viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
xxvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xxxiv
ix
1
2
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT
1
1.1
Introductory Remarks
1
1.2
The Background to the Research Project
2
1.3
The Statement of the Problem
9
1.4
The Objectives of the Research Project
9
1.5
The Specific Questions to be Addressed
10
1.6
Theoretical Framework of the Study
14
1.7
Operational Framework
17
1.8
The Rationale of the Research Project
20
1.9
The Significance of the Research Project
21
1.10
Limitations of the Study
22
1.11
Definition of Some of the Main Terms Used
23
1.12
Summary
27
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
28
2.1
28
Introduction
x
2.2
Types of Thinking Skills
29
2.3
Conceptions of Divergent Analytical Thinking
31
2.4
Direct Teaching of Thinking Skills
34
2.5
Formation of Thinking Skills within the Zone of
35
Proximal Development
2.6
Teaching Divergent Analytical Thinking Skills in a
37
Non-academic Context
2.7
Using Cognitive Apprenticeship Model to Simulate
39
Divergent Analytical Thinking Strategies
2.8
Use
of
Collaborative
Learning
to
Enhance
43
The Role of Graphic and Verbal Organizers and
44
Divergent Analytical Thinking
2.9
CoRT1 Techniques as Cognitive Tools
2.10
Divergent Analytical Thinking and Self-Paced
50
Learning Using an Interactive Multimedia Package
2.11
Group
Brainstorming
in
Computer- mediated-
53
Constructivist Approach to the Design of the
54
Communication (CMC)
2.12
Package
xi
2.13
Correlation
between
Gender
and
Divergent
56
Studies on Students’ Level of Contentment towards
57
Analytical Thinking Performance
2.14
Different Aspects of the Design of the Package
2.15
2.16
3
Some Issues in Instructional Design Principles
58
2.15.1
59
Interactivity as an Instructional Strategy
2.15.2 Screen Design
59
Summary
61
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
62
3.1
Introduction
62
3.2
The Research Methodology
63
3.2.1
Phase 1 (The Analysis Phase)
64
3.2.2
Phase 2A (Design Phase-The
65
Construction of the Treatment
Instrument)
3.2.3
Phase 2B (Design Phase-The Construction
of the Research Instruments)
66
xii
3.2.4 Phase 3A (Development Phase-
68
Storyboarding)
3.2.5 Phase 3B (Development Phase-Formative
69
Evaluation)
3.2.6 Phase 3C (Modification and Completion of
75
Package )
3.2.7 Phase 4 (Implementation Phase)
76
3.2.8 Phase 5 (Evaluation Phase)
79
3.3
Sampling
88
3.4
Research Instruments
92
3.4.1 The Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory
93
for Module 1, Module 2 and Module 3 (Pretest and First Post-test)
3.4.2 The Questionnaire on Students’ Preferences
93
in an Educational Multimedia Package
3.4.3 The Package Evaluation Form (for students)
93
3.4.4 The Package Evaluation Form ( for thinking
94
skills and instructional design experts)
3.4.5 The Observation Checklist
94
xiii
3.5
3.4.6 Interview Questions for Respondents
95
The Analytical Rubric Used to Measure
96
Performance Scores
3.6
4
Summary
100
DESIGN FEATURES OF THE PACKAGE
101
4.1
Introduction
101
4.2
The Authoring Software Used for the Development
102
of the Package
4.3
The Purpose and Content of Package
102
4.4
The General Structure of the Design of the Package
103
4.5
Accommodating Students’ Preferences into the
106
Design of the Package
4.6
Results of Experts’ Formative Evaluation on the
111
Design of the Package
4.7
Incorporating the Principles of Cognitive
112
Apprenticeship Model into the Design
4.8
Elements of Instruction Used in the Design
118
4.8.1
119
Computer Text
xiv
4.9
5
4.8.2
Computer Graphics
120
4.8.3
Computer Animation
120
4.8.4
Digital Audio
121
4.8.5
Digital Video
122
Summary
123
RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
124
5.1
Introduction
124
5.2
Students’ Performances in Divergent Analytical
125
Thinking in Preliminary Study
5.3
Students’ Preference in an Educational Multimedia
126
Package
5.4
Quantitative Analysis of the Impact of CADATS on
Students’
Divergent
Analytical
130
Thinking
Performance In Accordance With Modules
5.4.1 Module 1 (COMPARE AND
130
CONTRAST)
5.4.2 Module 2 (PARTS OF A
WHOLE)
136
xv
5.4.3 Module 3 (PROPOSAL
141
PONDER)
5.5
Quantitative Analysis of Gender and Initial Gain in
Performance
Score
on
Students’
Level
147
of
Contentment towards Different Aspects of the
Design of the Package
5.6
Quantitative Analysis of the Effects of Gender and
Initial
Gain
in
Performance
Score
on
151
the
Enhancements of Divergent Analytical Thinking
5.7
Patterns of Students’ Performance for each Module
153
Based on Categories of Students
5.8
The Extent of Success of the Module in the Package
in
Enhancing
Students’
Divergent
156
Analytical
Thinking Skills
6
5.9
Results from Qualitative Analysis
157
5.10
Summary of Analyses of Results
166
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
170
6.1
Introduction
170
6.2
OBJECTIVE 1: The Impact of CADATS on
170
Students’ Performance in Divergent Analytical
Thinking Skills
xvi
6.3
OBJECTIVE 2: Factors and Features of the Design
174
That Contributed to the Enhancement of Divergent
Analytical Thinking Performance Scores
6.3.1
Features of Design Used in the Package
178
that Stimulated Enhancements in Students’
Performance
6.4
OBJECTIVE 3: Correlation between Students’
182
Level of Contentment on the Design of CADATS
and the Enhancement of their Performance Scores
6.5
OBJECTIVE 4: Attitudinal Transformation in
184
Students’ Outlook on Thinking
6.5.1 Students’ Perception on the Effectiveness of
Meta-cognitive
Instruction
CADATS
Graphic
via
Used
and
185
in
Verbal
Organizers
6.5.2 Students’ Perception on the Effectiveness of
188
Group Brainstorming Approach Used in CADATS
6.5
7
Conclusion
191
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
192
7.1
Introduction
192
7.2
General Conclusions
192
xvii
7.2.1
Students’ Divergent Analytical Thinking
194
Performance in Computer-supported
Environment
7.2.2
Implications of an Asynchronous Computer
195
Mediated Communication (CMC)
Environment on Students’ Disposition
7.3
Outcomes of the Research Project
197
7.4
Contributions of the Research Study to the
200
Advancement and Application of Knowledge
7.5
Recommendations for Future Research
200
7.6
Final Remarks
201
LIST OF REFERENCES
202
Appendices A – K
221
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Four levels of questioning to promote analytical thinking skills
32
2.2
The differences between real- life and school-based problems
38
2.3
Oral (verbal) organizers used in ‘Compare and Contrast’
50
(Module 1)
2.4
Oral (verbal) organizers used in ‘Parts of a Whole’ (Module 2)
50
3.1
Pearson’s correlation coefficient for Analytical Thinking
68
Skills’ Inventory between the first and second pilot study
3.2
Category of items in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
72
3.3
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Ease of Use’ to the
72
total score in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for
students)
3.4
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of Thinking
Activity’ to the total score in the category in Package
Evaluation Form (for students)
73
xix
3.5
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of
73
Motivational Elements’ to the total score in the category in
Package Evaluation Form (for students)
3.6
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of User
74
Interface’ to the total score in the category in Package
Evaluation Form (for students)
3.7
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Navigational
74
Design’ to the total score in the category in Package
Evaluation Form (for students)
3.8
Bivariate correlation analysis of total score for each category
75
to overall total score in Package Evaluation Form (for
students)
3.9
Summary of statistical analysis used in relation to the research
81
questions in the study
3.10
Breakdown of samples in experimental group according to
91
classes
3.11
Distribution of the number of experts used in the study
92
3.12
Example of recoded response for Module 1 to illustrate scoring
96
rubric
3.13
Example of recoded response for Module 2 to illustrate scoring
rubric
97
xx
3.14
Example of recoded response for Module 3 to illustrate scoring
99
rubric
5.1
Participants in study of students’ preferences in an educational
127
multimedia package according to gender
5.2
Mean scores recorded for items in study of students’
127
preferences in an educational multimedia package
5.3
Students’ comments attached to questionnaire in the study of
129
students’ preferences in an educational multimedia package
5.4
Independent samples T- Test analysis on pre-test means of
131
experimental and control group for Module 1
5.5
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of
132
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 1
5.6
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and first post-test
132
means of experimental and control group for Module 1
5.7
Independent samples T- Test analysis on first post-test means
133
of experimental and control group for Module 1
5.8
Independent samples T-test analysis on first post-test means of
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 1
133
xxi
5.9
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in
134
performance score of experimental and control groups with
respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate) for Module 1
5.10
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means
135
of experimental group with respect to gender for Module 1
5.11
Independent samples T-Test analysis on pre-test means of
137
experimental and control group for Module 2
5.12
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of
138
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 2
5.13
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and post-test means
138
for experimental and control group for Module 2
5.14
Independent samples T-test analysis on first post-test means of
139
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 2
5.15
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in
140
performance score of experimental and control groups with
respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate) for Module 2
5.16
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means
141
of experimental group with respect to gender for Module 2
5.17
Independent samples T-Test analysis on pre-test means of
experimental and control groups for Module 3
143
xxii
5.18
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of
143
control and experimental groups with respect to gender for
Module 3
5.19
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and post-test means
144
of experimental and control groups for Module 3
5.20
Independent samples T-Test analysis on post-test means of
144
experimental and control group for Module 3
5.21
Independent samples T-test analysis on post-test means of
145
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 3
5.22
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in
146
performance score of experimental and control groups with
respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate) for Module 3
5.23
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means
147
of Experimental group with respect to gender for Module 3
5.24
Analysis of variance of students’ level of contentment towards
149
different aspects of the design of the package between
categories of students
5.25
To probe the effectiveness of each module by comparing
means of difference between second post-test and pre-test
performance scores between categories of students using
analysis of variance
151
xxiii
5.26
Analysis of variance of mean difference of second post-test
156
scores and pre-test scores of students to reveal the most
effective module in the package
5.27
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
157
the use of collaborative learning techniques in the package
5.28
Quantity of collaborative participation amongst student
159
respondents
5.29
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
160
the effectiveness of thinking tools used in the package
5.30
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
162
the instructional design of the package
5.31
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
164
the elements of motivational aspects incorporated into the
package
A1
List of problem scenarios posed to the participants of the
221
preliminary study
A2
Students’ answer sheet for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
222
A3
Students’ answer sheet for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
222
A4
Students’ responses to inventory used in the preliminary study
223
for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
xxiv
A5
Students’ responses from inventory used in the preliminary
229
study using Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
C1
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 1
270
(Compare and Contrast) in first pilot test
C2
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 2 (Parts
273
of a Whole) in first pilot test
C3
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 3
276
(Proposal Ponder) in first pilot test
C4
Calculation of Ind ex of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination
279
for items in Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 1
(Compare and Contrast) after second pilot study
C5
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination
280
for items in Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 2
(Parts of a Whole) after second pilot study
C6
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination
281
for items in Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 3
(Proposal Ponder) after second pilot study
D1
Package evaluation results by students
282
D2
Comments made by students in formative evaluation of
283
prototype
D3
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by Instruction
Design Expert
285
xxv
D4
287
General comments made by Instructional Design Expert on
prototype.
D5
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by content experts
288
D6
General comments made by content experts on prototype
289
D7
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by content expert:
290
Professor Abdullah b Hassan (Universiti Pendidikan Sultan
Idris)
E1
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test of control group for
291
Module 1
E2
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-
292
test for experimental group of Module 1
E3
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test for control group of
294
Module 2
E4
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-
295
test for experimental group of Module 2
E5
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test for control group of
297
Module 3
E6
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second posttest for experimental group of Module 3
298
xxvi
F1
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after
300
exploring Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
F2
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after
304
exploring Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
F3
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after
308
exploring Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
G1
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
312
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
G2
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
314
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
G3
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
316
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
G4
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test
318
of Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
G5
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test
320
of Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
G6
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test
322
of Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
G7
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and
responses from their peers in second post-test for Module 1
(Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
324
xxvii
G8
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and
326
responses from their peers in second post-test for Module 2
(Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
G9
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and
responses from their peers in second post-test for Module 3
(Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
328
xxviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
The structure of the theoretical framework
14
1.2
The structure of the operational framework
17
2.1
Progression through the four phases of the ‘zone of proximal
36
development’
2.2
Graphic and verbal organizers used in ‘Reason!Able’ to
47
nurture critical thinking skills for its users
2.3
An examp le of a graphic organizer used for ‘Compare and
48
Contrast’ (Module 1)
2.4
An example of a graphic organizer used for ‘Parts of a
49
Whole’ (Module 2)
3.1
A schematic representation of the research design
77
4.1
User interface previewing the screen layout for Module 3
104
xxix
4.2
User interface to viewing montage or direct access to
104
modules
4.3
The ‘User Registration’ interface
105
4.4
An example of a video representation of a problem scenario
113
4.5
An example of an audio representation of a problem scenario
113
4.6a
Verbal organizer requiring students to state their perspective
114
in advance
4.6b
CADATS acknowledging students’ declared perspective
115
4.7
Browsing other students’ responses for a particular problem
115
scenario
4.8
An example of a graphic organizer in Module 2 (Parts of a
116
Whole)
4.9
An example of a verbal organizer used in Module 3
116
(Proposal Ponder)
4.10
‘Meter prestasi’ (Performance meter) to indicate students’
120
performance based on current score for the module in
progress
5.1
Profile of students’ level of contentment towards different
aspects of the design of the package
148
xxx
5.2
Trends of performance scores for Module 1 according to
153
categories of students
5.3
Trends of performance scores for Module 2 according to
154
categories of students
5.4
Trends of performance scores for Module 3 according to
155
categories of students
6.1
Facility for full collaborative mode used in second posttests
173
6.2
An example of graphic organizer used in Module 3
181
6.3
Set of icons and pull-down menu for modules in CADATS
182
6.4
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 1
186
6.5
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 2
187
6.6
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 3
187
6.7
Example of list of students’ responses which were accessible
190
to all users
H1
Overall structure of CADATS
330
H2
Structure of introductory interface of CADATS
331
H3
General structure of modules in CADATS
332
H4
General structure of ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment
333
xxxi
J1
User interface in ‘Kenal’ segment
334
J2
User interface in ‘Demonstrasi’ segment
334
J3
User interface in ‘Ajar’ segment
335
J4
User interface in ‘Aplikasi’ segment
335
J5
User interface displaying other users’ responses before
335
embarking on a problem scenario
J6
User interface in ‘Refleksi’ segment
336
J7
User interface in online assessment of CADATS using
336
questionnaire-type document
J8
Interactive chart that portray one’s assessment scores of
336
CADATS against the average scores indicated by their peers
J9
User interface of free text-based feedback form on CADATS
337
J10
User interface of interactive quiz in CADATS
337
J11
User interface of ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment
337
xxxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A1
TITLE
PAGE
Divergent Analytical Thinking Inventory Used
221
in Preliminary Study
A2
A Recoded Representation of Students’
223
Responses from Divergent Analytical Thinking
Inventory Used in Preliminary Study (Set 1)
A3
A Recoded Representation of Students’
229
Responses from Divergent Analytical Thinking
Inventory Used in Preliminary Study (Set 2)
B1
Students’ Preferences in a Multimedia Package
250
B2
Package Evaluation Form (For Students)
252
B3
Package Evaluation Form (For Thinking Skills
254
Experts)
B4
Package Evaluation Form (For Instructional
256
Design Expert)
B5
Observational Checklist
258
xxxiii
B6
Interview Questions for Respondents
260
B7
Analytical Thinking Inventory For Module 1
261
(Pre-test)
B8
Analytical Thinking Inventory For Module 2
264
(Pre-test)
B9
Analytical Thinking Inventory For Module 3
267
(Pre-test)
C
Results From Pilot Study
270
D
Results of Formative Evaluation of Package
282
E
Results of Summative Evaluation of Package
291
F
Summary of Students’ Responses From Group
300
Interviews
G
Examples of Students’ Responses From Pre-
312
and Post-Test Sessions
H1
Overall Structure of CADATS
330
H2
Structure of Introductory Interface of CADATS
331
H3
General Structure of Modules in CADATS
332
xxxiv
H4
General Structure of “Collaborative Learning’
333
Segment
J
User Interfaces Used in CADATS
334
K
List of Related Papers Presented by Researcher
338
Confirmation Letters by Experts for Formative
Evaluation of Package
Letters of Consent by Ministry of Education of
Malaysia and Johore Education Department to
Conduct Research
xxxv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CADATS
-
Collaborative Approach Divergent Analytical Thinking Simulator
CoRT1
-
Cognitive Research Trust tools for divergent thinking
PMI
-
Plus, Minus, Interesting (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
CAF
-
Consider All Factors (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
C&S
-
Consequence and Sequel (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
OPV
-
Other Peoples’ Views (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
LAN
-
Local Area Network
p
-
Significance level for statistical analyses purposes