seen from the values this is a moderate inflation case.
calculations are shown in Fig. 6.
The
Heating and cooling costs for each system
for each year are calculated and the savings in cooliny costs and heating costs
USing the WSHP are computed for each year.
38
----------------------------------------------------------------ElIERGY PRICES
AlirfJfL 'HEAT! AIiliLHL
','p !
!COOL!EXTRA!
I
I
llAT I HEAT COST! COST ! COOL
GFlS!COtlV ,"SHP I SA~J. !CONU
ELECTRIC
I HEAT
COOL
!DISC!
COST I COST 'I,JSHP 'NET 'I'£T
HSHP !SAt l , ! ~IAINT! SAU . I :,;AU.
- --- ----------------------------------------------------------.:.0 . 0 ....'
1
.... ...
? 'Q
161
17H
- 1:,:
183
128
'-' .'
c'"'
' -. 1:'
12
11
2 2 .56
-, 2 . :::7
~.09
1.52
175
20tl
- 2' ~
205
14 3
0:.1
27
11
oj
e,
4 ....'0
1 .bb
--
1 ?l
22 · ~
-'::2
:, ':'Q
........
.
16£1
E.?
,',
.:
7
•j
:;: .21
'.'. 13
1.81
209
250
-42
257
1:,:8
--"
co
3 (1
,"
~
~
~
::.60
...'. ( ...'
-~
1. 97
22'a
E'80
-,-, ...-'
287
201
86
:;:2
1
e :;:. 85
- 15
2
1,:• •
<, 15
248
300
-52
387
215
.:..~
~
33
7
,.'
r
12
6 . 58
2 .. 35
271
321
-58
-:--=-Q
........
-'
231)
9';'
:;:5
13
.:
.,:.
~.~O
7.04
296
344
-48
352
246
106
33
20
12
"
4. 7 1
-,
2.56
.53
2. :::1:3
323
368
-45
:::77
264
1 P"
40
28
15
10 5 . f14
:?. £16
3 . 05
352
:3'j3
-41
403
282
121
42
37
19
11 5 .413
...':"
t:.....
.- .,:.
,:.,:.
...,:...........
384
421
- .j,-
4:31
129
45
48
23
138
47
59
2E-
7 ':>
::;:0
1
"
:.
~.
,' ,
:'V
.... , .... u
.-.
.- I:'
1:' •••
~
~
~.
~"
-
'12 ') . 77
c, -:0':'
- ....... .
:;:,63
419
450
- 31
461
3132
.-..:-c..:.....
',~
~.
~~
,
.
~ .,-.
13
1,:• •
1'..,:.'
';'. 8 7
:3 . %
457
482
-C ·,,
494
346
148
513
14
~· .61
16. 56
4.32
~99
51E.
-17
528
370
158
53
'"
88
1. 3 8
4 . 72
544
552
_ '.c''
565
396
170
57
105
15
-. 07 1
,
Figure 6.
Economic calculations comparing the system specified
in Fig. 5.
The heat cost saving is negative in each year.
This is because natural
gas is so underpriced that it is difficult for a~ other fuel or heating method
to compete with it.
To complete the calculations, each year's savings is discounted to a
present value and the discounted net savings are summed to give the present
~
.
'.'
34
.: . :.
'."J
I
I
39
value of the total savings.
This present value is displayed as shown in Fig. 7
and the extra cost of the WSHP is also displayed.
shown.
The net savings or loss is
If there is a savings, the number of years the WSHP had to be in
Operation to pay for the extra installation cost is also shown.
THE F'PESEtIT lIALUE OF ThE: TOTAL SAl' I NGS IS
THE D:TRA COST OF THE 1" 3HP SYSTGl IS
2"'3.43
1450.0')
rHE I'IET LOSS O()ER 15 YEt'iRS 1:3 IE'I36.58
THE ~IUMBER OF YEARS UNTIL Ffj'IBACK IS UI'f<NOI,Jt!.
Figure 7.
Results of the comparison of a WSHP to a gas furnace with electric
air conditioning under the conditions of Fig. 5.
Under the conditions specified in the example. it appears that the WSHP
is not a good investment compared to a system which uses natural gas for heat.
Even though the WSHP had lower operating costs during each of the years, as
indicated by the cash flow of Fig. 6, the money saved was not enough to recover
the extra cost of the system.
As a second example, consider Fig. 8, depicting the same rates of inflation but comparing the WSHP to a system with an electrical resistance furnace.
The cash flow generated under these conditions is shown in Fig. 9, and
the end results in Fig, lq, Note that the WSHP appears to be far superior to
the electrical resistance furnace and payback time is less than five years
at a discount rate of 7%.
five years to see this.)
(Simply add the discounted net savings for the first
KANSAS STATE LIBRARY
300 SW 10TH AVE AM 343
TOPEKA tel 86612-1693
[, TI.lH " [ CUIREr' TO FPC"IDE '-lERT. ••
40
;- 500000~ .
:TUH F'EQUIRED TO COl~ ••.•••••••• 35000000.
IIH TIF1l COST OF ELEC. lHfATJ ••••
. 02285
HIl TIF1l COST ( f" ELEr. (C(,,:U ••••
.03652
C:lEC . PPICE I i'F"LATICfl (bT 5 \1<5)
.12000
ELEG . PF' IC'E Itf" LfiTlON fTHEF:EAFTEP)
.070
H IITlF1l COST Cf' rlilT. GAS ($/ MCF).
1.89300
ol.)? l00
GAS PRICE Itf"LATION ••••••••••••••
Ot'EF:ALL ItFLRTlON RATE ••.•.••••••
.06€tOO
COP OF THE l·JSI-F ..••...••.....•••.
EER OF THE HSf-f' (COr:t.ING) .•••••••
EFFl CIEt;CY OF THE C(/il). SYSTEM •••
CEP OF THE COWENTlCl'l/1L H/C •.••••
L1FETlI:E IN yEARS • ••.•• •••••• ••••
H ;COr'lE TR~ <:PFO ET. • • •••••••• .•••
DISCOlfiT FH TE •• •• ••. •• •• ··••• • •••
EFFECTIVE VI ",('JlII IT HUE. •.•••.•••
C(lST or THE CCtll.) £rfl rONAL ::.YS THi ...
cos r rJV THE l·/::hP :;YSTFJ1 . . ......•..
E>,TF'R ,':Cl INT. ' oF flSHP FEF: YEPR •••• •
;:: .00
10.00
. '~5
7.00
15
. ~:OOO
.10000
. 07000
2550 .
4225 .
25.1;10
Figure 8. Conditions for comparison of the WSHP to a
system with electrical resfstance heat.
In the cash flow of Fig. 9, it is interesting to note that the amount
Of money to be ~eceived after the first five years is nearly constant at $433.
The rea so n for this is that the price of electricity after the first five years
was expected to rise at 7% per year, which i s the same as the discount rate
used to determine their present value.
Notice also the magnitude of the net
Savings before discounting which were predicted for the later years of the
analysis.
Either the net savings received in years fourteen or fifteen
($1173 and $1254) alone apparently could almost offset the extra cost of
the WSHP.
This would be very poor economics, however, to conclude this.
Each
of the two years savings is in fact worth $434 af additional cost.
The results of the calculations are shown in Fig. 10. The total savi"ngs
is huge, which illustrates not only the superiority of the WSHP but the
stUPid ity of resistance heating.
41
--
-- --
' •
-- -
* •
,P I E;;ER;;Y-PRICES--~--Fti~ -~~EAT!--A;;;rnC--~C;;Q~EXTffi~----~DISC~
I ELECTRIC
NAT'HEAT COST I COST I COOL COS T!COSTIWSHP !NET iNET i
I HEAT COOL
GAS I CON.) I·JSHP I SAV. ! CONV I·JSHP I SAV. I ~tAINT! SAV. i SAV. i
--------------------------------- ------ -------------------- ------1
2 . .:'8
3. 65
1. 3 9
529
178
350
183
128
55
25
380
:355
2
2 . ~6
4 . 09
1. 52
592
E'00
3 92
205
143
E.!
27
42 7
..,:.-.-( .....;.
c·
'-'
2 . 87
4 . 58
1.66
663
224
4413
-:.-,c,
~~ -
1613
E.9
28
4813
392
4
,":;' 2 1
5 .1 3
1. 8 1
743
250
4':''-'
-~
257
180
77
30
54121
412
'3 3. 60
,- '-:. .::.C'
5 . 75
1.97
B:-e
2813
551
E'87
201
86
:;:2
6136
432
-"
'-'..J
6 .15
2 .15
8 99
300
590
307
215
'::'2
33
649
432
~.
12
6 .58
2 . 35
952
321
631
329
2313
'?9
35
695
,-,
c' " . 413
433
7. 04
2 . 56 1019
344
676
352
246
1136
38
744
433
~""';'
2 . 80 109'j
368
723
377
264
113
413
796
433
:0 5 . €14
8 . 66
3 . 05 1167
~"?3
773
4133
282
121
42
:352
433
11 5 .4121
8 . 62
3 . 33 1249
421
8 28
431
3132
129
45
912
433
12
" " ~-
,-
';" .23
3 . 6 3 1336
4513
885
461
32 3
n8
47
976
434
13 6 .1 8
-:> . 87
3.96 1429
482
947
494
346
148
50 1045
434
~
4 . 71
~
-.
(
.
14 6 . 6 1 10. 56
4
1529
516 1014
528
3713
158
53 1119
434
15 7 . 8 7 11. 313
4 . 72 1637
552 1085
565
396
1713
57 1198
434
Figure 9 .
-?
-::.
~~
Cash flow for the condi t ions of Fi g. 12:
WSHP vs. electrical resistance hea t .
THE F'PESENT (-'AWE Of Tf£ TOTAL SAVINGS IS
THE EXTRft COST or THE I<IOW S,(STnt I S
TI-£ NET SAVINGS I S
6296.77
1675. 00
46 21. 77
THE NVMBER or i -£flRS UNTIL PA YBACK IS
5
•
Fi gure 10. Results for the compari s on of WSHP to electrical resistance heat.
42
As a third example, Fig . 11 compares a WSHP and an air source heat pump
(ASHP) for the moderate inflation case . The cash flaw and final results are
given in Fig. 12 and Fig . 13.
For thi 5 case, t he WSHP appeared to be the
better investment; the payback: time was lOyears and the present value of t he
total savings over the lS-year lifetime is S20B7,
$787 more than the initial
investment the water source system requires.
HUH F:EOU I RED TO PPOO I DE HEAT • • • 7500001313.
BTUH F.£WIRED TO COCi.. • •.••••• • • • 3 5000000.
INIT IAL COST Cf" ELEG. ( HEAT) ••••
.132285
IN ITIAL COST or ELEG. (COCIl) • .. •
. 03652
ELEG . F·PICE nFLATI ai r"15T 5 YRS)
.12000
ELEC. PF: ICE It"f'"lATIai (THEREAFTER)
. 070
IMI rI AL COS T IT riAT. GAS ($/ MCF).
1. 393013
GAS PRICE mrLATION .•• • •• •• .•••••
.09100
O'J ERALL INFLATION RATE • • ••. .• • •• .
.0E.000
coP o r THE I·JSfF . •••••• . .. •. · •• • • •
EER or THE lolSfF (COCi..1NG) •. .• • • • •
ErFICIENCY or THE Cait.!. SYSTEt-1 •••
EER or THE CONVENTI 0'iAL A/ C' . .. • ••
L! rETI ~lE ltJ yEARS • ••• • .•••••• • •••
I tiCOME TAX f:RACKET ••••• ••••. •••••
DI SCOlM'i T RA TE. • . • • • • • • . . . . . . . . • • .
ErrECTIl£ DISCOUNT "~ TE •• •• ..••• •
COST or THE Cai\.£rJT roNAL SYSTEM ••.
COS T or THE f!SH P SYSTE~l ••••• ••• • • •
EXTF'A r·1AltJT. IT I·!SHP PER YEAF' •.•• •
3.00
10. 00
2 . 00
7.00
15
.3000
. 10000
. 07000
2925 .
4225 .
.00
Figure 11 . Assumed conditions for the comparison of a WSHP to an ASHP.
For this case it is interesting to delve f urther into t he economics.
To determine the net present value of the WSHP as compared to the ASHP, a
particular time value of money was assumed, i.e . 7%per year.
Since t he net
Present value was rositive . a higher rate of interest than 7%was earned on
the money invested in the WSHP.
By knowledge of the cash flo" it i s possible
to detenmine the maximum interes t rate which the homeowner may requ ire and
43
-- ---------------------------------------------------------------,
,
,
't'F' I EtlEPG\' F'PICES
AtltVAL ' HEAT' Art'ilflL , COCIl' EXTRA'
'DISC!
ELECTF'IC
lfRT'HEAT COST 'cosr 'COOL COST I COST ! L~SHP 'NET 'NET
'HERT (COL
GAS'COtiV t.JSHF-' I SAU. !CO,.RJ I,!SHP , SAV. 'rIAINT'SAV. 12.F1V.
,
---1 --------------------------------------------------------------2 .28
3 . 65
1.39
25 1
17::;
r '.'
1'-' ~
.;..;,
1-='e.·
55
2 2 . 56
4 . 139
1.52
281
2£1(1
82
2 £15
143
61
2 .87
4.58
1.66
3 15
224
'?1
229
160
o~
4 3 . 21
5.13
1.81
..:.•...J';'
...... 0::""
250
102
257
18£1
77
:;·. 6£1
5 . 75
I . ';17
395
280
1 15
E'87
2€H
Eo 3 . 85
~,.15
2 .15
423
3£10
123
30'7
4.12
6.58
~
,- • •~
:.•...J
'
452
321
131
'-::.
4 . 40
7 .04
2 .56
484
344
'0
4 . 71
f ...., ,,,:.
r::'-,
2.813
.5 18
10 5 . c ..;.
:;; . 06
3 .05
I I 5 .413
8 .62
.-,
12 5 .77
,::,
.~ .
119
143
125
160
131
(1
179
137
86
(;
201
143
215
':''-,
~ c.
'3
215
143
329
23£1
'OQ
~
'3
230
143
140
352
246
106
13
246
143
368
1.5£1
377
264
113
0
263
143
554
393
161
4133
282
121
0
282
143
J • .::..::.
'-,'-.
593
421
172
431
:302
129
(1
301
143
• • c..::.
... .-.
3 . E.3
635
450
184
461
~~~
':'0:>':>
138
(1
323
143
87
3 . ":'6
6n
482
197
494
346
148
0
345
143
W .56
4 . 32
726
516
211
528
3713
158
0
369
143
.. . 37 II. 3 [1
4.72
777
552
c.c.'=>
565
396
170
[1
395
143
',:.
'-'
e
~
,-,
p
"
1~
~
»
»
128
. 18
. . 61
""?
-.......
~~
' Q
-'
"
Figure 12. Cash flow for comparison of WSHP to ASHP
for the parameters of Fig. 10.
THE F'PESENT l RUE OF THE TOTAL SAVINGS IS
THE EXTRA COST OF THE I,ISH" SYSTErl IS
Tf£ nET SAl! INGS I "
2087.07
1300.00
787.07
THE NUt'IBER OF YEARS UNTl L PAYBACK IS
10
Figure 13, Results of comparison of IISHP to ASHP
for conditions of Fig. 10.
44
still maintain a positive net present value.
The interest rate such that
the net present value of a series of receipts and disbursements is zero is
known as the rate of return.
Development of techniques to determine the rate
fa return of a given cash flow are given in Engineering Economy by Thuesen
et .• l. 5
Determination of the rate of return is an iterative process in which the
cash flow is discounted using different interest factors until the net present
value is reduced to zero.
It is usually easiest to obtain an approximate rate
of return by computing an equivalent equal payment series first. and then substituting different interest factors into an equation relating the series of
equal payments to a present value.
If A represents one of a series of equal
paYments equivalent to the present value of the cash flow of Fig. 12. then A
can be determined from the present value. P, and the interest rate, i, used to
discount the future earnings.
The relationship is
A=i'(1+i)"p
(1 +i)"-1
In this particular example,
15
. (1. 07)
2087
(1.07)15_ 1
A
= . 07
A
=
229.14
Now it is necessary to compute the present value of a series of fifteen annual payments of $229.14.
Different interest factors will be used until one
is fOund which causes the present value to be $1300.00, the extra cost of the
45
system.
Th is interest factor represents the rate of return of investment in
a WSHP compared to an ASHP.
Th e equatlon
. f or t he present value in tenms of
an equal payment series and an interest factor is
p=(1+ijn- l . A
i . (1 + On
For th'lS particular problem.
$]300
SOlving this for i yields
i • 16%
Thus the rate of return which the homeowner would receive on the extra money
invested in a WSHP would be about 16% in this case .
~SION OF RESULTS FOR INDIVIDUAL RESIDENCES
Many different combinations of circumstances were investigated in this
stUdy. So it was necessary to summarize the results as comprehensively as
POSsible.
diff
Shown in Table 9 is a summary of the present values calculated under
erent SPF, SEER. and inflation va lues.
For instance. the present value of a
WSijp as compared to a natural gas furnace with electric air conditioning for a
home which requires 75 million Btu's of heating and 35 million Btu's of cooling
Per Year is between $-54~;"d $1047 depending on the -i;flation rates and per:
fo ""ance factors of the systems . These results indicate that under the worst
inflation case it would not be wise to purchase a WSHP rather than a gas/electric
sYstem unless the extra cost of the WSHP system could be kept below $1047, and
HIGH INFLATION
V>
"-'"
ow
V>
>V>
'" >
ov>
>u-'
« «
"- z
MODERATE INFLATION
SEER (AIR TO AIR)
7.0
9.5
7.0
9.5
EFFICIENCY (GAS)
65%
65%
65%
65%
EFFICIENCY (ELEC)
95%
95%
95%
95%
SPF (AIR HEAT PUMP)
2.0
2.5
2.0
2.5
0
w_
u >-
zz
~\;!
'" 0
z
0
"- u
w
'""-
ANNUAL BTU'S
(I~ILLlONS)
HEAT
'"w>V>
>
V>
-'
«
z
-
COOL
NATURAL
GAS WI
ELECTRIC
AJR-COND
75
35
1047
(-403)
182
(-1268)
243
(-1207)
-542
(-1992)
ELECTRIC
RESISTANCE
W/ELECTRIC
AIR COND
75
35
6921
(5246)
6056
(4381 )
6297
(4622)
5511
(3836)
AIR SOURCE
HEAT PU~IP
75
529
2087
(787)
0
>
zw
>
z
0
u
"0
w
">
>-
Table 9.
35
2298
(998)
(-771)
480
( -820)
Summary of present value of the savings when a WSHP is compared
to different conventi onal s~stems and t he present value of the
net savings (i n parenthesis) after the extra cost of the WSHP
and we ll is i nc luded. Minus s i gn indicates a loss .
-
47
even then a gas/electric system with better than average performance factors
might be the better investment.
For a typical installation in Wichita. it was estimated that the extra
cost of the WSHP. including the entire cost of the water supply system. would
be between $1300 for comparison to an ASHP and $1675 when compared to electric
reSistance heat.
On the basis of this and the results shown in Table 9 several
conclusions can be drawn:
1) The extra cost of a WSHP would be easily recovered if the only
alternative system is one with electrical resistance heat.
In fact,
under all conditions, the payback period for the WSHP was five years
or less (see Appendix II for the actual cash flows).
2) Under both inflation scenarios. the economics of the HSHP as compared to an ASHP depends on the difference in the performance factors
of the two systems.
It appears. however. that the WSHP is probably a
slightly better investment than an ASHP.
3) A WSHP is not economically competitive to a system with natural
gas heat. except in the high inflation scenario and for a house with
a relatively large amount of winter heat loss.
It should be noted that the high inflation scenario probably penalizes
SYstems with gas heat.
In this case, the inflation of natural gas prices is
aSSUmed to average 14%per year for the entire fifteen year lifetime.
Though
sUch increases are possible. in fact likely, over the next few years, the rate
Of .
lncrease should be expected to decelerate as the price brings some of the
more difficult to obtain gas supplies within reach.
With this in mind, the
WSHP appears even less attractive when compared to gas heated systems.
48
The comparison of the WSHP to the ASHP is somewhat inconclusive. The
reason ' h
15 t e uncertainty involved with the specification of an accurate
seaso 1
na
performance factor (SPF) for an air source heat pump.
If the SPF
Of the ASHP is 2.5, then the ASHP is more economical than the WSHP; however,
if the SPF drops to 2.0, then the WSHP is a better investment.
There must be
a particular SPF below which the ASHP is no longer a better investment.
To determine the limiting SPF. several more computer Simulations of
the economics were performed.
Slightly.
Each time. the SPF of the ASHP was varied
The result of this investigation is shown graphically in Fig. 14.
ThiS graph shows how the difference in the SPF of the ASHP and the COP of
the WSHP affects the present value of the WSHP. assuming the inflation scenarios
discu
ssed earlier.
It was assumed that the WSHP had a COP of 3.0.
As an example,
sUPPose moderate inflation is expected and that the ASHP has a SPF of 2.5.
The difference between 2.5 and 3.0 is 0.5, so it is necessary to select the
Ord'
lnate on the graph corresponding to an abscissa of 0.5.
DOing so, it is
seen that the present value of the WSHP is about 5 dollars per million Btu's
Of annual heating requirement.
For a home which requires 75 million Btu's
Of heat per year, the present value is (5)· (75) = $375 . ..
A similar chart is shown in Fig. 15 which relates the present value
Of the WSHP to the difference in the SEER of the ASHP and the SEER of the WSHP.
It
was assumed for this chart that the SEER of the WSHP was 10.0. For an
ASHP With a SEER of 9.5, the proper abscissa is 10.0- 9.5 = 0 . 5, and the
cO rre
sponding ordinate is 3.3 (moderate inflation). Thus the present value of
the WSHP for a home which requires 35 million Btu's of annual cooling would be
(3.3)·(35)
= $115.50
The sum of the present values calculated above is 375 + 115.50
Th·
= 490.50.
value is within graphical accuracy to the value shown in Table g, $498,
fOr th
e same conditions.
15
49
70.0
t
~
-It
",
60.0
..'"
~
-..
~,
r
,
50.0
L
,
j
. ,f
"'
f
1
0
"I
~
~
.,
t-
40.0
"
"'
'"z
'
0
~
-'
-'
~
hi h
30.0
'"w
'"
<>.
w
=>
-'
«
,.
20.0
z>w
w
'"
'"
<>.
10.0
,
r
.. J. ,
0.0
-10.0
0.0
1 .0
2.0
COP - SPF
Fiqure 14.
A plot of the present value of a WSHP with a
COP of 3.0 as a function of the difference
between the WSHP COP and the SPF of the competing system.
50
., ::,", ---.: =,E
1-,
-'--'-'-1
.,_:/
'--._-
=,~
r ,:=i,::'-:':;::
_:~;I ;. '::: : .. e::. :r=~ ::::_: ~~ c ::.i-="·_
- -_. - .• . ---- .. " ::L. .==4 I !, _..
I- "1::'
,!:o"
":j:':-+=___
-, .. I·,
, . , --I ..ct· - ~7f-- _..__...
".
I':;
,= .=:f7.. -.... -:: .. -,::::,:.
..::: :' .. "'=1'..:; ·.::·1=- -d=-
.. -.1---.:=4-
20
. , , '.,
" '
., ::::.
... '
. ,
,
1
10
,
'
. ,'~ I !
high inflation
"
i/...
/f"/ ~
f
.' ' .L:
::::: -:;I'
l',=..: -:.... =t=".'.
-::-:e:-
..:,
.:
1,,-:,
... ::.:
.::
':'"1''' :-"1-
;:-.. --:- ::=::, -;--
.. I:'.. - :::.cI::c·--:l·~
'K i ,'Y../!,
I \.. . ::,.~'J.~=:
~~ L .~ ----,
, . ~.::: ,:. !4
- :',
~ 1
•
._ to _
01-1/-',"", 'c-: .: ,.,
-
'J' -,-, .
- t_:.
. " j'-":":''',-=:''_''
~I;:'
....
-_
• __ •
-.
._
.
•
'- ',, :':
""""
., .. f .
o
I":
'=,'-T.::
r - -+- •..
l!l()~e'c~~e:CL~::1~n_ r.::: :~~}'_==
::j::...
,I
'1'.... :.cJ·f'..:.::.'
:-=1--:,
. . . - .. : 1:0:
.. ':"=1,-
:: .. , "; ;:::- .. , ' . __ :1'-
1
2
3
DIFFERENCE IN SEER
Figure 15.
Present value of a WSHP with a SEER of 10.0 as a
function of the difference between the WSHP SEER
and the SEER of the competing system .
Assuming that the SEER of the ASHP was equal to 9.5, the cooling savings
;s about $115.
Thus, for the WSHP to be economical. the heating savings must
be 1300 - 115 = $1185, if the additional cost of the WSHP is $1300.
To find the value for the SPF which would correspond to a present value
of $1185 it is first necessary to divide $1185 by the annual heating requirement, 75· 10 6 Btu. This gives the present value per million Btu's $15.8/10 6
Btu.
Using this as an ordinate on the graph of Fig. 14. the corresponding
abscissa is the difference between the COP of the WSHP and the SPF of the ASHP.
The difference is about 1.0.
Therefore. if it can be said that the ASHP has
51
a lower SPF than 3.0 - 1.0
=
2.0, then the WSHP will be a better investment
than an ASHP.
Based upon infonnation gleaned from studies like that by the National
Bureau of Standards 18 and from the opinions of many other people who are familiar with heat pump operation, it is likely that an ASHP will not have an
SPF in excess of 2.0 in the Wichita vicinity.
Therefore, under moderate or
high inflation, the WSHP will be a better investment than an ASHP.
In most
cases, the homeowner will not do much better than to break even on the investment, however he will have lower operating costs and the energy requirement
of his house will be less.
APPLICATION TO MULTIPLE DWELLINGS AND APARTMENTS
The study as outlined so far has concentrated on the single family
dwelling.
The net present value of the water source system has been cal-
culated in each case and when this value exceeds about $1300 the WSHP is declared economical.
If several single family dwellings share a wel1
9
however
9
the water supply system cost for each dwelling decreases and the WSHP economics
improve.
For example. if 6 houses in a new subdivision shared a well, the cost
for each dwelling for the water supply system might be about $500.
Some addi-
tional cost is incurred because the well must be of a larger capacity and more
underground pipe ;s needed.
In this case the WSHP is easily economic when
9
compared to the ASHP and of course it dominates resistance heating, although
it is doubtful that resistance heating would be installed in a new subdivision
anyway.
The Maple Gardens Retirement Center is an example of how several independent heat pump units may share a Single well as a source of water.
The
52
Center, which is located at the intersection of Maple and Maize streets in
Wichita, currently has 171 apartments in eight buildings and three large air
conditioned basements.
The distribution of apartments is:
420
630
672
836
1071
4000
ft2
ft2
ft2
ft2
ft2
ft2
efficiency
one bedroom
19
80
18
28
26
3
one bedroom
two bedroom
two bedroom
basements
The total area is thus approximately 133,730 ft2.
Each of the apartments
and the basements has one or more self-contained heat pumps.
range in size from just over a ton (one ton
= 12.000
The heat pumps
Btu) for an efficiency
apartment to nearly five tons for the basements.
The heat pumps are supplied with water from a single centrally located
well.
The well is thirty inches in diameter and is sunk to a depth of 180
feet.
A fifty horsepower pump lifts the water at a maximum rate of 700 ga·l1ons
per minute.
This maximum is required only for heating with very cold outside
temperatures.
The pressure of the water is reduced from approximately 100 psi
at the mouth of the pump to 60 psi by a pressure reducing valve.
The water
is then distributed to the buildings through a five-foot-deep underground
piping network.
Failsafe connections are provided to handle special circum-
stances which may occur.
The water supply is backed up by a city water delivery
system capable of meetin9 100% of the system's capacity.
The city water supply
is protected from backflow of well water by a double check valve.
The water
pump is constantly in operation, and a constant flow of at least fifty gallons
per minute is required to provide cooling for the pump.
53
Each of the eight apartment buildings has a recirculating system to derive
the most benefit from the water.
shown in Fig. 16.
The heat pumps are connected in parallel as
Water is admitted to the recirculating system when the
temperature in 'each buildingls system exceeds gO°F in the surrrner. or when it
falls below 52°F in the winter.
A pump circulates the water through each
WATER
)V~A~L=V~E~~~~.:=~==~~~~~1.===~.~==~~
I:
!
RECIRCULATING
PUMP
.......!::~~HEAT'-T-rr-...J
PUMPS
t
HATER
OUT
•
VALVE
Figure 16.
bUilding's system.
Recirculating system for each building.
A recirculating pump is also provided . Each heat pump
has two valves which are adjusted to control the flow through the system .
The pressure drop through each heat pump is approximately 4 psi . The SPF for
heating with the systems is supposedly about 3.5 and the cooling
SEER is 9.5.
Effluent water from the system is rejected into man-made streams which
decorate the apartment complex.
These streams feed into a small pond which
eventually feeds into Cowskin creek .
If the water is not able to freely flow
into the creek, a storm sewer is provided to accept the effluent water.
It
54
has been noticed that fish do not tend to inhabit the pond and creek in the
By adding oxygen to the water by various devices this problem may
effluent.
be solved.
There does not appear to be any problems with the operation of the
heat pumps.
They are slightly more noisy than other heating systems, but the
difference is hardly noticeable.
The units are completely contained in a closet
in the interior of the apartments. so they are well protected from the harsh
environment that air source heat pumps must operate under.
There are no supple-
mental heating elements provided with any of the units, because their heating
capacity. unlike that of air source heat pumps, does not decrease with the
outside temperature.
The cost of the system. according to David Hollisl O the architect responsible. is actually less than that of other systems which are conventionally
put in apartment complexes.
Though plumbing costs are large, there are other
factors which serve to keep the cost down.
less equipment is installed in
each unit, such as the absence of resistive heating elements.
need for long insulated refrigerant lines.
There is no
In addition, the electrical instal-
lation cost is less since all service goes to one location rather than to an
indoor and an outdoor unit.
The heating and air conditioning contract for the apartment complex was
$265,000 with an additional $10,000 for the well.
The cost of the installed
system was then about $2.06 per ft2.
supposedly about $1.60 per ft2.
an example.
Suppose an apartment used about 60% of the heating and cooling
energy as a house the same size.
Fig. 17.
The cost of a conventional system is
Consider a typical 1000 ft 2 apartment for
The appropriate values are then shown in
The values in the figure are for the moderate inflation case.
results of the analysis are shown in Fig. 18.
The
•
55
! :TUH F'E[oU IF'ED TO PF"[})IDE HEAT. ••
31~UjlU~10tK1 .
BTUH F'E("!U IF'ED TO ()YtL .......... .
14(01)'300.
. 02285
. 03652
IIIIT!fiL
'-O~, T
Ct EU. C.
(HEfiT' •• ..
IrlITIAL COST (IF ELEe. I(Oeill .. , .
ELEe. F'F'ICE ltFLfiTI C~1 '1:"T 5 ','PSI
ELEe. PF' ICE ItFLfiTIW fTHEF:ERrrEF I
IllITlfiL COST OF liAT. GAS (Z / ~ICF ) .
'~fiS FP I CE It IFLRTlC~'1. ••.•. . • • .••••
O', I[FRLL HlFLRTIOrr F:ATE ••••••••• • •
. 121j00
.070
1.3'?300
. 09 1(10
.OE.(n)(l
3 .00
COP OF THE l·JSI-IP ................. .
EEF' OF THE I,ISHF' (WoJLIIIC,\ .• •••• • •
eFF!C IErICY OF THE COIR.' . ":Y:i:TEt-I •••
EEF: o r THE COI'J.JElH F~ IfiL fl/e ••.•••
LI,ETJl-IE IN YEAF'S • .. •• • ••••.•••••
HlC C~'lE m:, BF'ACITT . .•.• ..•• •.• • • •
DISCOUIIT PATE .. •. ••. • • . • .. .••• • •.
EFFECTI ,'E D1swum F'RTE • .• •• •••••
CCG T OF THE CW')EljT W I'IRL ':1" :TEI'l • • •
C0'3T OF THE I,JSHP 8Y:3TEI'1 ••.•••••.••
D:TF'R l'lRINT . C' I,ISHF' F'EF' YERP ••• .•
Figure 17.
7.00
15
• ~;OO(1
. 101XtO
. 0"(000
16fKl.
206£1 .
25 . 00
Values used to compare a WSHP to an electric resistanc~
heating/electric air condition i ng system for a 1000 ft
apartment.
...•
-'ESmT "RLl.l : If' THE rO TAL ' fi')JNGS 1:3
THE IIET '3Fit.: HlGS IS
18 17 . 65
THE "IUI'lEEF: OF YEARS UI'IT I L F'AYBACK IS
Figur" 18,
--..... -
~'::'f
0\
Results of the WSHP analysis for the 1000 ft2 apartment for the
values shown in Fig. 16.
The present value of total savings for the apartment over the 15 year lifetime
is $18 18. which is a large savings for the renter.
case the tota l savi ngs i s $2036 .
For the higher inflation
56
RECOMMENDATIONS
A look at Table 9 allows recommendations to be made quite easily.
1.
Natural gas should be used for heating with the conventional air
conditioner for cooling.
This conclusion is based on economic
factors. not energy conservation or basic technology factors.
Natural
gas ;s underpriced compared to other fuels and apparently will be for
some time to come.
Energy is wasted using natural gas for heating.
but economically it is the best way to heat a residence if it is
available.
Another factor is that water source systems do not appear
to be optimized to work well in the cooling mode.
SEER's of about
9.5 are attained when exhausting heat into 50°F water, while a very
good quality air source system can attain this SEER exhausting heat
into 95°F air .
Thus the WSHP economics are presently determined
mainly by the heating. not cooling, mode and it is difficult to
compete against natural gas systems.
When natural gas becomes com-
parably priced the WSHP will then be a more econonical system.
2.
With any other type of system except for natural gas the WSHP is
the better economic value.
Resistance heating is easily
beaten~
resistance heating is so wasteful it should be discouraged and possibly banned.
For the ASHP, Table 9 indicates poor economics when
the air source system has an SEER of 9.5 and SPF of 2.5, but it is
very doubtful that any of the air source systems attain these values.
The charts of Figs. 14 and 15
~y
be used to estimate the present
value of a WSHP compared to an ASHP for any home in Wichita using any
desired system perfonmance factors.
57
The analyses done here were for Wichita urban utility rates.
Higher rates
in other areas should cause the WSHP economics to look even better than shown
here.
Complete well drilling costs were also assumed in the comparisons done
here; if a well is already available or the cost of the well can be shared with
another application, the economics will also improve for the WSHP.
59
15.
16.
17.
18.
Erlandson
Charles W., "A Method for Calculating Commercial Seasonal
Performan~e Factors," Centra 1 Air Condi t i oni"g Bus; nes s Oepa rtment. Genera 1
Electric. louisville. Kentucky.
Correspondence with Mr . Jeff Persons, Hydrogeolist. the National We l l
Water Association, Worthington. Ohio. September 21, 1978.
Gaddis, John M. • "Economics of Electric Heat," on file at Wind Energy Lab,
Wichita State University. May 12, 1976.
Kelly, George E. and John Bean, "Dynamics Performance of a Residential
Air-tO-Air Heat Pump," National Bureau of Standards, No. NBS 8SS-93, March
1977.
19 .
20.
Coleman, William R.• "Heat Pumps Get High Grades Up North,!! Electrical World
New York, September 15, 1978, p. 142-145.
'
Conversation with David Hollis, architect. Wichita, Kansas, on or about
June 15, 1979 .
APPENDICES
I.
II.
Investigation of Seasonal Performance Factors.
Cash Flows and Results for Simulations Performed.
,
60
APPENDIX I
Investigation of Seasonal Performance Factors
A difficult task in determining the worth of heating
an~
air conditioning
systems is to ca lculate the quantity of heat which the system must provide or
remove and the amount of'purchased energy which must be supplied to accomplish
this.
The "Seasonal Performance Factor" (SP F) and the "Seasonal Energy Effi-
ciency Ratio" have recently been introduced to quantify the ratio between the
heating or cooling ability of a system and the purchased energy.
SPF is the
average value of the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of a system over a heating season, and SEER is the average value of the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
over a Cooling season.
SPF is defined as being the ratio between the total annual amount of
heat provided by a heating system to the total annual amount of energy input
to the system.
SPF is dimensionless (the units are Btu/Btu or kWh/k~h).
Ana-
lytical determination of SPF depends on the heating capacity of the system, the
input energy to the system , and the heating requirements of the home (or other
structure), all of which are a function of the weather conditions to which the
home is subjected.
The heating capacity of a system is the sum of the heating capaCity of the
heat pump and the supplemental heating elements.
The heat pump capacity as a
fUnction of outdoor temperature is available from manufacturer's data, assuming
that the characteristics of the heat pump purchased from a dealer are the same
as the heat pump or pumps tested by the manufacturer.
At low temperatures, the
heat pump capacity must be augmented by supplemental resistance heating elements.
The heating capacity of these elements is constant, regardless of the temperature,
1-1
and their value is included in the manufacturer's data.
A system may have one
or more supplemental heating coils which are controlled by thermostats to come
II
on as needed.
II
The heating capacity of a sample system as a function of tem-
perature is plotted in Fig. [-1.
The energy input to a heating system is the sum of the energy input to the
compressor, indoor fan, outdoor fan, and supplemental heating elements.
Typi-
cally , the energy input to the compressor and fans as a function of temperature
is available from the manufacturer.
Some manufacturers may, however. not in-
clude the energy input to the fans and this energy should be accounted for.
The energy input to the supplemental heating coils is constant during the time
they are "on" and equal to the heating capacity of the coil.
energy input to the coils when they are "off.")
(There is no
In addition, energy may be
used to defrost the outdoor coil depending on weather conditions.
The heating requirements of a home are dependent on weather conditions
(especially temperature), architecture, exposure. insulative properties, family
habits, and a host of other more subtle parameters.
However, for a particu l ar
house. estimates of heating requirements can usuall y be made without considering
all these factors. or by using simplifying assumptions.
One such assumption,
suggested by ASHRAE, is that the heating requirement of a house i s a linear
function of temperature. and this model is widely used.
USing the information collected concerning heating capacity. energy input,
heating requirements and weather data, the calculation of SPF proceeds as
fOllows:
1) Obtain the average number of hours that the outdoor temperature falls
within a certain interval or "bin" in a year.
available from the National Weather Service.
[-2
This information is
2) Assuming that the heating requirement of the house is constant over
this temperature interval, determine the heating requirement of the
house.
(The assumption is not bad if the interval is sufficientally smal1.)
3) Obtain the heating capacity of the heat pump at this temperature from t he
manufacturer's data.
If the heating requirement of the house is great er
than the capacity of the heat pump, the difference must be made up by
the supplemental coils.
4) Determine the power input to the heating system at this temperature
from manufacturer's data .
5) Calculate the total annual energy input at this temperature by mu l t i-
plying the result from (1) by the result of (4).
6) Calculate the total annual aiOOunt of heat provided at this temperature
by multiplying (2) by (1).
7) Repeat steps (1) through (6), totalling the annual energy input calcu l ated
in (5) and the annual amount of heat provided calculated in (6) .
8) Divide the total amount of heating energy provided by the total amount
of energy input to determine the SPF.
An example of the theoretical determination of SPF of a Coleman air source
heat pump is shown in Fig. 1-2.
was used in the example.)
(A slightly different but equiva l ent algo r ithm
The Standard COP of the system was given by the manu -
facturer to be 2.9 at 470F. The calculated value of the SPF was found to be 2.45 ,
a decrease of 16% from the Standard COP.
timation is still doubtful.
Unfortunately, the accuracy of this es -
According to a study for the National Bureau of
Standards (Kelly, 1977) the actual SPF of an air source heat pump may be considerably lower than the value calculated from manufacturer's specifications.
They
attributed the discrepancy to "adverse effects of frost buildup and defrosti ng
of the outdoor coil."
1-3
...-,
I .
, " . ., . , .
Ell.)0J.Ij1+1: .
fig. 1-1.
I
,J I
'"
'Wl
.
-0
.
.
.
0
/.
.
. m-
'"
"'I: ''C'O:> tt:i !:R' .. '.,.: (Ov)
,
0
10
..
rrn
• ,•
0
.
••
The heating capacity of an air Source heat pump system and the heating
requirements of a house as a function of outside temperature.
r
GO. "
-.-
... -- - -
Joy Fulton
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Fi g. 1-2. A worksheet to determine the SPF of an air
source heat pump.
1- 5
>lUT'I<C
.~,
1200
APPENDU II
of
Cash flows and results of the economic coq>arisons
a water Source heat pump to other heating and air-conditioning systems
under different conditions.
~DITIONS
Elect .
rle resistance heat
Air
SOU
Gas heat
ree he. t pump
PAGE
High inflation, good performance
High inflation, avg. performance
Low inflation. good performance
Low inflation. avg. performance
High inflation. good perfonnance
High inflation, avg. performance
low inflation, good performance
Low inflation. avg. performance
High inflation, good performance
High inflation. avg. performance
Low inflation. good performance
Low inflation, avg. performance
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REFERENCES
1.
Lane, Charles W. and Don E. Miller, Geohydrology of Sedgwick County Kansas.
State Geological Survey of Kansas. Lawrence, Kansas, Bulletin 176. '
December 1965.
2.
Conversation with Dr. J. Robert Berg, P~of~ssor and Chainman, Geology
Department, Wichita State University, Wlch,ta. Kansas, on or about
July 25. 1979.
3.
4.
5.
6.
American Society of Heating. Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
ASH RAE Handbook & Product Directory 1977 Fundamentals. 1977.
•
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute. "Standard 320-76 for Water
Source Heat Pump Equipment," Arlington, Virginia, 1976.
Thuesen. H.G., W.J. Fabrycky. and G.J. Thu~sen, Engineering EconomY.
5th Ed.. Prenti ce-Ha 11. Inc.. Engl ewood Cl, ffs. New Jersey. 1977. pp. 66-67.
Planning and Analysis Group. "Consume~ Impact of the National Energy Act
Natural Gas Pricing Compromise," Amerlcan Gas Association, Arlington
Virgina, June 16, 1978.
'
7.
Jennings, Burgess H.• Environmental En ineer;n Anal sis and Practice,
International Textbook Company. New or. 1970. p. 04.
8.
"Kansas Gas and Electric Company Report to Stockholders 1978," Kansas
Gas and Electric Company. Wichita, Kansas, p. 26.
9.
"24th Annual Electrical Industry Forecast,1I Electrical World, New York,
September 15. 1978. pp. 61-75.
Conversation with Mr. Rich Mosher, Engineering Consultant to the Marketing
Department, Kansas Gas and Electric Company, Wichita, Kansas, on or about
10.
11.
July 2. 1979.
Haden, Gary and Dan Bearth. "Electrical Bills Seem Certain to Double in
Five Years," the Wichita Eagle and Beacon, January 21. 1979, p. 1.
.
12.
Policy Evaluation Analysis Group,"A Foreca~t of the Economic Demand for
Gas Energy in the U.S. through 1990," Amerlcan Gas Association. Arlington,
13.
Virginia. Feb. 9. 1979.
Conversation with Mr. Roy sundman, Kansas State Corporation Commission,
Topeka, Kansas. on or about June 14, 1979.
14.
Akalin. Or. Mustafa T.• "Equipment and Maintenance Cost Survey." ASH RAE
Journal. October 1978. p. 40-44.