MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES FOR PREVENTING AND REDUCING
STRESS AT CONSTRUCTION SITE
LIM WEI HAN
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of
Master of Science (Construction Management)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
JUNE 2009
iii
To my beloved mother, father, brother
and
Bi Xia
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, En.
Abdul Rahim Abdul Hamid and Dr. Khairulzan Yahya, for their generous advice,
kind assistance and patiently guidance. Thanks you for all your time and valuable
experiences that have shared with me regarding this study.
Secondly, I want to appreciate all the respondents from the contractor
organizations, who generously spent their precious time to participate in the
questionnaire survey of this study. I also want to thank my entire friends who directly
or indirectly assisted me in this project study.
Last but not least, sincere gratitude and appreciation is forwarded to my
family for care, moral support and understanding during five years of studying in
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
LIM WEI HAN
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
v
ABSTRACT
Construction industry involved very complicated process and extensive
linkages to more than hundred of upstream and downstream industries. Therefore, an
effective leadership of managerial level of construction organization is needed to
well manage and control their subordinates in order to make sure the efficiency and
productivity of the construction work. However, both managerial level of the
construction organization and their subordinates also would experience stress due to
increase of workload and work pressure. Hence, management competency has
become significant in human resource practice in order to increase individual and
organizational effectiveness. Consequently, a study on management competency of
the managerial level is conducted for preventing and reducing stress at construction
site in Johor. A total of 78 sets of questionnaires have been collected from several
professions within 20 organizations. Among the 78 number of respondents, 21
persons were from managerial level and 57 persons were from subordinates’ level.
From the survey, managerial levels have the highest percentage score of subcompetency in managing conflict meanwhile the subordinates level assess their
managerial level as the participative/empowering is having the highest percentage
score among all the listed sub-competency for preventing and reducing stress at
construction site. Generally, the managerial level and subordinates level have the
same perception that the managerial level is having the highest percentages score in
competency of managing and communicating existing and future work among all of
the competency. The managerial level behaviour is an important determinant of
theirs subordinate stress levels. Thus, throughout the study, the managerial level of
the construction organization can have better understanding on stress as well as the
skills, abilities and behaviours needed to implement the management standard and
manage their subordinates in a way that minimizes work-related stress in
construction works.
vi
ABSTRAK
Industri pembinaan melibatkan proses yang amat rumit dan berhubungkait
rapat dengan ratusan industri-industri yang lain. Oleh itu, keberkesanan kepimpinan
pihak pengurus dalam organisasi pembinaan diperlukan untuk mengurus dan
mengawasi pekerja bawahanya dengan baik, demi untuk memastikan kecekapan dan
produktiviti dalam kerja pembinaan. Bagaimanapun, tidak mengira pihak pengurusan
ataupun pekerja bawahan mereka dalam organisasi pembinaan juga akan menghadapi
stres akibat daripada peningkatan beban kerja dan tekanan kerja. Maka, kecekapan
dalam pengurusan menjadi penting dalam praktik sumber manusia agar dapat
meningkatkan keberkesanan kerja individu dan organisasi. Demikian, satu kajian ke
atas kecekapan pengurusan dalam pihak pengurus telah dijalankan untuk mencegah
dan mengurangkan stres kerja di tapak pembinaan di Johor. Sejumlah 78 set borang
soal selidik telah dikutip daripada beberapa golongan profesion antara 20 buah
organisasi. Antara 78 bilangan responden, 21 orang adalah daripada pihak
pengurusan dan 57 orang adalah pekerja bawahan. Daripada tinjauan, pihak pengurus
mempunyai peratus markah tertinggi dalam menguruskan konflik, sementara itu,
pekerja bawahan menilai pihak pengurus mereka dengan peratus markah tertinggi
dalam penyertaan/memberi kuasa kepada pekerja bawahan demi untuk aspek
mencegah dan mengurangkan stres kerja. Secara umum, pihak pengurus dan pekerja
bawahan mempunyai pendapat yang sama bahawa pihak pengurus mempunyai
peratus markah tertinggi dalam kecekapan untuk mengurus dan menyampaikan kerja
pada masa ini dan masa akan datang.
Kelakuan pihak pengurusan adalah satu
penentu penting ke atas tahap tekanan pekerja bawahan. Oleh itu, sepanjang kajian,
pihak pengurusan organisasi pembinaan dapat memperolehi pemahaman yang lebih
baik tentang stres, kemahiran dan keupayaan serta kelakuan yang perlu ada untuk
melaksanakan standard pengurusan dan berupaya menguruskan pekerja bawahan
mereka dalam sebegitu rupa agar dapat mengurangkan stres kerja dalam kerja
pembinaan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
2
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
i
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
xvi
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Problem Statement
3
1.3
Aim and Objectives of Study
5
1.4
Scope of Study
5
1.5
Significance of Study
6
1.6
Methodology of Study
6
1.7
Arrangement of Report
7
LITERATURE REVIEW
10
2.1
Introduction
10
2.2
Definition of Stress
11
viii
2.3
Definition of Workplace Stress
12
2.4
Types of Stress
13
2.4.1
Eustress (Positive/Good Stress)
14
2.4.2
Distress (Negative/Bad Stress)
15
2.4.3
Yerkes-Dodson Principle
15
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Sources of Workplace Stress
17
2.5.1
Physical/Task Stressors
18
2.5.2
Psychological Stressors
19
2.5.2.1
Lack of Control/Predictability
19
2.5.2.2
Stress Related to Job Conditions
20
2.5.2.3
Role Stressors
22
2.5.2.4
Interpersonal Conflict
23
2.5.2.5
Career Development
24
2.5.2.6
Organisational Structure
24
2.5.2.7
Home-Work Interface
25
Stress Model
25
2.6.1
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
27
2.6.1.1
Stage One - Alarm Reaction
28
2.6.1.2
Stage Two - Stage of Resistance
29
2.6.1.3
Stage Three - Stage of Exhaustion
29
Workplace Stress Model
30
2.7.1
NIOSH Model of Job Stress
31
2.7.2
Demand-Control Model
32
2.7.3
Palmer Model of Work Stress
33
2.7.4
Cooper Occupational Stress Model
35
Costs of Workplace Stress
36
2.8.1
Costs of Workplace Stress for Individual
36
2.8.2
Costs of Workplace Stress for Company or
Organization
2.9
37
Stress Prevention System
38
2.9.1
A Step-Wise Approach
38
2.9.1.1
Stress Recognition
39
2.9.1.2
Stress Assessment
40
2.9.1.3
Anti-Stress Intervention
42
ix
2.9.1.4
Monitoring and Evaluation
2.10 Stress Management Competency
2.10.1 Background to Competency Framework
44
46
46
2.10.2 Application of Competency Framework to Stress
Management
47
2.10.3 Develop Stress Management Competency Framework
48
2.10.4 Vital Role of Line Manager
55
2.11 Workplace Stress within Construction Industry
56
2.11.1 Sources of Workplace Stress within Construction
Industry
57
2.11.2 Line Managers - Project Managers and Stress
3
METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
62
3.1
Introduction
62
3.2
First Stage
63
3.3
Second Stage
64
3.3.1
Primary Data
64
3.3.1.1
65
3.3.2
3.4
4
60
Questionnaire
Secondary Data
67
Third Stage
68
3.4.1
Frequencies Statistical Analysis
68
3.4.2
Average Index Analysis
68
3.5
Fourth Stage
72
3.6
Summary
73
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
74
4.1
Introduction
74
4.2
Data Collection
74
4.3
General Information of Respondents
75
4.3.1
Profession of Respondents
75
4.3.2
Working Experience of Respondents
77
4.4
Analysis of the Management Competency
4.4.1
Respectful and Responsible: Managing Emotions and
78
x
Having Intergrity
4.4.1.1
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Managerial Level
4.4.1.2
4.4.2.1
83
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Managerial Level
4.4.2.2
Managing the Individual within the Team
4.4.3.1
Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation
5
90
92
92
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Subordinates' Level
4.4.5
88
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Managerial Level
4.4.4.2
88
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Subordinates' Level
4.4.4.1
85
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Managerial Level
4.4.3.2
83
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Subordinates' Level
4.4.4
81
Managing and Communicating Existing and Future
Work
4.4.3
78
Analysis of Results from the Feedback of
Subordinates' Level
4.4.2
78
94
Overall Data Profiling
96
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
106
5.1
Introduction
106
5.2
Conclusions of Study
106
5.3
Limitations of Study
108
5.4
Recommendations for Further Study
109
REFERENCES
110
APPENDIX
115
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
2.1
Summary of major Job Stressors (Source: Rice, 1999)
2.2
Comparison of Key Features of Stress Models
PAGE
17
(Source: Rice, 1999)
26
2.3
Checklist for Stressor
40
2.4
Management Competency framework with positive and
negative behavioural indicators
2.5
50
Refined Management Competency for preventing and
reducing stress at work
52
3.1
Calculation of Sub-Competency Score
70
3.2
Calculation of Competency Score
71
4.1
Profession detail of respondents from managerial level
76
4.2
Profession detail of respondents from subordinates' level
76
4.3
Managerial Competency about Respectful and Responsible:
Managing Emotions and Having Integrity
4.4
Subordinates Competency about Respectful and Responsible:
Managing Emotions and Having Integrity
4.5
79
Managerial Competency about Managing and
82
xii
Communicating Existing and Future Work
4.6
Subordinates Competency about Managing and
Communicating Existing and Future Work
4.7
90
Managerial Competency about Reasoning/Managing
Difficult Situation
4.10
88
Subordinates Competency about Managing the Individual
within the Team
4.9
86
Managerial Competency about Managing the Individual
within the Team
4.8
84
93
Subordinates Competency about Reasoning/Managing
Difficult Situation
95
4.11
Percentage Score for each Sub-Competency
97
4.12
Percentage Score and Classification for each Competency
4.13
Average Percentage Score and Classification for each
Competency
103
105
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Methodology of Study
9
2.1
Yerkes-Dodson Curve (Source: Seaward, 2004)
16
2.2
General Adaptation Syndrome (Source: Selye, H., 1978)
30
2.3
NIOSH Model of JOB Stress (Source: NIOSH, 1999)
31
2.4
Demand-Control Model (Source: Landy, 2007)
32
2.5
Palmer Model of Work Stress (Source: Palmer, 2001)
34
2.6
Cooper Occupational Stress Model (Source: Greenberg,
1999)
35
2.7
The Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle (Source: Martino, 2001)
45
2.8
Physical Factors causing Workplace Stress
57
2.9
Organisational Factors causing Workplace Stress
58
2.10
Job Demand Factors causing Workplace Stress
58
2.11
Job Role Factors causing Workplace Stress
59
2.12
Other Factors causing Workplace Stress
59
3.1
Sample of Radar Plot
72
xiv
4.1
Percentages of Feedback from managerial level and
subordinates' level
4.2
Profession detail of respondents from managerial level
and subordinates' level
4.3
75
76
Working experience of respondents from managerial level
and subordinates' level
77
4.4
Tabulation of Percentage Score for each Sub-Competency
99
4.5
Radar Plot for Percentage Score of each Sub-Competency
from the viewpoint of Managerial Level
4.6
Radar Plot for Percentage Score of each Sub-Competency
from the viewpoint of Subordinates' Level
4.7
100
100
Radar Plot for Percentage Score of each Sub-Competency
from the viewpoint of Managerial Level and Subordinates'
Level
101
4.8
Tabulation of Percentage Score for each Competency
103
4.9
Radar Plot for Average Percentages Score of each
Sub-Competency
104
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ILO
International Labour Organization
HSE
Health and Safety Executive
NIOSH
National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health
CIPD
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development
GAS
General Adaptation Syndrome
UK
United Kingdom
MSDs
Musculoskeletal Disorders
AI
Average Index
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A
TITLE
Questionnaire Survey Form
PAGE
115
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
Nowadays, the modern lifestyle is full of hassles, deadlines, frustrations, and
demands. All of these aspects impose high physical demands on human bodies and
emotional costs on human lives (Ornelas, 2003). Consequently, stress is readily
acknowledged to be a common feature of these modern lives (ILO, 2001).
In modern life, the word “stress” has many connotations and definitions
based on various perspectives of human conditions. In Eastern philosophies, stress is
considered to be an absence of inner peace. Meanwhile, in western culture, stress can
be described as a loss of control (Seaward, 2004). According to Lazarus (1984),
stress can be defined as a state of anxiety produced when events and responsibilities
exceed one‟s coping abilities. Besides, Selye (1978) defined stress as the nonspecific
response of the body to any demand places upon it to adopt, whether that demand
produces pleasure or pain.
From the perspective of workplace, the work-related stress can be defined as
the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand
placed on them at work (HSE, 2008). According to NIOSH (1999), the job stress can
be defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the
requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the
worker.
2
Workplace stress or stress is not necessarily a negative phenomenon and it
would therefore be a mistake to concentrate only on its pathological effects (ILO,
2001). In fact, the stress is a normal affair in life (Ahmad Shukri, 2007). Therefore, a
moderate level of stress is necessary to be an important motivated factor for
individuals, and without some pressures, life would become boring and without
purpose (Ornelas, 2003). Besides, a moderate level of stress can be instrumental in
achieving a dynamic adaptation to new situations (ILO, 2001).
However, stress has a very high cost for individuals, companies and
organizations if the stress is gradually increased (ILO, 2001). According to NIOSH
(1999), when the stressful situations go unresolved, the individual‟s body is kept in a
constant state of activation, which increases the rate of wear and tear to biological
systems. Ultimately, fatigue and damage results, and the ability of the body to repair
and defend itself can become seriously compromised. As a result, the risk of injury
or disease is escalates.
For the company or organization, the costs of stress may take in many forms.
These include absenteeism, higher medical costs and staff turnover, with the
associated cost of recruiting and training new workers (ILO, 2001). Over the past
two decades, the proportion of workers who describe themselves as „„highly
stressed‟‟ has increased significantly and found that 70% of workers reported that job
stress caused health problems that led to decreased productivity (Eisen, 2008).
According to Eisen (2008) again, an estimated 90% of medical patients have stress
symptoms; subsequent stress-related health care costs US industries $69 billion
annually. Besides, direct medical costs of stress-related conditions are estimated to
be between US $150 and US $300 billion annually.
Construction industry constitutes an important element of the country‟s
economic development (Fadhlin Abdulllah, 2004). It involved very complicated
process and extensive linkages to more than hundred of upstream and downstream
industries. Therefore, one of the important parties who involve in the construction
industry is managerial level of the organization such as project managers. The
managerial level of the construction organization has their responsibility to well
3
manage and control their subordinates in order to make sure the efficiency and
productivity of the construction works.
According to a research of Loosemore and Waters (2004), there is
accumulating evidence that stress levels among construction professionals are
gradually increased from days to days. Therefore, the managerial level of the
construction organization as well as their subordinates also would experience stress
due to increase of workload and the pressure. Hence, management competency has
become leading in human resource practices and is often applied in organizations to
guide selection assessment, development, and performance appraisal (Heinsman,
2008). According to Heinsman (2008) again, management competency can be
described as an integrated set of human resource activities aimed at optimizing the
development and the use of employee competencies in order to increase individual
effectiveness, and, subsequently, to increase organizational effectiveness.
Therefore, a study on management competency of the managerial level is
conducted for preventing and reducing stress at construction site. The managerial
level behaviour is an important determinant of theirs subordinate stress levels.
Throughout the study, the managerial level of the construction organization can have
better understanding on stress as well as the skills, abilities and behaviours needed to
implement the management standard and manage their subordinates in a way that
minimizes work-related stress in construction works.
1.2
Problem Statement
Over the last century, the nature of work has gone through drastic changes
and it is still changing at whirlwind speed (NIOSH, 1999). Perhaps now, workrelated stress or job stress poses a threat to the health of the workers and, in turn, to
the health organization.
4
The Health and Safety Executive commissioned research has indicated that
over half a million people in the UK experience work-related stress at a level that
they believe is making them ill, up to five million people feel “very” or “extremely”
stressed by their work and work-related stress costs society about £3.7 billion every
year. In 2005/2006, a total of 10.5 million working days were lost to stress,
depression, and anxiety (HSE, 2005). Therefore, this indicated that very few
organizations are likely to escape the impact of stress-related absence and employee
stress. Where the stress-related problems lead to an employee to absent from work
with the average of 29 working days are lost (Donaldson-Feilder, 2008). Furthermore,
the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) survey 2007 stated that
40 percent of the responding organizations reported an increase in stress-related
absence.
In construction industry, the confrontational nature of construction projects
produced significant levels of stress for the construction professionals (Loosemore
and Waters, 2004). Loosemore and Waters (2004) also stated that the construction
site managers, also discovered significant levels of stress and the high levels of stress
among site managers damaged productivity, although the level at which stress
became destructive was peculiar to an individual. From here, it clearly shows that the
managerial level as well as the subordinates also would experience stress in
construction works.
Therefore, the managerial level such as project manager is responsible for
implementing people management practices on a day-to-day basis as well as
managing the stress for preventing and reducing stress at work. From this study, the
management competency of the managerial level such as project manager in the
construction industry is evaluated in order to prevent and reduce stress at
construction works.
5
1.3
Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of this project is to study the management behaviours for preventing and
reducing stress at construction sites and the objectives of this study are as follows:
i.
To study the stress prevention system in construction work.
ii.
To identify management competencies for preventing and reducing stress
in construction work.
iii.
To evaluate the managerial own‟s competencies for preventing and
reducing stress at construction site.
iv.
To evaluate subordinates‟ viewpoint on their management competencies
for preventing and reducing stress at construction site.
1.4
Scope of Study
In order to achieve the objectives of this study, the scope of study only
focusing on the development of construction industry in Malaysia. The scopes of
data collection in this study focus on the following aspects:
i.
The construction company such as contractors who involved civil
construction in the area of infrastructures and building.
ii.
The selected construction company must have their own‟s managerial
staffs such as project managers or site manager as well as their
subordinates such as site supervisors, architect, quantity surveyor or
administration staff.
iii.
The selected construction companies are located around the Johor due to
the availability of good number of projects.
Furthermore, the scope in literature review of this study will be focus on the aspects
of stress and workplace stress, types of stress, sources of workplace stress, stress and
6
workplace stress model, costs of workplace stress, stress prevention system,
management competencies of managerial level in preventing and reducing stress and
workplace stress within construction industry.
1.5
Significance of Study
Stress in the workplace is ubiquitous and increasingly costly. Therefore, this
study is significant to assist the managerial level of construction organization to
manage stress at construction site.
Throughout this study, the managerial level of construction organization can
get clear understanding on management competency needed for preventing and
reducing work-related stress at construction site. According to Heinsman (2008),
the successful implementation of management competency in the organization can
bring a lot of advantages. Therefore, the managerial level of construction
organization is important to take concern on their management competency as the
stress in workplace may affect the efficiency and productivity of their subordinates.
Furthermore, this study can be used as the guideline for future development
and the construction‟s managerial level to recognize stress and try to reduce it in
order to create a healthy working environment.
1.6
Methodology of Study
In this study, the following methodology has been adopted in order to achieve
the objective of the study and the methodology of study is illustrated in Figure 1.1
which is being carried out in four (4) stages.
7
i.
In order to achieve the first and second objective, a review of the
literature was conducted such as stress prevention system as well as the
collection of skills and behaviours required by the managerial level to
prevent and reduce stress at work.
ii.
The third and final objective were achieved through the questionnaire
survey in order to evaluate the management competency needed for
preventing and reducing stress at construction site.
1.7
Arrangement of Report
The study report consists of five chapters where the content of each chapter
are summarized as follows:
Chapter 1 consist of introduction of the entire study and provides an overall
view of the study. It covers the introduction, problem statement, aim and objectives
of study, scope of the study, significance of the study, methodology of study and
arrangement of report.
Chapter 2 focus in literature review that based on findings from various
different sources of information such as journal, technical papers, books, research
paper etc. This chapter includes introduction, definition of stress and workplaces
stress, types of stress, sources of workplace stress, stress and workplace stress model,
costs of workplace stress, stress prevention system, stress management competency
and workplace stress within construction industry.
Chapter 3 describe in detail on the methodology of study which covered all
the stages in preparation of this study report.
8
Chapter 4 analysed the data using frequency analysis and average index
analysis from the questionnaire survey. Chapter 4 also will discuss in detail all the
data analysed and the findings will be highlighted.
Chapter 5 concludes all the finding which leads to the achievement of the
objectives of the study. This chapter also suggests some recommendation for further
study.
9
Stage 1:
Topic Selection
First Stage
Preliminary study
 Selection title and field of research
 Identify issues and problems statement
 Establish objectives and scope of study
Stage 2:
Data Gathering
Second Stage
Data and information collection
Secondary data
Primary data
 Article
 Journal
 Research paper
 Published books
 Website
 Questionnaire Survey
Stage 3:
Data Processing
Stage 4:
Documentation
Third Stage
Data analysis and interpretation
Fourth Stage
Results, summary and recommendations
Documentation
Figure 1.1: Methodology of Study
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
Over the past three decades, there has been a growing belief in all sectors of
employment and in government that the experience of stress at work has undesirable
consequences for the health and safety of individuals and for the health of their
organisations. Therefore, in the past and still too often today, workplace stress has
been considered merely a personal problem to be tackled with remedial, occasional
and often palliative intervention (ILO, 2001).
Over the past decade or so, much evidence has emerged that it is indeed
possible to reduce stress at work, and at the same time improve performance and
productivity, provided that a multiple response is adopted which focuses principally
on preventing the causes of stress and alleviating the stressors themselves (ILO,
2001).
Therefore, one of the important parties in the organization is the managerial
levels who play an important intermediary role between individual staff members
and the organization in order to prevent and reducing stress at work. Hence, the study
of management competency for preventing and reducing stress at construction site
have been conducted in order to assist the managerial level of construction
organization to manage stress at construction site.
11
2.2
Definition of Stress
In contemporary times, the word stress has many connotations and definitions
based on various perspectives of the human condition. In Eastern philosophies, stress
is considered to be an absence of inner peace. Meanwhile, in western culture, stress
can be described as a loss of control (Seaward, 2004).
The word stress is derived from the Latin word “stringere” which meant
literally „to draw tight‟ and was used in the 17th century to describe hardship, strain,
adversity or affliction (Cartwright, 1997). These root words refer to the internal
feelings of constriction many feel under stress (Smith, 1993). During the late 18th
century, stress denoted “force, pressure, strain or strong effort,” referring primarily to
an individual or to an individual‟s organs or mental powers (Cartwright, 1997).
Early definitions of strain and load used in physics and engineering in the
early nineteenth century eventually came to influence one concept of how stress
affects individuals (Cartwright, 1997). Therefore, load was defined as an external
force, strain as the degree of deformation caused by the force on an object, and stress
as the ratio of internal force created by the load to the area over which the force acted
(Smith, 1993). Similarly, in the late nineteenth century, stress was referred to those
pressures on the body that contribute to illness (Smith, 1993).
According to Cannon (1929), stress is a reaction against disturbance. Cannon
have first coined the term fight-or-fight reaction based on his studied on the effects
of stress on animals and people. Because of this reaction, people and animals will
choose to stay and fight or attempt to escape when confronted by extreme danger.
Cannon also observed that when his subjects experienced situations of cold, lack of
oxygen, or excitement, he could detect physiological changes such as emergency
adrenaline secretions. He described these individuals as being “under stress”.
However, Selye went one step further than Cannon. He found that not only
did his laboratory animals adjust to these demands by initiating a complex pattern of
12
physiological responses, but that the responses were the same regardless of the
source of the demand. Therefore, Selye (1978) defined stress as the rate of wear and
tear on the body. Selye also added to his definition that stress is the nonspecific
response of the body to any demand places upon it to adopt, whether that demand
produces pleasure or pain. Besides, Selye observed that whether a situation was
perceived as good (e.g., a job promotion) or bad (e.g., the loss of job), the
physiological response or arousal was very similar and the body doesn‟t know the
difference between good stress (eustress) and bad stress (distress).
Meanwhile, Lazarus (1984) defined stress as a state of anxiety produced
when events and responsibilities exceed one‟s coping abilities. Nevertheless, some
specialists in the field of holistic medicine have expanded Lazarus‟s and Selye‟s
definitions as follow: Stress is the inability to cope with a perceived (real or
imagined) threat to one‟s mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being,
which results in a series of physiological responses and adaptations (Seaward, 2004).
Furthermore, Blonna (2000) defined stress as a holistic transaction between
the individual and a stressor resulting in the body‟s mobilization of a stress response.
A holistic transaction is an appraisal process involving a potential stressor, the
individual, and the environment.
As can be seen, the idea of stress and its effects on people has evolved from
different research perspectives. However, the line of research had little impact on
stress theory and research in general.
2.3
Definition of Workplace Stress
Workplace stress is an extremely difficult construct to define. Obviously, it is
stress on the job, but stress on a job occurs in a persons. However, there have many
studies since decade ago which aims to define and manage the workplace stress.
13
The work-related stress can be defined as the adverse reaction people have to
excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them at work (HSE, 2008).
Besides, it also refers to stress experienced as a direct result of a person's occupation.
According to NIOSH (1999), job stress can be defined as the harmful
physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not
match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker. Job stress can lead to poor
health and even injury.
However, based on European Commission (2002), work-related stress can be
defined as a pattern of emotional, cognitive, behavioural and physiological reaction
to adverse and noxious aspects of work content, work environments and work
organizations. It is a state characterized by high levels of arousal and distress and
often by feelings of not coping.
Another definition of job stress focuses on job features that pose a threat to
the worker. Threat may be due to excessive job demands, insufficient supplies to
meet workers‟ needs, or the possibility of loss. When the job requires too much work
in too short a time, job overload exists. Supply deficits concern things employees
expect from their jobs: adequate salary, job satisfaction, and promotion or growth in
the job. A threat of loss may include demotions, unattractive relocations, or outright
severance from the job (Rice, 1999).
2.4
Types of Stress
Stress is inevitable from the moment of birth. One definition of life is “the
continual process of solving problems,” and all problem solving involves pressure,
conflict, and frustration – in other words, stress (Manning, 1988). Besides, Selye
(1978) stated that:
14
“No one can live without experiencing some degree of stress all the
time. You may think that only serious disease or intensive physical or
mental injury can cause stress. This is false. Crossing a busy
intersection, exposure to a draft, or even sheer joy are enough to
activate the body’s stress mechanism to some extent. Stress is not even
necessarily bad for you; it is also the spice of life, for any emotion, any
activity, causes stress.”
Therefore, stress is widely accepted to have two opposite effects on
individuals – good stress (eustress) and bad stress (distress). Han Selye, who often
referred to as the “father of stress”, was the first to distinguish between good stress
(eustress) and bad stress (distress). He also noted that eustress provides challenges
that motivate individuals to work hard and meet their goals meanwhile distress
results from the stressful situations that persist over time and produces negative
health outcomes (Landy, 2007).
Broadly, it can be concluded that the acceptable levels of stress help to
improve the individual‟s performance whilst excessive amounts of stress can lead to
a decreased performance.
2.4.1
Eustress (Positive/Good Stress)
Eustress is good or positive stress and arises in any situation or circumstance
that a person finds motivating or inspiring (Seaward, 2004). Seaward also stated that
situations that are classified as eustress are enjoyable and for this reason are not
considered to be a threat. Besides, Selye (1978) also have stated that pleasurable,
satisfying experiences are came from eustress.
Eustress heightens awareness, increases mental alertness and often leads to
superior cognitive and behavioral performance. Eustress may supply the arousing
15
motivation for one individual to create a wok of art, another an urgently needed
medicine, another a scientific theory (Rice, 1999).
2.4.2
Distress (Negative/Bad Stress)
Generally, stress and distress are been thought as interchangeable terms
(Rice, 1999). Perhaps, this is because common sense suggests that stress is
something bad. According to Selye (1978), distress is “damaging or unpleasant
stress”. Therefore, distress can be refers to the negative effects of stress that drain of
energy and surpass one‟s capacities to cope. Expressed in these terms, stress is much
the same as a state of anxiety, fear, worry, or agitation (Rice, 1999). Rice (1999) also
stated that the core of the psychological experience is negative, painful and
something to be avoided.
Broadly, there are two kinds of distress namely acute stress and chronic stress
(Seaward, 2004). Acute stress is the result of short-term stressors (Olpin, 2007).
Acute stress occurs, is usually quite intense, and then disappears quickly (Seaward,
2004). Meanwhile chronic stress is long-term stress resulting from the unrelenting
demands and pressures that go for interminable periods of time (Olpin, 2007).
According to Olpin (2007), the danger of chronic stress is that some people just get
used to it, lose hope, and give up searching for solutions. Meanwhile, the physical
and mental resources are depleted.
2.4.3
Yerkes-Dodson Principle
Yerkes-Dodson principle, which is applied to athletic performance, lends
itself quite nicely to explaining the relationship between eustress, distress and health.
As shown in Figure 2.1, the Yerkas-Dodson Curve illustrates that, up to a point,
16
stress or arousal can actually increase performance. Performance is best when
arousal is optimum (not maximum) (Rice, 1999). The optimum stress level is the
midpoint, prior to where eustress turns into distress. The stress to the left of the
midpoint is considered to be eustress. However, stress beyond the midpoint,
performance begins to deteriorate and is therefore labeled as distress.
Therefore, the studies indicated that stress-related hormones in optimal does
actually improve physical performance and mental-processing skills, like
concentration (Seaward, 2004). Beyond that optimal level, all performance begins to
decrease in efficiency and productivity.
According to Rice (1999), people perform best with at least some pressure.
Too little stress is just as bad as too much. The aim of stress management, then, is
not to eliminate stress entirely but to control it so an optimal level of arousal is
present. Selye (1978) said that “Complete freedom from stress is death”. It is only
extreme, disorganizing stress that needs to be avoided, managed, or reduced.
Figure 2.1: Yerkes-Dodson Curve
(Source: Seaward, 2004)
17
2.5
Sources of Workplace Stress
Attempts to identify the sources of stress on the job disclose many culprits.
First, stress is an interaction between the objective work conditions and the
perception that skills match job demands. Thus, the sources of job stress noted are
not solely responsible for job stress. Instead, potential for stress are added in
combination with worker traits and perceptions (Rice, 1999). The most commonly
identified sources of work stress are summarized in Table 2.1 with both contributing
factors and possible consequences. There are job-specific stress, role stress,
interpersonal stress, career development, organizational structure and development
and home-work interface.
However, according to Landy (2007), work stressors fall into two major
categories: physical/task stressors such as noise, light, heat, and cold; and
psychological stressors, which involve a multitude of subtle and not so-subtle factors
that an individual may find demanding.
Table 2.1: Summary of major Job Stressors (Source: Rice, 1999)
Job Stressors
Contributing Factors
Possible Consequences
Job Conditions
Quantitative work overload
Physical and/or mental
Qualitative work overload
fatigue
Assembly-line hysteria
Job burnout
People decisions
Increased irritability and
Physical dangers
tension
Shift work
Technostress
Role Stress
Role ambiguity
Increased anxiety and
Sex bias and sex-role
tension
Stereotypes
Lowered job performance
Sexual harassment
Interpersonal factors
Poor work and social support
Increased tension
systems
Elevated blood pressure
18
Political rivalry, jealousy or
Job dissatisfaction
anger
Lack of management concern
for worker
Career development
Underpromotion
Lowered productivity
Overpromotion
Loss of self-esteem
Job security
Increased irritability and
Frustrated ambitions
anger
Job dissatisfaction
Organizational
Rigid and impersonal
Structure
structure
Lowered motivation and
Political battles
productivity
Inadequate supervision or
Job dissatisfaction
training
Non-participative decision
making
Home-work interface
Spillover
Increased mental conflict
Lack of support from spouse
and fatigue
Marital conflict
Lowered motivation
Dual-career stress
and productivity
Increased marital conflict
2.5.1
Physical/Task Stressors
In the early studies of work stress, many psychologists focused on physical
stressors and theirs effects on the experience of stress and subsequent strains.
According to many experimental and field studies, uncontrollable noise is
particularly stressful and leads to lower task performance and diminished motivation
(Landy, 2007).
19
In the recent study in an open office setting, exposure to low-level noise is
associated with elevated levels of stress hormones and lower task performance. The
importance of the increased hormone levels is that stressors may exist even when the
worker is not aware of stressor (Landy, 2007).
Although it may be clear that physical and task stressors have negative effects
on employee health, more recent research in work stress has focused on
psychological stressors that may not be as intuitively linked to health outcomes
(Landy, 2007). However, that one type of stressor (e.g., physical or task) is not made
less important by the presence of another stressor. Thus, the effects of multiple
stressors can be cumulative.
2.5.2
Psychological Stressors
2.5.2.1 Lack of Control/Predictability
Control is extent to which employees are able to make decisions about their
work (Spector, 2008). Such decisions involve all aspects of work, including when to
work, where to work, how to work and what tasks to do.
Control over the job tasks can also be a source of workplace stress (Goetsch,
2005). Varying levels of personal control and predictability have clear effects on job
performance and work stress (Landy, 2007). As with any stressor, the individual‟s
perception of control or predictability determines their response to the situation, and
such perceptions are affected by characteristics of the job and work environment.
The scheduling and pace of work can influence feelings of control (Landy, 2007).
For example, flexible time schedules enhance feelings of control over one‟s
schedule, even though the average arrival and departure times may differ only by
minutes after a flexible time schedule has been introduced. Flextime also increases
20
perceptions of control by helping employees to balance work and family
commitment (Landy, 2007). Perceptions of control in workplace are also related to
autonomy, the extent to which employees can control how and when they perform
the tasks of their job. Generally, interventions that enhance perceptions of control on
the job, such as participative decision making or flexible time schedules, are likely to
reduce stress and subsequent strains (Landy, 2007).
Furthermore, several studies have indicated that workers prefer to take
control of their job assignment and experience less workload stress if given this
opportunity (Goetsch, 2005). A related source of stress that has been introduced in
the age of high technology is from electronic monitoring. According to a study
conducted at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, “Video display terminal
workers who are electronically monitored suffered greater health problems than
those who are not.” (Goetsch, 2005).
2.5.2.2 Stress Related to Job Conditions
Specific work conditions that contribute to stress include job complexity,
work overload or underload, unsafe physical conditions and shift work.
Job complexity is the inherent difficulty of work to be done (Rice, 1999).
Besides, job complexity also relates to the number of different demands made on the
employees (Goetsch, 2005). A job perceived as being too complex may cause
feelings of inadequacy and result in emotional stress. Repetitive and monotonous
work may lack complexity so that the employee becomes bored and dissatisfied with
the job and possibly experiences some stress associated with the boredom.
Workload concerns the work demands that the job places on an employees
(Spector, 2008). In general, work overload can be divided into quantitative and
qualitative overload. Quantitative overload results when the physical demands of the
21
job exceed the person‟s capacity (Rice, 1999). This occurs when the employee must
do too much work in too short a time and it is especially serious when there is little
control over the rate at which the work must be completed (Smith, 1993).
Meanwhile, qualitative overload results when the difficulty of work relative to a
person‟s capabilities (Spector, 2008). This occurs when the job taxes either the
technical or mental skills of the employee and it is especially serious when the
employee can not easily do the job tasks because the difficulty of job tasks (Spector,
2008). It is possible to experience only one type of workload in a job. An employee
may have a lot of work to do that is not necessarily difficult or difficult work to do
that is not necessarily plentiful. In many cases, particularly with complex jobs, an
individual might experience both, having a great deal of difficult work to do.
Work underload or too little work also can cause stress. Work underload
means that the job is not challenging or fails to maintain the employee‟s interest and
attention (Rice, 1999). According to Rice (1999), work underload can be called as
deprivational stress. Factors that can aggravate underload are a mechanically
controlled pace of work, repetitiveness, few demands on worker skills or attention,
use of predetermined tools and techniques and highly specialized tasks (Smith,
1993).
Qualitative overload may occur when a manager level must make decisions
that affect company production and employees‟ futures (Rice, 1999). Managers may
have to plan production schedules, procure materials and evaluate staff as well as
make recommendations for hiring, firing and layoffs. When decisions merely involve
things, as opposed to people, managers may function effectively. Therefore, stress is
more likely especially when the manager‟s decision involves responsibility for
others. Stress also may increases as managers assume more responsibility for their
decisions.
Unsafe physical condition also can be a potential source of work stress,
especially when need to confronts the threat of injury (Rice, 1999). Dangerous tasks
or work settings, toxic chemicals, high noise levels, dust, overcooling, unpleasant
odors, and other stressful factors can lead to illness or disease (Greenberg, 1999).
22
Successful coping is closely related to one critical factor whether the employees feel
adequately trained to handle the emergencies. This is consistent with the cognitive
view that stress results when demands exceed capacity (Rice, 1999).
Shift work requires that employees rotate schedules. This can produce
disturbances in sleep patterns, neurophysiological rhythms, metabolic rate and
mental efficiency (Rice, 1999). These reactions occur due to the disturbances in the
circadian rhythm, a type of internal body clock. Many physical and psychological
functions are affected by circadian rhythm. Blood pressure, heart rate, body
temperature, and urine production are measurably slower at night (Goetsch, 2005).
These same functions are normally faster during the day (active time). By the ways,
rotating schedules over several weeks can result in desensitization to the circadian
rhythms. With this desensitization, it comes with a measurable loss in productivity,
increased numbers of accidents and reported subjective discomfort (Goetsch, 2005).
After returning to a predictable shift, employees regained their biological clock and
circadian rhythm. Generally, not working the normal day-shift hours results in an
increase in workplace stress, with rotating shifts being the most stressful. From a
safety viewpoint, shift employees are subjected to more workplace stress in terms of
weariness, irritability, depression, and a lack of interest in work (Goetsch, 2005).
Thus, shift work increases workplace stress and may lead to a less safe worker.
2.5.2.3 Role Stressors
Role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload often referred to as role
stressors, which are the most studied stressors in occupational stress research
(Spector, 2008). The basic notion behind role stressors is that most jobs have
multiple task requirements and responsibilities or roles and that a job is likely to be
particularly stressful if these role conflict with one another or is unclear (Landy,
2007).
23
Role ambiguity occurs when the employees lack clear knowledge of what
behavior is expected in their job (Landy, 2008). In such cases, individuals experience
uncertainty about which actions that should be taken in performing the job most
effectively. Sometimes, many supervisors fail to provide clear guidelines and
directions for their subordinates, leading to ambiguity about what the employee is
supposed to do (Spector, 2008). Thus, its effect may lead the employees to low
performance and low job satisfaction, high anxiety, tension and motivation to leave
the company (Rice, 1999). Therefore, employees should know the criteria for career
advancement, the priorities of the organization and generally what is expected from
the employer in order to reduce the role ambiguity (Greenberg, 1999).
Role conflict arises when people experience incompatible demands either at
work (intrarole) or between work and nonwork (extrarole). Intrarole conflict arises
from multiple demands on the job (Spector, 2008). For example, two supervisors
might make incompatible request. Meanwhile, extrarole conflict occurs between
demands from work and nonwork domains. Such conflict commonly occurs when
employees have children and the needs of the children conflict with the demands of
the job (Spector, 2008).
Role overload arises when the job demands are so great that the employee
feels an inability to cope (Greenberg, 1999). However, according to Landy (2007),
role overload occur when an individual is expected to fulfill too many roles at the
same time, another consequences of interacting with the environment. Role overload
can cause individual to work very long hours, increasing stress and subsequent
strains (Landy, 2007).
2.5.2.4 Interpersonal Conflict
Negative interactions with co-workers, supervisors or clients or interpersonal
conflict can range from heated arguments to subtle incidents of unfriendly behavior
24
(Landy, 2007). Interpersonal conflict can occur when resources at work are scarce,
when employees have incompatible, or when employees feel that to be treated fairly.
Interpersonal conflict can distract employees from important job tasks, and it
can have physical health consequences. Other negative work outcomes of
interpersonal conflict can range from depression and job dissatisfaction to
aggression, theft and sabotage (Landy, 2007).
Therefore, it is important to have a good personal relationship on the job in
order to reduce the interpersonal conflict. This is because the personal relationships
on the job are very important to job satisfaction (Rice, 1999).
2.5.2.5 Career Development
Job stress mirrors the development peaks and valleys in the employee‟s
career. According to one national study of work stress, people bring several specific
hopes to a job (Rice, 1999). These include of the hope for some freedom in the job,
increased earning power, learn the new things and so on. The job that once looked
so secure may be eliminated. Even during a strong market economy and high
employment, nearly 1.5 million people will lose their jobs (Rice, 1999). Therefore,
the employees that believe their job is in jeopardy will experience anxiety and stress
(Goetsch, 2005).
2.5.2.6 Organisational Structure
The structure of the organisational also can produce significant level of stress
(Rice, 1999). This includes rigid structure, interoffice or intraoffice political
25
squabbles, and inadequate supervision from management. Sometimes, employees
also dislike lack of involvement in decision making and restrictions on their
behavior, including lack of managerial support for individual initiative and creativity.
Thus, when the perception of control is high, employees may experience high levels
of job satisfaction and low levels of physical symptoms. The same pattern occurred
for actual participation in decision making.
2.5.2.7 Home-Work Interface
Work-family conflict is different type of role stressor, which occurs when
employees experience conflict between the roles that fulfill at work and the roles that
fulfill in personal lives (Landy, 2007). As working women and dual career families
have become the norm rather than the exception, work-family conflict has become a
widespread source of work stress. A recent correlational study of dual career women
showed that coping strategies and marital adjustment combine to protect against
stress. Dual career women use more coping strategies when marital adjustment is
good. This also been report to have lower of stress compared to women whose
marital adjustment is poor (Rice, 1999).
2.6
Stress Model
Since few decades ago, many theories have been developed in order to
explain what stress is, how it works and how it related to health. Theories are really
the explanatory stories of science and summarize a body of data. Theories provide an
organized, coherent picture of some part of nature or some aspect of human
behaviour (Rice, 1999).
26
Some theories, such as Selye‟s physiological theory, attempt to explain the
way the body responds to stress. Social theories provide explanations of stress based
more on group conflict and the unequal distribution of power and wealth. Finally,
holistic health theories espouse a set of social and personal values based on the idea
that body and mind must be treated in unified fashion.
All the theories of stress have their own perception and key features.
Therefore, all the key features and the strengths and weaknesses of major theories
have been summarizes in Table 2.2. For the further detail, only the stress model of
General Adaptation Syndrome will be discuss at following.
Table 2.2: Comparison of Key Features of Stress Models (Source: Rice, 1999)
27
2.6.1
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Hans Selye, a pioneer in stress research, defines stress as the nonspecific
response of the body to any demand. He formulated the theory of the General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which is an automatic response to any physical or
emotional threat to the well-being of an organism.
The theory of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) outlined the
parameters of the physiological dangers of stress. Selye‟s research also opened the
28
doors to understanding the strong relationship between stress and disease and the
mind-body-spirit equation. In addition, his work laid the foundation for the
utilization of relaxation techniques that have the ability to intercept the stress
response, thereby decreasing susceptibility to illness and disease.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is the complete model to explain the
human stress phenomenon. This model consists of three stages – the alarm reaction
stage, the resistance stage and the exhaustion stage as illustrated in Figure 2.2.
2.6.1.1 Stage One – Alarm Reaction
The alarm reaction occurs at the first appearance of stressor and describes
Cannon‟s original fight-or-fight response. In this stage, several body systems are
activated, primarily the nervous system and the endocrine system followed by the
cardiovascular, pulmonary and musculoskeletal systems.
For a short period, the body has a lower than normal level of resistance.
Short-term increases in gastrointestinal disturbances and elevated blood pressure may
result. Then the body quickly marshals defensive resources and makes self-protective
adjustments. If the defensive reactions are successful, the alarm subsides and the
body returns to normal activity. During this period, often dubbed an acute stress
reaction, many stresses are resolved.
29
2.6.1.2 Stage Two – Stage of Resistance
In the resistance stage, the body tries to revert back to a state of physiological
calmness, or homeostasis, by resisting the alarm. Because the perception of a threat
still exists, however, complete homeostasis is never reached.
Instead, the body stays activated or aroused, usually at a lesser intensity than
during the alarm stage but enough to cause a higher metabolic rate in some organ
tissues. One or more organs may in effect be working overtime and, as a result, enter
the third and final stage.
2.6.1.3 Stage Three – Stage of Exhaustion
Exhaustion occurs when one (or more) of the organs targeted by specific
metabolic processes can no longer meet the demands placed upon it and fails to
function properly. This can result in death to the organ and depending on which
organ becomes dysfunctional (such as the heart), possibly the death of the organism
as a whole.
30
Figure 2.2: General Adaptation Syndrome
(Source: Selye,H., 1978)
2.7
Workplace Stress Model
Several theories of stress have been developed to organize the relationships
among stressors, strains, and potential moderators of those relationships. Stress
models that have been developed have considered individual difference variables that
influence the relationship between stressors and strains.
Therefore, several model of workplace stress model that have been developed
been used as guideline in this study.
31
2.7.1
NIOSH Model of Job Stress
On the basis of experience and research, National Institute Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) favors the view that working conditions play a primary
role in causing job stress. However, the role of individual factors is not ignored.
According to the NIOSH (1999) view, exposure to stressful working conditions
(called job stressors) can have a direct influence on worker safety and health.
Individual and other situational factors can intervene to strengthen or weaken this
influence as shown in Figure 2.3. Examples of individual and situational factors that
can help to reduce the effects of stressful working conditions include the following:

Balance between work and family or personal life

A support network of friends and coworkers

A relaxed and positive outlook
Figure 2.3: NIOSH Model of Job Stress
(Source: NIOSH, 1999)
32
2.7.2
Demand-Control Model
The demand-control model (Karasek, 1979) suggests that two factors are
prominent in producing job stress: job demands and control (also known as decision
latitude). In this model, job demands are defined according to two different criteria:
workload and intellectual requirements of the job. Job control is defined as a
combination of autonomy in the job and discretion for using different skills.
Karasek proposed that the combination of high work demands and low
control results in “high strain” jobs that result in a variety of health problems. Job
characterized by high demands that also provide sufficient control create an “active”
job situation that is stimulating and health promoting. These active jobs include
lawyer, engineer, manager and physician. Jobs with low control and low demands
(such as janitor and night watchman) were labeled as “passive” jobs. Finally, jobs
with high control and low demands (such as architect and dentist) were considered to
be low strains jobs as illustrated in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Demand-Control Model
(Source: Landy, 2007)
33
2.7.3
Palmer Model of Work Stress
Palmer (2001) has developed a simple model of stress that could be used to
explain the relationship between the main stress-related hazards, the organisational
and individual symptoms. Palmer model of work stress has addressing the seven
major hazards that can cause stress for employees as shown in Figure 2.5.
The seven major hazards are:
a)
Culture – Culture of the organisation and how it deals with stress (for
example, long hours culture);
b)
Demands - Includes exposure to issues such as workload, work
patterns and work environment (for example volume and complexity
of work, shift work, unrealistic deadlines);
c)
Control: Employee involvement with how they do their work (for
example control balanced against demands, lack of autonomy, too
much supervision);
d)
Support: Includes the encouragement, sponsorship and resources
provided by the organisation, line management and colleagues (for
example training for core functions of job; catering for individual
differences);
e)
Relationships: Includes promoting positive working to avoid conflict
and dealing with unacceptable behaviour (for example bullying and
harassment, conflicts);
f)
Role: Refers to whether people understand their role within the
organisation and whether the organisation ensures that they do not
34
have conflicting roles (for example conflicting roles avoided, vague
job descriptions);
g)
Change: How the organisational change (large or small) is managed
and
communicated
in
the
organisation
(for
example
staff
understanding why change is necessary, little or no communication to
staff, redundancy fears).
Figure 2.5: Palmer Model of Work Stress
(Source: Palmer, 2001)
35
2.7.4
Cooper Occupational Stress Model
Cooper Occupational Stress Model, as complex as it appears, is simplified by
limiting the examples of stress at work, individual characteristics, and extra
organisational sources of stress. Further, the interaction between these three factors is
depicted as evenly weighted.
In actuality, different workplaces have different levels of intrinsic job
stressors and career development stressors. According to Cooper (1978), different
workers have different levels of anxiety and tolerances of ambiguity. Besides,
different workers experience different amounts of family and financial problems.
In this model, all of these factors can be quantified is naïve. The Cooper
occupational stress model is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Cooper Occupational Stress Model
(Source: Greenberg, 1999)
36
2.8
Costs of Workplace Stress
The cost of occupational stress is acknowledged as a problem around the
world and is a common concern in both developing and industrialized nations
(Dollard, 2003). Besides, the link between occupational stress and adverse health
outcomes among employees is clear (Landy, 2007). Therefore, employees also start
to increase the awareness of the impact of occupational stress towards their work,
health and well being (Clarke, 2004). Due to stress is so widespread, it has a very
high cost for individuals, companies and organizations.
2.8.1
Costs of Workplace Stress for Individual
According to Landy (2007), when individual face with stressful situations,
physiological changes in the body will occur and cause overactivation of the
sympathetic nervous system, which produces several different kinds of stress
hormones. These stress hormones cause an increase in heart rate and cardiac output
in preparation for increased physical and cognitive activity. Initially, these changes
can improve decision making, judgment and physical performance. However,
chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to excess amounts of
stress hormones circulating in the blood supply and the brain.
Besides, stressful work situations are linked to increased levels of cortisol,
nerepinephrine and adrenalin in the bloodstream (Landy, 2007). Stress at work also
may lead to other costly behaviours such as smoking and aggression (Dollard, 2003).
According to Dollard (2003) again, organizationally motivated aggression (revenge,
retaliation), may occur when workers perceived an inequitable disbursement of
rewards and other resources by the organization.
Furthermore, the loss of capacity to cope with working and social situations
can lead to less success at work, including loss of career opportunities and even
37
employment. It can give rise to greater strain in family relationships and with friends.
It may even ultimately result in depression, death or suicide (ILO, 2001).
2.8.2
Costs of Workplace Stress for Company or Organization
Stress is associated with impaired individual functioning in the workplace.
Negative effects of workplace stress include reduced efficiency, decreased capacity
to perform, dampened initiative and reduced interest in working, increased rigidity of
thought, a lack of concern for the organisation and colleagues, and a loss of
responsibility (Fairbrother, 2003).
Therefore, the costs of workplace stress for company or organization may
take many forms. These include absenteeism, higher medical costs and staff
turnover, with the associated cost of recruiting and training new workers (ILO,
2001). It has also been shown in recent years that stress takes a heavy toll in terms of
reduced productivity and efficiency.
In 2005/2006, a total of 10.5 million working days were lost to stress,
depression, and anxiety (HSE, 2005). Therefore, this indicated that very few
organizations are likely to escape the impact of stress-related absence and employee
stress. Where the stress-related problems lead to an employee to absent from work
with the average of 29 working days are lost (Donaldson-Feilder, 2008). Furthermore,
the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) survey 2007 stated that
40 percent of the responding organizations reported an increase in stress-related
absence.
According to Fairbrother (2003), stress has been associated with important
occupational outcomes of job satisfaction, organisational commitment and employee
withdrawal behaviour. Satisfaction and commitment have invariably reported a
negative relationship to intent to leave and turnover. Besides, high levels of work
38
stress are associated with low levels of job satisfaction. Moreover, Cummins (1990)
have emphasized that job stressors are predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater
propensity to leave the organization.
2.9
Stress Prevention System
In the past, stress has often been considered merely as a personal problem to
be tackled with remedial, occasional and often palliative interventions (ILO, 2001).
The emerging approach, however, focuses on a pro-active response to stress with
emphasis on preventive measures and elimination of the causes of stress, rather than
on the treatment of its effects and a long term appreciation of each intervention
(Martino, 2001).
However, attention is consequently shifting from the consideration of stress
as a merely personal problem to the key role of the workplace to create or diffuse
stress (Martino, 2001). Although it is not possible to give a universal prescription for
preventing stress at work, it is possible to offer guidelines on the process of stress
prevention in organizations (NIOSH, 1999).
Whatever the preventive approach used, prevention is certainly the most
effective way to tackle effectively stress (Martino, 2001).
2.9.1
A Step-Wise Approach
According to ILO (2001) and Martino (2001), it is essential that anti-stress
action be carried on in a systematic way by a series of fundamental steps. These
include:
39

Stress Recognition

Stress Assessment

Anti-stress Intervention

Monitoring and Evaluation
2.9.1.1 Stress Recognition
The importance of early recognition of signs and symptoms of stress needs to
be emphasized since it allows intervening before stress becomes a major problem.
Even though each signs and symptoms may be due to other factors, their combined
occurrence at once may require the need to take anti-stress action.
At the individual level the following physical, behavioural, mental and
emotional signs may be apparent:

dry throat, muscle, tension, headaches, indigestion, tics, insomnia,
high blood pressure

irritability, impulsive behaviour, difficulty making decisions, sudden
increase in smoking or alcohol use

excessive worrying, feeling of worthlessness, brooding, forgetfulness,
easily startled, day-dreaming
At the workplace level, high levels of absenteeism, staff turnover, work
accidents (including minor accidents) and disabilities are often linked with stressful
situations. Low productivity levels, poor quality production, frequent breakdowns
and difficult inter-personal relationships in the workplace may also be associated
with stress.
40
2.9.1.2 Stress Assessment
The goal of any stress control programme is to manage specific causes of
stress and their effects, which related to both the work situation and the personal
characteristics of the individual. Therefore, an effective programme requires proper
identification of the stressors causing high-stress situations and assessment of the
work performance and personal problems derived from stress.
Thus, one of the steps when considering the prevention of work-related stress
is an assessment or diagnosis of the relevant hazards and situations at risk. This is
often carried out through a stress audit.
Each audit needs to be carefully adapted to the situation in the individual
company or organization, and its various branches or departments. It may be a
relatively formal process, or alternatively can be more informal and smaller in scale.
In all cases, care should be taken in establishing the aims and objectives of the audit
and in identifying a survey sample which is representative of the workforce and
sufficiently large to make the survey findings meaningful. After the results of the
audit have been analysed, it is very important to ensure that its results are made
known to those who have taken part in the survey, as well as the workforce as a
whole. Table 2.3 show the checklists may be useful in conducting the audit.
Table 2.3: Checklist for Stressor
Work characteristic
Organizational
function and culture
Participation
Career development
and job status
Stressors
Poor communications
Organization as poor task environment
Poor problem-solving environment
Poor development environment
Low participation in decision-making
Career uncertainty
Career stagnation
Poor status work
Work of low social value
Poor pay
Absent/Low or
Present/Medium or
Obvious/Severe
(please specify)
41
Role in organization
Job content
Workload and work
pace
Working time
Interpersonal
relationships at work
Home-work interface
Preparation and
training
Other problems
Job insecurity or redundancy
Role ambiguity: not clear on role
Role conflict
Responsibility for others or continual
contact with other people
Ill-defined work
High uncertainty
Lack of variety
Fragmented work
Meaningless work
Under-utilization of skills
Physical constraint
Work overload
Work underload
High levels of pacing
Lack of control over pacing
Time pressure and deadlines
Inflexible work schedule
Unpredictable hours
Long hours or unsocial hours
Shift/Night working
Social or physical isolation
Lack of social support from other staff
Conflict with other staff
Violence
Poor relationships with supervisors
and managers
Conflicting demands of work and
home
Low social or practical support from
home
Dual career problems
Inadequate preparation for dealing
with more
Difficult aspects of job
Concern about technical knowledge
and skill
Lack of resources and staff shortages
Poor work environment (lighting,
noise, bad postures)
42
2.9.1.3 Anti-Stress Intervention
Once the existence of stress has been recognised and the stressors identified,
action to deal with stress should be taken. Wide-ranging types of interventions may
be considered, leaving the choice of the most effective combination to the specific
features of the particular work situation.
Assuming that stress is a misfit between the demands of the environment and
the individual‟s abilities, the imbalance may be corrected, according to the situation,
either by adjusting external demands to fit the individual or by strengthening the
individual‟s ability to cope, or both. At this point, it should be borne in mind that
since stress is a multifaceted phenomenon, no simple solution is available.
Furthermore, differences in the particular circumstances of each case make it
impossible to provide a unique solution for the management of stress.
A wide range of practical guidance on the management of stress is found in
the literature. In general, and regardless of their differences, publications conclude
that the ideal solution to combat stress is to prevent its occurrence. This may be
achieved by tackling the core of the problem - the cause. However, there is no single
cause of stress and the elimination of all stressors is an utopian task. Therefore,
action should be aimed at eliminating as many causes as possible, so that the action
taken reduces stress and prevents future stress. As this cannot always be achieved in
the short term, it is generally agreed that improving the ability to cope with stress is a
valuable strategy in the process of combatting stress.
Wide-ranging types of interventions may thus be considered in the manuals,
leaving the choice of the most effective combination to the target audience according
to the specific features of the particular work situation. The following is a possible
list of types of intervention, ranging from interventions targeted at the work
environment to those targeted at the individual.
43
i.
ii.
Intervention of the external socio-economic environment
o
Legislation, international and national directives
o
Social support
Intervention on technology and work organization
o
Improving job planning and reliability of the work systems
o
Reduction of working times and arrangement of working
teams and rest pauses in relation to the work load
o
Arrangement
of
shift
schedules
according
to
psych-
physiological and social criteria
o
iii.
Intervention in working place and task structure
o
o
iv.
Participation in decision-making
Improving the work environment

Lighting

Noise

Micro climatic conditions and indoor air quality
Arranging workplaces according to ergonomic criteria

Workstation design

Working with visual display units

Sitting postures
Intervention to improve individual responses and behaviour
o
Individual ways of coping with stress
o
Selection and training
o
Counselling and other supporting measures at the company
level
v.
Specific intervention for health protection and promotion
o
Appropriate medical surveillance
44
Practically, since all the above-mentioned measures can be beneficial for all
the occupations affected by stress, particular attention needs to be paid to avoiding
the risk of generalization. Each approach should therefore deal with the specific
measures relevant to the particular occupation under consideration (i.e if improved
organization of working time is referred to as a measure for the prevention of stress
for nursing personnel performing shift work, practical shift arrangements should be
proposed).
2.9.1.4 Monitoring and Evaluation
Finally, it is important to activate effective monitoring and evaluation systems.
i.
Reporting and Recording
It is recommended to record and report all incidents related to stress,
including both minor and potential incidents where no actual harm has
resulted. Apparently trivial events should not be neglected, since they
may become relevant later, assisting in detecting persistent patterns of
behaviour or identifying an escalation in aggression.
It is also recommended that all employees should know how and
where to report, without fear of reprisal or criticism. Employees
should also be encouraged to report on conditions where they are
subjected to excessive or unnecessary risk related to stress and
violence; and to make suggestions for reducing the risk of violence or
improving negative working conditions.
45
ii.
Evaluation
It is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of anti-stress measures after
it have been introduced. In this respect it is recommended to:
-
monitor the results of changes that have been introduced on a
continuous basis;
-
allow workers to provide regular feedback, to check how well
they are working and to make modifications as necessary;
-
hold periodical joint management-employee meetings to
discuss the measures put in place;
-
review the management plan on a regular basis.
A plan-do-check-act cycle as shown in Figure 2.7 would thus be activated
whereby evaluation is at the same time the final moment of a cycle of anti-stress
measures and the basis for introducing a new cycle of such measures.
Figure 2.7: The Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle
(Source: Martino, 2001)
46
2.10
Stress Management Competency
2.10.1 Background to Competency Framework
Competency frameworks refer to a complete collection of skills and
behaviours required by an individual to do their job (Boyatzis, 1982). The concept of
competency frameworks emerged in the 1980's as a response both to organisational
changes and to wider changes in society. Over the following two decades,
competency frameworks became an increasingly accepted part of modern people
management practice.
Originally competency frameworks consisted mainly of behavioural elements
- an expression of the softer skills involved in effective performance. However,
competency frameworks have become broader and more ambitious in scope and
include more technical competencies (CIPD, 2008).
Perhaps, in designing a framework care should be taken that only measurable
components are included. It is important to restrict the number and complexity of
competencies, typically aiming for no more than 12 for any particular role
(preferably less), and arranging them into clusters to make the framework more
accessible to the users. The framework should contain definitions and/or examples of
each competency.
A critical aspect of all frameworks is the degree of detail. If a framework is
too general (containing only general statements about communication, team working,
etc), it will not provide enough guidance either to employees as to what is expected
of them or to managers who have to assess their staff against these terms. On the
other hand, if it is too detailed, the entire process becomes excessively bureaucratic
and time-consuming and may lose credibility (CIPD, 2008).
47
2.10.2 Application of Competency Frameworks to Stress Management
The competencies included within existing management frameworks are
predominantly performance driven and do not explicitly incorporate the behaviours
required by managers to manage the stress of others (Yarker, 2007). It is beginning
to be recognised that an effective competency framework has applications across a
whole range of human resource management and development activities. This
change in attitude offers the opportunity to align the management of stress with
existing people management practices. By defining the relevant behaviours
(competencies) required to manage stress in employees, it can be integrate into more
general people management competency frameworks and establish managing stress
in direct reports as an integral part of a manager's role.
Defining the competencies required by managers to manage stress in
employees has opens the way for organisations to select, develop and reward
managers for showing behaviour that reduces workplace stress. In particular, the
following three types of intervention would be suggested (Yarker, 2007):

Training and development interventions can be designed using the
stress management competency framework. These can be used to
ensure managers develop the appropriate skills, abilities and
behaviours to manage stress effectively in their direct reports.

The competency framework can also be used to guide selection and
assessment interventions. These are a means of ensuring that those
chosen to be managers show the relevant behaviours, skills and
abilities.

Competencies
provide
a
mechanism
for
integrating
stress
management into performance management. The competencies
provide clear specification of what is expected of managers. Managers
who show the relevant behaviours can be rewarded for doing so. If
48
managers are not assessed on their behaviour, they are less likely to be
motivated to behave in particular ways. Thus, using competencies to
align people management and stress management is particularly
pertinent in this area.
According to Yarker (2007), the benefits and opportunities afforded by using a
competency framework for stress management are:

A competency framework puts stress management and the
Management Standards into a language and format that is easily
accessible to HR professionals and line managers.

It allows clear specification of what is expected of managers to
manage stress in others.

It allows the development of interventions to ensure managers have
the appropriate skills, abilities and behaviours to implement the
Management Standards.
2.10.3 Develop Stress Management Competency Framework
Competency frameworks can be developed in a number of ways. Many
organisations develop their competency frameworks through an internal research
programme, sometimes aided by advisers from an external consultancy. Methods of
developing a framework range from importing an existing off-the-shelf package
through to developing the entire thing from scratch. The best solution usually lies
between these two extremes, namely internally generating a framework that builds in
business relevance, but do this by adapting existing models that have already been
widely used and have proved successful (CIPD, 2008).
Therefore, the Health and Safety Executive management competency have
been used to preventing and reducing stress at work. The HSE management
49
competency is funded by the HSE and supported by the CIPD where the first phase
of this research involved interviews with nearly 400 employees and managers, and
focus groups with over 50 HR professionals. Through the survey, the views on what
manager behaviors are important, both in terms of behaviors that are effective and of
behaviors that are ineffective for managing stress in staff are been ask and recorded.
The behaviors identified were grouped into themes to create a framework of 19
management „„competencies‟‟ for preventing and reducing stress at work. The
competency framework, with examples of positive and negative behavior relating to
each competency is shown in Table 2.4.
The data from the participants in different sectors were compared to see if the
manager behaviors required to prevent and reduce stress are different depending on
the work setting. This suggests that the manager behaviors that prevent and reduce
stress at work are pretty much the same in all the sectors (Donaldson-Feilder, 2008).
Therefore, the set of management competency also can be applicable in construction
industry for preventing and reducing stress at construction site.
50
Table 2.4: Management Competency framework with positive and negative
behavioural indicators
51
52
However, in order to easily make used of management competency
framework, therefore, a further study have been carried on by (Yarker, 2008) in order
to develop a tools for managerial level to assess on their own behaviours in
preventing and reducing stress at work.
According to Yarker (2008), the management competency for preventing and
reducing stress at work can be further classified into four main competencies. These
competencies were named as:

Respectful and responsible: managing emotions and having integrity

Managing and communicating existing and future work

Reasoning/managing difficult situations

Managing the individual within the team
Each of the competency are further been classified by twelve subcompetencies. Each of the competency and sub-competency are been shown in Table
2.5.
Table 2.5: Refined Management Competency for preventing and reducing stress at
work
Competency
Sub-
Examples of Manager Behaviour
Competency
Positve
Respectful and
Responsible:
Managing
Emotions and
having Integrity
Integrity
Negative
Managing
Emotions
Positve
Negative
 is a good role model
 treats team members with respect
 is honest
 says one thing, then does
something different
 speaks about team members behind
their backs
 acts calmly in pressured situations
 takes a consistent approach to
managing
 is unpredictable in mood
 passes on stress to employees
53
Managing and
Communicating
existing and
future work
Considerate
Approach
Negative
Proactive
Work
Management
Positive
Problem
Solving
Positive
Negative
Participative /
empowering
Positive
Negative
 panics about deadlines
 takes suggestions for improvement
as a personal criticism
 makes short-term demands rather
than allowing planning
 creates unrealistic deadlines
 gives more negative than positive
feedback
 relies on other to deal with
problems
 imposes „my way is the only way‟
 shows a lack of consideration for
work-life balance
 dearly communicates employee job
objectives
 develops action plans
 monitors team workload on an
ongoing basis
 encourages team to review how
they organize work
 stops additional work being taken
on when necessary
 works proactively
 sees projects/tasks through to
delivery
 reviews processes to see if work
can be improved
 prioritises future workloads
 deals rationally with problems
 follows up problems on team‟s
behalf
 deals with problems as soon as they
arise
 is indecisive
 gives employees the right level of
responsibility
 correctly judges when to consult
and when to make a decision
 keeps employees informed of what
is happening in the organization
 acts as a mentor
 delegates work equally
 helps team members develop in
their role
 encourages team participation
 provides regular team meetings
 gives too little direction to
employees
54
Managing
Conflict
Positive
Negative
Reasoning /
Managing
difficult
situations
Use of
organization
resources
Taking
responsibility
for resolving
issues
Positive
Positive
Negative
Personally
accessible
Positive
Sociable
Positive
Managing the
individual
within the team
Empathetic
engagement
Positive
Negative
 acts as mediator in conflict
situations
 deals with squabbles before they
become arguments
 deals objectively with conflicts
 deals with conflicts head on
 acts to keep the peace rather than
resolve issues
 seeks advice from other managers
when necessary
 uses HR as a resource to help deal
with problems
 seeks help from occupational health
when necessary
 follows up conflicts after resolution
 supports employees through
incidents of abuse
 makes it clear they will take
ultimate responsibility if things go
wrong
 doesn‟t address bullying
 speaks personally rather than uses
email
 provides regular opportunities to
speak one to one
 returns calls / emails promptly
 is available to talk to when needed
 brings in treats
 socializes with the team
 is willing to have a laugh at work
 encourages employee input in
discussions
 listens when employees ask for
help
 makes an effort to find out what
motivates employees at work
 tries to see team member‟s point of
view
 takes an interest in team‟s life
outside work
 regularly asks „how are you?‟
 treats all team members with equal
important
 assumes rather than checks that
employees are okay
55
2.10.4 Vital Role of Line Managers
Although management standards initiative is driven from health and safety,
but much of the responsibility for its implementation will fall on and line managers
(Donaldson-Feilder, 2008). This means that line managers need to understand: what
stress is and what constitutes a „„healthy‟‟ workplace; and what skills, abilities and
behaviors managers need to manage their employees in a way that minimizes workrelated stress.
According to Donaldson-Feilder (2008), line managers are generally
responsible for implementing people management practices on a day-to-day basis
and also the main intermediaries between individual staff members and the
organization. As a result, managers can be a significant determinant of how well an
organization manages employee stress. Managers can impact on workplace stress of
employees in a number of ways:

Managers can cause (or prevent) stress by the way they behave towards
their employees.

Managers can act as the „„gatekeepers‟‟ to the presence or absence of
hazardous working conditions for employees, for instance, preventing an
unfair workload being placed on an individual or ensuring that
organizational change is well communicated.

Managers can help ensure that stress is identified early if it occurs in their
team.

If an individual suffers from stress, the manager needs to be involved in
the solution.

Managers „„hold the key‟‟ to the success of work development or change
initiatives.

Managers are responsible for the uptake and rollout of risk assessments
for work stress within their team/department.
56
On the basis that managers are vital to managing stress in the workplace, it is
important that all individual should understand exactly what a manager should (and
should not) be doing to prevent and reduce workplace stress.
2.11
Workplace Stress within Construction Industry
The construction industry plays an important element in any country‟s
economic development (Fadhlin Abdulllah, 2004). It establishes the infrastructure
required for socioeconomic development while being a major contributor to overall
economic growth. Therefore, construction industry need a lot of individuals to
perform a vast perform a vast array of jobs, including general site laborers,
engineers, architects, and site and project managers, with a large breadth of project
types and activities (Beswick, 2007).
Furthermore, construction industry involved very complicated process and
extensive linkages to more than hundred of upstream and downstream industries.
Hence, the individuals involve in construction industry may discovered significant
level of stress and health related problem.
In terms of health, musculoskeletal conditions, the effects of noise and
vibration and asbestos related diseases are the dominant work-related health
conditions in construction (HSE, 2008). Based on Beswick (2007), the most common
cause of illness was identified as musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), followed by
stress, depression or anxiety.
57
2.11.1 Sources of Workplace Stress within Construction Industry
According to survey done by Campbell (2006) on the workplace stress in the
construction industry, the majority of respondents had suffered from stress, anxiety
or depression as a direct result of working in the construction industry. There are
several factors affecting the workplace stress in the construction industry includes
physical factors, organisational factors, job demand factors, job role factors and other
factors as well.
Physical factors causing workplace stress (Figure 2.8) in construction
industry includes inadequate ventilation, problems with office accommodation, lack
of privacy, poor lighting, inadequate temperature control, noise level and poor site
conditions. From the survey, lack of privacy and inadequate temperature controls
were cited as main physical cause of stress.
Figure 2.8: Physical Factors causing Workplace Stress
Meanwhile, organizational factors causing workplace stress (Figure 2.9)
includes inadequate staffing, poor communication, poor planning, insufficient
training, lack of feedback, interpersonal conflicts, poor relations with superiors,
bullying and crisis management. In the survey, lack of feedback, poor
communication and inadequate staffing were cited as most common organisational
factors causing stress while the bullying was not a commonly cited factor.
58
Figure 2.9: Organisational Factors causing Workplace Stress
Besides, job demand factors causing workplace stress in construction industry
as shown in Figure 2.10 includes too much work, too little work, hours worked, lack
of participation in decision making, pressure, ambitious deadlines, insufficiently
skilled for job and working in isolation. From the figure, it clearly show that “too
much work” was cited as the main job demand factors causing workplace stress.
Figure 2.10: Job Demand Factors causing Workplace Stress
Moreover, job role factors causing the workplace stress in construction
industry includes lack of clarity about responsibility, conflicting demands,
inadequate managerial support, lack of career progression, job insecurity and poor
59
remuneration. From the Figure 2.11, conflicting demands was cited as the main job
role factors affecting workplace stress.
Figure 2.11: Job Role Factors causing Workplace Stress
Finally, other factors causing workplace stress in construction industry
includes site safety, inadequate equipment and public misconception of industry.
Figure 2.12 illustrated that public misconception of industry was a cause of
workplace stress.
Figure 2.12: Other Factors causing Workplace Stress
By other research, the factors was identified as causing stress within the
construction industry include deadlines getting shorter, working hours getting longer,
60
short-term contracts and increasing competition, as well as stress caused by financial
penalty clauses, confrontation within the industry, and constant initiatives to improve
productivity (Beswick, 2007). This increasing level of stress may present itself in the
form of unsafe working practices, lower morale, higher turnover and poorer
performance (Loosemore and Waters, 2004). A study of 36 construction site
managers in the UK identified ten key stressors for construction managers using a
stress audit in one company (Sutherland and Davidson, 1993). These were:

Time pressures

Working long hours

Insufficient time to pursue leisure interests

Volume of paperwork

Insufficient time spent with family/home

Travel to and from the job

Lack of support from architects

Inadequacy of communication flow

Staff shortages

Responsibility for situations not fully under my control
2.11.2 Line Managers - Project Managers and Stress
Management has generally been defined as a high stress occupation (Noblet
et al., 2001). The job of a manager has been categorized as demanding, complex and
varied (Haynes and Love, 2004). This is related to the various job functions that need
to be implemented by managers for example managing people, information,
decision-making process, product implementation and human resources. Furthermore,
managers have to be aware of the demands and constraints imposed by the internal
and external environment. This resulted in longer working hours, which can have
adverse psychological and physiological consequences.
61
According to Sornmerville and Langford (1994), the level of stress
inducement encountered by construction project managers is significantly higher
than that of managers in other industries. This is due to the nature and characteristics
of the industry (Somrnmerville and Langford, 1994). For instance, the industry is
dominated by males, which promotes competitiveness and conflict, one-off type
production requires high levels of coordination and specialised input, and poor onsite working condition can lead to quality and safety problems being experienced
(Haynes and Love, 2004). In spite of that, they have specific project objectives that
need to be fulfilled in terms of time, quality and cost. The involvement of various
stakeholders in each project also tends to increase the level of conflict. Therefore, the
function of project managers may be stressful whereby they have to ensure and
maintain all the stakeholders' level of satisfaction based on their objectives.
According to Jaselskis and Ashley (1991), effective project management can
be seen to be dependent upon the project manager's competency and authority. Since
every construction project is unique and exposed to different type of problems for
example site conditions, project buildability, design problem, variation order and so
on; thus, project managers have to be very capable in managing those problems.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY OF STUDY
3.1
Introduction
In the previous chapter, the fundamental theoretical framework of this study
has been presented. This chapter will describe the whole methodology of study used
in carrying out this study. The methodology of study is imperative as a guideline to
ensure a study can be carried out systematically in order to achieve the aim and
objectives of the study.
Therefore, in this chapter, the methodology of study will be detailed out. It
will give the explanation on how data were collected and analyzed in order to
achieve the objectives of the study. The aim and objectives of the study were
achieved by using two methods. The objectives of the study were achieved through
the information gather in literature review and followed by the questionnaire surveys
conducted within the profession in construction companies.
Subsequently, the data have been collected and analyzed. It then follows by
discussion and suggestions and eventually conclusions were drawn to conclude the
study. For further details, this study involves several stages and the details are
explained in the next section.
63
3.2
First Stage
The first stage of study is preliminary study which involves initial study and
discussion, where it is an inception phase before starting any writing.
This is essential in order to determine the title or area of study that desire to
work on. At this preliminary stage, it includes the reading of the newspapers,
journals, internet, books and previous research as well as gives attention to the media
to get the ideas of which field of study that was interested in. Initial study is done in
order to obtain an overview of the area of study. Discussions with supervisor,
lecturers, as well as course mates are held so that more ideas and knowledge relating
to the topic can be collected. Thus, in this stage, management competencies for
preventing and reducing stress at construction site had been chosen for the study.
After ensuring the field of study to be carried out, further work involves
identifying the related issues or problems. It entails a lot of reading over the field of
research. After identify the issue of study or problem that must be resolved, the next
step is to write problem statement or background of issue.
After the issues and problems statements are identified, aim and objectives of
the study are established. The aim of this study is to study the management
competencies for preventing and reducing stress at construction sites.
In connection with that, scope of study is shaped after objectives have been
formed. Hence, the scope of study has been identified to be limited to the
construction sites within Johor, Malaysia.
64
3.3
Second Stage
The second stage is data collection stage. Zina O' Leary, in his book
'Researching Real-world Problems' stresses that data is factual information where
these information are organised for analysis, reasoning or decision-making. He also
agrees with the view of Sherlock Holmes, who asserts that the key to whole study
thing is „data‟ and one‟s ability to answer a study question is highly reliant on getting
one‟s hands on, and make sense of data. Therefore, data collection is one of the
foremost procedures where researcher collects data from a wide variety of sources by
using various ways, subsequently interpret it and start writing.
Meanwhile, Beach and Alvager in their book entitled 'Handbook for
Scientific and Technical Research' assert that data collection process is divided into
two, they are:
(a)
Primary data
(b)
Secondary data
Hence, the study will use the primary data and secondary data gathered to
complete this writing.
3.3.1
Primary Data
According to Rumsey, primary data is the source of data that have not yet
interpreted or analysed. She also states that the primary source is the first time record
of event without any analysis or comment being done by others.
Primary data can be collected through four ways (Norazman, 2006):
65
(a)
Questionnaire
(b)
Interview
(c)
Observation
(d)
Experiment
For this study, the techniques use to collect primary data is through
questionnaire survey.
3.3.1.1 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a strong production of quantitative data and statistical
analysis (Dunn et al, 2005). Hence, in this study, the collection of primary data is via
questionnaire. Questionnaire regarding management competencies for preventing
and reducing stress at construction site are distributed within construction site in
Johor, Malaysia.
Non-random sampling technique will be used to distribute the questionnaire.
Around 80 respondents from different profession in 20 organizations are selected to
answer the questionnaire survey. These questionnaires are only distributed to the
respondents who are in managerial level such as project manager and site manager,
as well as their subordinates such as engineer, architect, quantity surveyor, site
supervisor and other professionals within the contractor organization. The
questionnaire will be handed over to the respondents by hand.
In conducting this study, questionnaire will be designed to achieve objectives
of the research. The questionnaire will be comprised of closed ended question. The
type of closed ended question that will be used in this research is Likert scale
question as Likert scale questions are effective for gathering respondents‟ views,
opinions and attitudes (Brown, 2001). The Likert-scale question is comprised of
quantifiers such as Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Slightly Agree, Agree and Strongly
66
Agree and the respondents are required to opt for their answer based on the
quantifiers provided. Generally, the questionnaire designed for this study as attach in
appendix consisted of five (5) sections for different types of questions, namely
Section A, Section B, Section C, Section D and Section E. The information gathered
from different sections of the questionnaire is as follow:
Section A:
Section B:
General Information (7 Q)
i.
Respondent‟s Profile (2 Q)
ii.
Respondent‟s Detail (5 Q)
Respectful and Responsible: Managing Emotions and Having
Integrity (17 Q)
Section C:
i.
Sub-competency: Integrity (5 Q)
ii.
Sub-competency: Managing Emotions (6 Q)
iii.
Sub-competency: Considerate Approach (6 Q)
Managing and Communicating Existing and Future Work
(22 Q)
Section D:
i.
Sub-competency: Proactive Work Management (9 Q)
ii.
Sub-competency: Problem Solving (4 Q)
iii.
Sub-competency: Participative/Empowering (9 Q)
Managing the Individual within the Team (15 Q)
i.
Sub-competency: Personally/Accessible (4 Q)
ii.
Sub-competency: Sociable (3 Q)
iii.
Sub-competency: Empathetic Engagement (8 Q)
67
Section E:
Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation (12 Q)
i.
Sub-competency: Managing Conflict (5 Q)
ii.
Sub-competency: Use of Organizational Resources (3 Q)
iii.
Sub-competency: Taking Responsibility for Resolving
Issues (4 Q)
3.3.2
Secondary Data
Secondary data are data that was gathered and reported by other individual
(Beach and Alvager, 1992). Resources for secondary data are comprised of books,
newspapers, journals and electronic resources like e-journal, websites and online
materials.
Norazman Abdul Majid et al (2006) in their book stress that nearly every
study project should begin with a search of secondary data. This is due to secondary
data are important for writing up of literature chapter. One of the data collection
methods for this research is through visiting library. Secondary data collection also
equipped through surfing the e-journals which is subscribed by university library.
Secondary data collection is a device of information storage and record,
where these data must be well compiled to facilitate information application process
(Rumsay, 2004). Therefore, suitable record or recitation will be made for the easiness
of study papers writing.
68
3.4
Third Stage
During this stage, analyses are carried out to analyse the information and data
in questionnaires which are received from the respondents. In this stage, the result of
study will be presented in tables, bar charts or pie charts forms. These forms enable
the results to be illustrated more clearly.
The quantitative data which are derived from questionnaire are analysed by
using frequency statistical analysis and average index analysis with the help of
Microsoft Office Excel 2007.
3.4.1
Frequencies Statistical Analysis
The frequencies statistical analysis is the most common method used to
obtain the frequencies of a set of selection. The highest frequency of a selection will
indicate the choice of majority. Furthermore, the frequency of selection can be
presented in the form of percentage and been illustrated in chart. This method was
used in the data analyzed of the questionnaires.
3.4.2
Average Index Analysis
The average index or also known as mean index analysis was used to analyse
the data obtained from the questionnaire. The average index value for each aspect of
achievements was calculated based on the formula below (Al-Hammad et al., 1996):
Average Index (AI) =
 ai X i
 Xi
69
Where,
ai = constant expressing the weight given to I;
Xi = variable expressing the frequency of the response;
i
= 1,2,3,4,5 and illustrated as follows:
X1 = frequency of the “Strongly Disagree” response and corresponding to
a1 = 1,
X2 = frequency of the “Disagree” response and corresponding to a2 = 2,
X3 = frequency of the “Slightly Agree” response and corresponding to a3 =
3,
X4 = frequency of the “Agree” response and corresponding to a4 = 4,
X5 = frequency of the “Strongly Agree” response and corresponding to
a5 = 5
Then, the score of each sub-competency was calculated based on the average
index obtained from each item. The percentage score of each sub-competency from
each section was obtained and been used for the calculation of percentage score of
each competency. The score of each data was shown in percentage and based on the
formula below:
Percentage score for each of sub-competency =
 (AI of eachitem) x100%
(Dimension Score)
The calculations for the percentage score of each sub-competency and
competency have been shown in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 respectively.
70
Table 3.1: Calculation of Sub-Competency Score
Sub-Competency
Total of AI for all item in
each sub-competency
Dimension
Score
(Divide by)
25
Percentage
Score
(Multiply by)
100
Integrity
Item 1 + Item 2 + Item 3 +
Item 4 + Item 5
Managing Emotions
Item 6 + Item 7 + Item 8 +
Item 9 + Item 10 + Item 11
30
100
Considerate Approach
Item 12 + (6 - Item 13) +
Item 14 + Item 15 + Item 16
+ Item 17
30
100
Proactive Work
Management
Item 18 + Item 19 + Item 20
+ Item 21 + Item 22 + Item
23 + Item 24 + Item 25 +
Item 26
45
100
Problem Solving
Item 27 + Item 28 + Item 29
+ Item 30
20
100
Participation/Empowering
Item 31 + Item 32 + Item 33
+ Item 34 + Item 35 + Item
36 + Item 37 + Item 38 +
Item 39
45
100
Personally accessible
Item 40 + Item 41 + Item 42
+ Item 43
20
100
Sociable
Item 44 + Item 45 + Item 46
15
100
Empathetic Engagement
Item 47 + Item 48 + Item 49
+ Item 50 + Item 51 + Item
52 + Item 53 + Item 54
40
100
Managing Conflict
Item 55 + Item 56 + Item 57
+ Item 58 + Item 59
25
100
Use of organization
resources
Item 60 + Item 61 + Item 62
15
100
Taking responsibility for
resolving issues
Item 63 + Item 64 + Item 65
+ Item 66
20
100
71
Table 3.2: Calculation of Competency Score
Competency
Sub-Competency
Percentage Score for Competency
Integrity
Respectful and
Responsible:
Managing
Emotions and
having Integrity
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
Managing Emotions
3
Considerate
Approach
Proactive Work
Management
Managing and
Communicating
existing and
future work
Problem Solving
Participative /
empowering
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
Personally
accessible
Managing the
individual within
the team
Sociable
Empathetic
engagement
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
Managing Conflict
Reasoning /
Managing
difficult
situations
Use of organization
resources
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
Taking responsibility
for resolving issues
The classification of the percentage score was based on the classification
proposed by HSE (2008). The proposed classification of the percentage score for this
study has been shown as below:
Effective
( 90 ≤ Percentage Score ≤ 100 )
Reasonable
( 76 ≤ Percentage Score ≤ 89 )
Development Need
( 0 ≤ Percentage Score ≤ 75 )
72
Then, the result obtained from the analysis has been shown in graph such as
bar chart and radar plot for better understanding. The sample results of percentage
score for each sub competency has been illustrated in Figure 3.1.
In this study, the radar plot has considered twelve (12) sub-competency from
four (4) behavioural/competency, namely integrity, managing emotions, considerate
approach, proactive work management, problem solving, participative/empowering,
personally accessible, sociable, empathetic engagement, managing conflict, use of
organizational resources and taking responsibility for resolving issues.
Taking Responsibility for Resolving
Issues
Use of Organizational Resources
Managing Conflict
Integrity
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Empathetic Engagement
Managing Emotions
Considerate Approach
Proactive Work Management
Problem Solving
Sociable
Participative/Empowering
Personally Accessible
Figure 3.1: Sample of Radar Plot
3.5
Fourth Stage
This stage is the final stage of the study where the process of the writing-up
will be made based on all data gathered. Upon this stage, it is necessary to review the
whole study in order to determine whether the objectives of study have been
73
achieved. Then, based on the findings, the conclusion and recommendations will be
made. In this stage, the software application used was the common Microsoft Office
Word 2007.
Finally, upon completion, the completed write up will be sent for binding.
3.6
Summary
As conclusion, this chapter describes in detail the flow of the study from the
initial stage to the end in achieving the objectives of study. In this study, the method
used for data collection is by the literature reviews and questionnaire survey where
the questionnaire will be used to collect the primary data. The average index formula
will be used to analyze the data obtained from questionnaire survey then followed by
the percentage score and the results finally were illustrated in form of chart and
diagram. At the end, it is able to achieve the entire objective from all the data
collected.
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Introduction
This chapter focuses on analysis and results of the study derived from the
data gathered from the questionnaires survey. Accordance to the methodology of
study as described in the previous chapter, the data are analyzed and the results are
presented in alignment with the objective of the study. The results which have been
generated then will be tabulated and used for further discussion.
Basically, the results and analysis are discussed in conjunction with the
chronology of the questionnaire. Furthermore, this chapter gives the brief
information on the data collection and the respondents’ background.
4.2
Data Collection
A total of 130 sets of questionnaires were distributed to the targeted
respondents from several professions within 25 contractors’ organization in the
vicinity of Johor. Out of 130 sets questionnaire forms that were distributed by hand,
78 sets were completed and returned back by 20 contractors’ organization. The
percentage of returned questionnaires was 60% which had been expected for the
75
questionnaire-based survey study. All the data collected from the questionnaire will
be used as the basis of the analysis of the study.
4.3
General Information of Respondents
Among the 78 sets of collected questionnaires, 21 sets of questionnaires were
from managerial level and the rest of 57 sets of questionnaires were from
subordinates’ level. Figure 4.1 show the percentages of questionnaires that have been
return from managerial level and subordinates level.
Figure 4.1: Percentages of Feedback from managerial level and subordinates' level
4.3.1
Profession of Respondents
Based on the returned questionnaire among the managerial level, there was
71.4 percent of respondents were project manager. The remaining 23.8 percent and
4.8 percent respectively was site manager and QA/QC manager. The profession
detail of respondents from the managerial level is shown in Table 4.1.
76
Table 4.1: Profession detail of respondents from managerial level
Professions
Project Managers
Site Managers
Others
Total
Number of Respondents
15
5
1
21
Percentages (%)
71.4
23.8
4.8
100.0
Meanwhile, among those respondents from subordinates’ level, project
engineer/ site engineer dominated 43.9 percent, followed by quantity surveyor 26.3
percent, site supervisor 24.6 percent and others which including clerk of work and
site administrator, 5.3 percent. Table 4.2 below showed the profession detail of
respondents which came from subordinates’ level. Figure 4.2 also showed the
percentage tabulation of respondents’ profession from managerial and subordinates’
level.
Table 4.2: Profession detail of respondents from subordinates’ level
Professions
Project Engineer/Site Engineer
Architect
Quantity Surveyor
Site Supervisor
Others
Total
Number of Respondents
25
0
15
14
3
57
Percentages (%)
43.9
0.0
26.3
24.6
5.3
100.0
Figure 4.2: Profession detail of respondents from managerial and subordinates’ level
77
4.3.2
Working Experience of Respondents
Figure 4.3 shows the working experience of respondents in the construction
field. Among those respondents from managerial level, there were 14.3 percent
having working experience below 5 years, 9.5 percent with experience 5 to 10 years,
28.6 percent with experience 11 to 15 years and finally 47.6 percent that having
acquired working experience in their profession more than 15 years. Whilst in
subordinates’ level, majority of them, i.e. 45.6 percent having less than 5 years
working experience, 35.1 percent having 5 to 10 years of working experience,
followed by 15.8 percent that possessing 11 to 15 years of working experience and
minority of them, 5.3 percent, having working experience 15 years and above. This is
due to the fact that many respondents were fresh graduated with degree in civil
engineering and work as site engineer or project engineer in the contractors’
organizations.
Figure 4.3: Working Experience of respondents from managerial and subordinates’
level
78
4.4
Analysis of the Management Competency
In this section, the analysis covered the evaluation of the management
competency of managerial level from the perception of managerial level and
subordinates’ level through the questionnaire survey. In addition to that, these
management competencies have been identified and discussed earlier in the literature
review have been adopted in the development of the questionnaire form. There were
66 items measures of 4 competencies which were respectful and responsible:
managing emotions and have integrity, managing and communicating existing and
future work, managing the individual within the team and reasoning/managing
difficult situation. In accordance to that, there were 12 sub-competency have been
identified under those competencies such as
considerate
approach,
proactive
work
integrity, managing emotions,
management,
problem
solving,
participative/empowering, personally accessible, sociable, empathetic engagement,
managing conflict, use of organizational resources and taking responsibility for
resolving issues. Through the Microsoft Excel 2007, all the data were analyzed and
then tabulated for discussion purposes in the following section.
4.4.1
Respectful and Responsible: Managing Emotions and Having Integrity
4.4.1.1 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Managerial Level
Table 4.3 shows the summary of results for the competency of respectful and
responsible: managing emotions and having integrity from the feedback of
managerial level. Basically, the competency in this section was divided into three
sub-competencies, firstly, integrity which having the percentage score of 85.71
percent, secondly, managing emotion which having the percentage score of 82.54
percent, and lastly was the considerate approach with the percentage score of 71.26
percent.
79
Table 4.3: Managerial Competency about Respectful and Responsible: Managing
Emotions and Having Integrity
No
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Behaviour/Competency
SD
(1)
Rate (%)
SA
D (2)
A (4)
(3)
Sub-competency: Integrity
I am a good role model
NR
PR
I treat my team with
NR
respect
PR
I am honest
NR
PR
I do the thing as I said
NR
will do
PR
I never speak about
NR
team members behind
PR
their backs
Sub-competency: Managing Emotions
I act calmly in
NR
pressured situations
PR
I take a consistent
NR
approach to managing
PR
My moods are
NR
predictable
PR
I don’t pass on my
NR
3
stress to my team
PR
14.29
I approach deadlines
NR
calmly
PR
I welcome suggestions
NR
for improvements from
PR
my teams
Sub-competency: Considerate Approach
I allow my team to plan NR
their workloads
PR
I create unrealistic
NR
1
10
deadlines for delivery
PR 4.76 47.62
of work
I give more positive
NR
than negative feedback
PR
I deal with problems
NR
4
myself rather than
PR
19.05
relying on others
I allow my team to
NR
1
approach their work in
PR
4.76
their own way
I show a consideration
NR
for my team’s worklife
PR
balance
SA
(5)
3
14.29
3
14.29
2
9.52
5
23.81
2
11
52.38
10
47.62
10
47.62
9
42.86
5
7
33.33
8
38.10
9
42.86
7
33.33
14
9.52
23.81
66.67
2
9.52
8
38.10
6
28.57
6
28.57
-
13
61.90
11
52.38
8
38.10
5
23.81
8
38.10
12
6
28.57
10
47.62
5
23.81
7
33.33
7
33.33
9
-
57.14
42.86
10
47.62
9
11
52.38
1
-
42.86
4.76
-
4
19.05
8
8
38.10
8
9
42.86
1
38.10
38.10
4.76
13
7
-
61.90
33.33
-
10
11
-
47.62
52.38
-
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
4.19
4.24
4.33
85.71
4.10
4.57
4.19
4.48
3.86
3.76
82.54
4.05
4.43
3.52
3.52
4.24
3.29
71.27
3.29
3.52
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
80
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from managerial level):
Respectful and Responsible: Managing Emotions and Having Integrity:
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
=
3
=
[85.71+82.54+71.27]
3
=
79.84 %
Among the sub-competency with regard of respectful and responsible:
managing emotions and having integrity, the managerial level assesses themselves as
more competence in integrity compared to managing emotions and considerate
approach. The respondents from managerial level believe that they should show
respect and positive regard to their employees in order to work effectively with
individuals and teams. Besides, the behaviour to avoid include speak about team
members behind their backs having the highest scale of 4.57 from the managerial
level. It clearly shows that the managerial levels also agree with speak about team
members behind their backs are the behaviour which not acting with integrity.
On the contrary, the sub-competency of considerate approach having the less
percentage score compare to integrity and managing emotions. From the results, the
managerial level more relying on other when deal with problems and less trusts their
staff to approach their work in their own way with the scale of 3.29 each. This is due
to the nature of construction work which full of hassle have resulted the managerial
level faced a lot of problem which need to be tackle, and therefore, it become a
necessary for the managerial level to deal with the problem within the group rather
than individuals.
From the finding, the averages score for the competency of respectful and
responsible: managing emotions and having integrity from the feedback of
managerial level is 79.84 percent which is fallen in the classification of reasonable.
However, the managerial level are still consider less competence in the subcompetency of considerate approach. Therefore, the development is needed for the
managerial level especially in dealing with problems themselves rather than relying
on others and allowing team members to work in their own way.
81
4.4.1.2 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Subordinates’ Level
Table 4.4 illustrates the summary of results for the competency of respectful
and responsible: managing emotions and having integrity from the feedback of
subordinates’ level.
In the competency with respect of respectful and responsible: managing
emotions and having integrity, sub-competency of considerate approach scores the
highest percentage score, 73.92, followed by integrity where its percentage score less
than managing emotion only by 0.38 and thus make it in the second rank with
percentage score of 73.54 and the lowest percentage score is managing emotions,
which having the score of 71.93.
This finding was reversed as compared to the above finding, where the
managerial level evaluating themselves in this same section, they think that they are
competence in integrity. On contrary, subordinates’ level noticed that their managers
were competence in considerate approach.
In assessing their manager, subordinates observed that their manager in fact is
lack of emotional management skill. Their moods are considerably influence by load
of works.
In overall, subordinates in evaluating their manager in competency of
respectful and responsible: managing emotions and having integrity, achieve a total
average score of 71.13 percent, which is fallen in the classification of development
need. Furthermore, it is noticeably lower than managers evaluating themselves in this
said aspect, 79.84 percent. This shows that manager thought they have done the best,
subordinates however think that in this respectful and responsible: managing
emotions and having integrity, managers still need to improve.
82
Table 4.4: Subordinates Competency about Respectful and Responsible: Managing
Emotions and Having Integrity
No
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Behaviour/Competency
SD
(1)
Rate (%)
SA
D (2)
A (4)
(3)
Sub-competency: Integrity
My manager is a good
NR
3
role model
PR
5.26
My manager treat our
NR
team with respect
PR
My manager is honest
NR
5
PR
8.77
My manager do the
NR
7
thing as he said will do
PR
12.28
My manager never
NR
20
speak about team
members behind ours
PR
35.09
backs
Sub-competency: Managing Emotions
My manager act calmly NR
1
18
in pressured situations
PR 1.75 31.58
My manager take a
NR
7
consistent approach to
PR
12.28
managing
My manager moods are NR
16
predictable
PR
28.07
My manager don’t pass NR
1
on my stress to my
PR 1.75
team
My manager approach
NR
1
deadlines calmly
PR
1.75
My manager welcome
NR
3
suggestions for
improvements from my PR
5.26
teams
Sub-competency: Considerate Approach
My manager allow our
NR
team to plan our
PR
workloads
My manager create
NR
1
38
unrealistic deadlines for
PR 1.75 66.67
delivery of work
My manager give more NR
3
positive than negative
PR
5.26
feedback
My manager deal with
NR
1
1
problems themselves
rather than relying on
PR 1.75 1.75
others
My manager allow our
NR
5
team to approach our
PR
8.77
work in our own way
My manager show a
NR
5
consideration for our
PR
8.77
team’s worklife balance
SA
(5)
9
15.79
16
28.07
16
28.07
5
8.77
10
35
61.40
36
63.16
32
56.14
37
64.91
20
10
17.54
5
8.77
4
7.02
8
14.04
7
17.54
35.09
12.28
6
10.53
6
27
47.37
42
5
8.77
2
10.53
73.68
3.51
20
35.09
11
21
36.84
35
10
19.30
61.40
17.54
25
43.86
8
22
38.60
38
9
15.79
8
14.04
66.67
14.04
8
41
8
14.04
71.93
14.04
11
7
-
19.30
12.28
-
9
34
11
15.79
59.65
19.30
13
42
-
22.81
73.68
-
31
19
2
54.39
33.33
3.51
9
43
-
15.79
75.44
-
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
3.91
3.81
3.61
73.54
3.81
3.25
3.30
3.68
3.09
3.93
71.93
3.68
3.89
4.00
3.58
3.93
73.92
3.68
3.32
3.67
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
83
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from subordinates’ level):
Respectful and Responsible: Managing Emotions and Having Integrity:
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
=
=
3
[73.54+71.93+73.92]
3
=
4.4.2
73.13 %
Managing and Communicating Existing and Future Work
4.4.2.1 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Managerial Level
Table 4.5 presents the summary of results for the competency of managing
and Communicating Existing and Future Work from the feedback of managerial
level.
From the results, sub-competency of proactive work management took the
first ranking, with a leading 87.72 percent, followed by problem solving 85.95
percent and participative/empowering, 81.8 percent. As can be seen, manager
responded that they were more competence in proactive work management as they
possessed many years of leadership skill. And this skill was extremely needed in
construction field as many project is one off basis, where multidisciplinary industry
players come together to run a project. Of course, proactive work management help
in orientating the team especially in problem solving, decision making and clarifying
individual and team direction in order to bring the project to its ultimate completion.
Taken as a whole, this section, i.e. competency of managing and
communicating existing and future work had an overall percentage score of 85.16
percent which is in the classification of reasonable.
84
Table 4.5: Managerial Competency about Managing and Communicating Existing
and Future Work
No
.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Rate (%)
SD
SA
D (2)
A (4)
(1)
(3)
Sub-competency: Proactive Work Management
I clearly communicate
NR
2
8
job objectives to my
PR
9.52 38.10
team
I develop action plans
NR
3
6
PR
14.29 28.57
I monitor my team’s
NR
2
8
workload on an
PR
9.52 38.10
ongoing basis
I encourage my team to NR
4
5
review how they
PR
19.05 23.81
organize their work
I when necessary, will
NR
2
9
stop additional work
being taken on by my
PR
9.52 42.86
team
I work proactively
NR
11
PR
52.38
I see projects/tasks
NR
3
7
through to delivery
PR
14.29 33.33
I review processes to
NR
15
see if work can be
PR
71.43
improved
I prioritize future
NR
2
11
workloads
PR
9.52 52.38
Sub-competency: Problem Solving
I deal rationally with
NR
2
11
problems
PR
9.52 52.38
I follow up problems on NR
5
9
behalf of my team
PR
23.81 42.86
I deal with problems as NR
10
soon as they arise
PR
47.62
I am decisive when
NR
5
5
decision making
PR
23.81 23.81
Sub-competency: Participative/Empowering
I give employees the
NR
9
8
right level of job
PR
42.86 38.10
responsibility
I correctly judge when
NR
2
11
to consult the team and
when to make a
PR
9.52 52.38
decision
I keep my team
NR
9
10
informed of what is
happening in the
PR
42.86 47.62
organization
I act as a mentor to my
NR
4
10
team
PR
19.05 47.62
I delegate work equally NR
5
11
PR
23.81 52.38
I help team members to NR
5
7
develop in their role
PR
23.81 33.33
Behaviour/Competency
SA
(5)
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
11
52.38
12
57.14
11
52.38
4.43
4.43
4.43
12
57.14
4.38
10
47.62
10
47.62
11
52.38
6
28.57
8
38.10
8
38.10
7
33.33
11
52.38
11
52.38
87.72
4.38
4.48
4.38
4.29
4.29
4.29
4.10
85.95
4.52
4.29
4
19.05
3.76
8
38.10
4.29
2
9.52
7
33.33
5
23.81
9
42.86
3.67
4.14
4.00
4.19
81.80
85
37
38
39
I encourage
participation from the
whole team
I provide regular team
meetings
I gives the right level of
direction to my team
members
NR
-
-
4
7
10
PR
-
-
19.05
33.33
47.62
NR
PR
NR
-
-
3
14.29
2
15
71.43
7
3
14.29
12
PR
-
-
9.52
33.33
57.14
4.29
4.00
4.48
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from managerial level):
Managing and Communicating Existing and Future Work:
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
=
3
[87.72+85.95+81.80]
=
=
3
85.16 %
4.4.2.2 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Subordinates’ Level
This part discusses the competency of manager in managing and
communicating existing and future work in the views of subordinates’ level. The
summary of the finding is shown in Table 4.6.
From the Table 4.6, it demonstrates that sub-competency of participative/
empowering made up 77.97 percent, subsequently problem solving, 77.28 percent
and lastly, proactive work management 77.15 percent. Compared with the findings in
the same section of managerial level, it is irony that large percentage of manager
considered that they were competence in proactive work management, the
subordinates’ level however thought their managers were not good in this.
Nevertheless, most of subordinates’ level agreed that their managers were
excellent in participative/empowering. They had asserted that participation/
empowerment is a vital management style that should be adopted in the construction
86
field so that construction knowledge could be shared via participation of experienced
manager in the meeting, while empowerment to the lower personnel able to create a
synergistic relationship and commitment towards the work and thus decisions can be
make at lowest possible level to solve problems and further brings the whole
construction organisation on the right way to achieve its common goals.
In assessing the overall competency of managing and communicating existing
and future work, the managers obtained a total percentage score of 77.47 percent
from their subordinates which fall in the classification of reasonable. It was lowered
than managers evaluating themselves in this said aspect, 85.16 percent. The reason
that leads to this significant decrease is due to managers were having no idea of their
strength and weakness parts.
Table 4.6: Subordinates Competency about Managing and Communicating Existing
and Future Work
No
.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Rate (%)
SD
SA
D (2)
A (4)
(1)
(3)
Sub-competency: Proactive Work Management
My manager clearly
NR
8
39
communicate job
PR
14.04 68.42
objectives to our team
My manager develop
NR
8
16
29
action plans
PR
14.04 28.07 50.88
My manager monitor
NR
12
33
our team’s workload
PR
21.05 57.89
on an ongoing basis
My manager encourage NR
9
41
our team to review how
PR
15.79 71.93
we organize our work
My manager when
NR
4
16
32
necessary, will stop
additional work being
PR
7.02 28.07 56.14
taken on by our team
My manager work
NR
3
11
40
proactively
PR
5.26 19.30 70.18
My manager see
NR
1
11
40
projects/tasks through
PR
1.75 19.30 70.18
to delivery
My manager review
NR
1
4
38
processes to see if
PR
1.75
7.02 66.67
work can be improved
My manager prioritize
NR
3
20
20
future workloads
PR
5.26 35.09 35.09
Sub-competency: Problem Solving
My manager deal
NR
1
14
33
Behaviour/Competency
SA
(5)
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
10
17.54
4
7.02
12
21.05
4.04
3.51
4.00
7
12.28
3.96
5
8.77
3
5.26
5
8.77
3.67
77.15
3.75
3.86
14
24.56
4.14
14
24.56
3.79
9
3.88
77.28
87
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
rationally with
PR
1.75
problems
My manager follow up NR
1
problems on behalf of
PR
1.75
our/my team
My manager deal with NR
1
problems as soon as
PR
1.75
they arise
My manager is
NR
1
decisive when decision
PR
1.75
making
Sub-competency: Participative/Empowering
My manager give us
NR
the right level of job
PR
responsibility
My manager correctly
NR
1
judge when to consult
the team and when to
PR
1.75
make a decision
My manager keep our
NR
team informed of what
is happening in the
PR
organization
My manager act as a
NR
mentor to our team
PR
My manager delegate
NR
2
work equally
PR
3.51
My manager help team NR
members to develop in
PR
their role
My manager encourage NR
2
participation from the
PR
3.51
whole team
My manager provide
NR
3
regular team meetings
PR
5.26
My manager gives the
NR
1
right level of direction
PR
1.75
to our team members
24.56
57.89
15.79
15
37
4
26.32
64.91
7.02
9
39
8
15.79
68.42
14.04
10
42
4
17.54
73.68
7.02
14
39
4
24.56
68.42
7.02
3
46
7
5.26
80.70
12.28
17
40
-
29.82
70.18
-
19
33.33
12
21.05
8
33
57.89
37
64.91
41
5
8.77
6
10.53
8
14.04
71.93
14.04
8
38
9
14.04
66.67
15.79
7
12.28
6
37
64.91
39
10
17.54
11
10.53
68.42
19.30
3.77
3.95
3.86
3.82
4.04
3.70
3.75
77.97
3.82
4.00
3.95
3.95
4.05
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from subordinates’ level):
Managing and Communicating Existing and Future Work:
=
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
[77.15+77.28+77.97]
=
=
3
77.47 %
88
4.4.3
Managing the Individual within the Team
4.4.3.1 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Managerial Level
Table 4.7 reveals the managerial level’s view on their own competency of
managing the individual within the team.
The results from this analysis shows that sub competency of personally
accessible having the highest percentage score, 92.62 percent and next was
empathetic engagement, 80.24 percent and last was sociable, 66.03 percent. It could
be deduced from the findings that personally accessible was the most important
element in managing the individual within the team. Majority of manager suggested
that personally accessible is vital as if they remain easy to get approach by
employees, when employees encountered any hardship in their job, they were the one
that employees could seek for the opinions and decisions. Through this, they could
understand their subordinates more and always being kept informed of the situation
in the organisation as well as the latest construction projects’ information that
secured by company. In addition to this, most managers had alleged that this was
imperative, as wrong on the part of employees, they in fact borne a great
responsibility.
In respect of overall percentage score competency of managing the individual
within the team, it had recorded the score of 79.63 percent which is in the
classification of reasonable.
Table 4.7: Managerial Competency about Managing the Individual within the Team
No.
Behaviour/Competency
SD
D (2)
(1)
Sub-competency: Personally Accessible
40 I prefer to speak to my NR
team personally than
PR
use email
41 I provide regular
NR
opportunities for
our/my team to speak
PR
one to one
Rate (%)
SA
A (4)
(3)
SA
(5)
-
7
14
-
33.33
66.67
-
4
17
-
19.05
80.95
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
4.67
92.62
4.81
89
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
I return my team’s
NR
call/emails promptly
PR
I am available to talk to NR
when needed
PR
Sub-competency: Sociable
I bring in treats for my NR
team
PR
I socialize with the
NR
team
PR
I am willing to have a
NR
3
laugh at work
PR
14.29
Sub-competency: Empathetic Engagement
I encourage
NR
individuals’ input in
PR
discussions
I listen when a team
NR
member asks for helps
PR
I make an effort to find NR
out what motivates my
PR
team members at work
I try to see things from NR
my team members’
PR
point of view
I take an interest in my NR
9
team’s life outside
PR
42.86
work
I regular ask team
NR
3
members “How are
PR
14.29
you?”
I treat all team
NR
members with equal
PR
importance
I check everyone is OK NR
rather than just
PR
assuming
2
9.52
-
7
33.33
9
42.86
12
57.14
12
57.14
10
47.62
11
52.38
17
80.95
11
52.38
10
47.62
1
4.76
-
-
14
7
-
66.67
33.33
-
4
19.05
5
17
80.95
16
-
23.81
76.19
10
11
-
47.62
52.38
-
8
4
-
38.10
19.05
-
9
9
-
42.86
42.86
-
6
9
6
28.57
42.86
28.57
-
8
13
-
38.10
61.90
4.48
4.57
3.52
3.48
66.03
2.90
4.33
4.81
4.76
3.52
80.24
2.76
3.29
4.00
4.62
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from managerial level):
Managing the Individual within the Team:
=
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
[92.62+66.03+80.24]
=
=
3
79.63 %
90
4.4.3.2 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Subordinates’ Level
In general, this section indicates the competency of manager in managing the
individual within the team in the perception of subordinates’ level. The summary of
the finding is provided in Table 4.8.
It can be seen in the Table 4.8, sub-competency of personally accessible
indicated the highest percentage score, 77.54 percent, followed by sociable, 72.87
percent and empathetic engagement, 71.62 percent. Interestingly, for the first time,
subordinates’ level and managerial level had the same standpoint that manager
possessed the competency of personally accessible. This inevitably showed that
managers indeed succeed in this aspect by playing an active role to make himself
available when the time he was needed.
In evaluating the overall competency of managing the individual within the
team, the managers acquired a total percentage score of 74.01 percent from their
subordinates, which is fallen in the classification of development need. It was again
less than managers evaluating themselves in this said aspect, 79.63 percent. With
regard to this competency of managing the individual within the team, it
considerably required an excellent leadership skill.
Table 4.8: Subordinates Competency about Managing the Individual within the
Team
No.
40
41
42
43
Behaviour/Competency
SD
D (2)
(1)
Sub-competency: Personally Accessible
My manager prefer to
NR
speak to our team
personally than use
PR
email
My manager provide
NR
5
regular opportunities
for our team to speak
PR
8.77
one to one
My manager return our NR
team’s call/emails
PR
promptly
My manager is
NR
-
Rate (%)
SA
A
(3)
(4)
SA
(5)
8
39
10
14.04
68.42
17.54
10
37
5
17.54
64.91
8.77
9
39
9
15.79
68.42
15.79
21
30
6
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
4.04
3.74
4.00
3.74
77.54
91
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
available to talk to
PR
when needed
Sub-competency: Sociable
My manager bring in
NR
6
treats for our team
PR
10.53
My manager socialize
NR
with the team
PR
My manager is willing NR
3
to have a laugh at work PR
5.26
Sub-competency: Empathetic Engagement
My manager encourage NR
8
individuals’ input in
PR
14.04
discussions
My manager listen
NR
when a team member
PR
asks for helps
My manager make an
NR
4
effort to find out what
motivates our team
PR
7.02
members at work
My manager try to see NR
1
things from our team
members’ point of
PR
1.75
view
My manager take an
NR
8
10
interest in our team’s
PR 14.04 17.54
life outside work
My manager regular
NR
6
ask team members
PR
10.53
“How are you?”
My manager treat all
NR
8
team members with
PR
14.04
equal importance
My manager check
NR
7
everyone is OK rather
PR
12.28
than just assuming
36.84
52.63
10.53
9
15.79
15
26.32
34
59.65
39
68.42
35
61.40
15
26.32
3
5.26
7
12.28
5
8.77
5
38
6
8.77
66.67
10.53
10
43
4
17.54
75.44
7.02
5
41
7
8.77
71.93
12.28
13
37
6
22.81
64.91
10.53
29
10
-
50.88
17.54
-
37
8
6
64.91
14.04
10.53
8
37
4
14.04
64.91
7.02
9
37
4
15.79
64.91
7.02
3.68
3.86
72.87
3.39
3.74
3.89
3.89
3.84
71.62
2.72
3.25
3.65
3.67
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from subordinates’ level):
Managing the Individual within the Team:
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
=
3
[77.54+72.87+71.62]
=
=
3
74.01 %
92
4.4.4
Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation
4.4.4.1 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Managerial Level
The results of the managerial level’s perspective on competency of
reasoning/managing difficult situation is displayed in the Table 4.9.
Table 4.9 had illustrated three sub-competencies which were situated under
the head of competency in reasoning/managing difficult situation. They were
managing conflict, 92.76 percent, followed by taking responsibility for resolving
issues, 78.1 percent and use of organizational resources, 69.84 percent.
Sub-competency of managing conflict showed the highest percentage score.
It was indeed quite high in percentage. A majority of managerial level’s respondent
alleged that they were outstanding in managing conflict as they concerned for every
subordinate in the organisation. They were so confident that they able to deal with
the subordinates’ complaint effectively and mediate the difference among the
employees efficiently. Thus, they capable to prevent the divergence of opinions
exploded.
Manager had further conceded that this kind of competency, i.e. managing
conflict in fact was very helpful, particularly in the construction industry as disputes
were commonly arising in construction projects which involve complex facts or
issues at all times and for centuries, construction sector was well-known with its
adversarial nature. The adversarial problem is widespread at all level in the
construction organization since there were too many players in one construction
project. It was hard for the project team members to cooperate, communicate and
integrate with each other effectively throughout the project development process.
This was due to each project participant had divergence goals and objectives. Hence,
competency in managing conflict became imperative because if the difference was
too frequent, it may lead to unproductive and hostile working relationship among the
93
project team members and impede running of construction into a successful
conclusion.
In respect of overall percentage score competency of reasoning/managing
difficult situation, it had scored of 80.23 percent which is fallen in the classification
of reasonable.
Table 4.9: Managerial Competency about Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation
No.
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Rate (%)
SD
SA
A
SA
D (2)
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Sub-competency: Managing Conflict
I act as a mediator in
NR
8
13
conflict situations
PR
38.10 61.90
I deal with squabbles
NR
7
14
in the team before they
PR
33.33 66.67
become argument
I deal objectively with NR
6
15
employee conflicts
PR
28.57 71.43
I deal with conflicts
NR
6
15
head on
PR
28.57 71.43
I try and resolve issues NR
11
10
rather than act to keep
PR
52.38 47.62
the peace
Sub-competency: Use of Organizational Resources
I seek advice from
NR
3
18
other managers when
PR
14.29 85.71
necessary
I use HR as a resource NR
7
8
6
to help deal with
PR
33.33 38.10 28.57
problems
I seek help from
NR
7
14
occupational health
PR
33.33 66.67
when necessary
Sub-competency: Taking Responsibility for Resolving Issues
I follow up team
NR
6
14
1
conflicts after
PR
28.57 66.67 4.76
resolution
I support employees
NR
1
10
7
3
through incidents of
PR
4.76 47.62 33.33 14.29
abuse
I make it clear that I
NR
5
10
6
will take ultimate
responsibility if things
PR
23.81 47.62 28.57
go wrong
I address bullying
NR
4
8
9
PR
19.05 38.10 42.86
Behaviour/Competency
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
4.62
4.67
4.71
92.76
4.71
4.48
3.86
2.95
69.84
3.67
3.76
3.57
78.10
4.05
4.24
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
94
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from managerial level):
Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation:
=
=
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
[92.72+69.84+78.10]
3
=
80.23 %
4.4.4.2 Analysis of Results from the Feedback of Subordinates’ Level
This part has the connection with the part before this which discuss on the
competency of manager in reasoning/managing difficult situation. However, this part
is the feedback from the viewpoint of subordinates’ level. The summary of the
finding is illustrated in Table 4.10.
It is obvious from the table that, a total of 76.96 percent had gone to subcompetencies of use of organizational resources. Another 75.16 percent had fallen to
managing conflict. While, taking responsibility for resolving issues made up 74.74
percent.
In evaluating their manager, subordinates noticed that their manager in fact
was lack of competency in taking responsibility for resolving issues. It is likely due
to there are a lot of responsibilities that has to be borne by a manager, they
sometimes will neglect the small disputes or issues that happen among his
subordinate and thus this causes the subordinates has the perception that their
managers are not competence enough to take responsibility for resolving issues.
For overall competency of reasoning/managing difficult situation, the
managers obtained a total percentage score of 75.62 percent from their subordinates’
level which is in the classification of reasonable.
95
Table 4.10: Subordinates Competency about Reasoning/Managing Difficult
Situation
No.
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Rate (%)
SD
SA
A
SA
D (2)
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Sub-competency: Managing Conflict
My manager act as a
NR
3
7
40
7
mediator in conflict
PR
5.26 12.28 70.18 12.28
situations
My manager deal with NR
6
14
31
6
squabbles in the team
before they become
PR
10.53 24.56 54.39 10.53
argument
My manager deal
NR
3
17
31
6
objectively with
PR
5.26 29.82 54.39 10.53
employee conflicts
My manager deal with NR
6
10
35
6
conflicts head on
PR
10.53 17.54 61.40 10.53
My manager try and
NR
5
6
40
6
resolve issues rather
than act to keep the
PR
8.77 10.53 70.18 10.53
peace
Sub-competency: Use of Organizational Resources
My manager seek
NR
5
3
40
9
advice from other
managers when
PR
8.77
5.26 70.18 15.79
necessary
My manager use HR as NR
2
18
33
4
a resource to help deal
PR
3.51 31.58 57.89 7.02
with problems
My manager seek help NR
1
9
40
7
from occupational
PR
1.75 15.79 70.18 12.28
health when necessary
Sub-competency: Taking Responsibility for Resolving Issues
My manager follow up NR
7
7
33
10
team conflicts after
PR
12.28 12.28 57.89 17.54
resolution
My manager support
NR
7
14
22
14
us/employees through
PR
12.28 24.56 38.60 24.56
incidents of abuse
My manager make it
NR
1
8
40
8
clear that he/I will take
ultimate responsibility
PR
1.75 14.04 70.18 14.04
if things go wrong
My manager address
NR
14
14
20
9
bullying
PR
24.56 24.56 35.09 15.79
Behaviour/Competency
AI
Percentage Score
for each subcompetency
3.89
3.65
3.70
75.16
3.72
3.82
3.93
3.68
76.96
3.93
3.81
3.75
74.74
3.96
3.42
*Strong Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Slightly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Agree (SA), Number of Respondent (NR),
Percentage of Respondent (PR), Average Index (AI)
96
Note:
Calculation of Percentage Score of each Competency (from subordinates’ level):
Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation:
=
Total percentage score of each sub-competency
3
=
[75.16+76.96+74.74]
3
=
4.4.5
75.62 %
Overall Data Profiling
Table 4.11 shows the percentages score of each sub-competency derived from
the analysis of previous section. In general, the percentage scores for all the
management sub-competency from the perception of subordinates’ level are lower
compare to the feedback from the managerial level except the sub-competency of
considerate approach, sociable and use of organizational resources. This clearly
shows that subordinates level always think that their manager are less competence in
preventing and reducing stress at work, however their manager thought that they
always done their best and competent in preventing and reducing stress at work.
From the feedback of managerial level, the results have indicated that the
managers are less socializing with the subordinates’ level, with the lower percentages
score of 66.03 percent. These would be due to less socializing to a limited extent,
between the managerial level and the subordinates who in the lower ranks in order to
differentiate their status as top management in the organisation. Therefore, it could
be seen that the managerial level are always remains aloof from subordinates’ level.
Furthermore, the managerial level assess themselves as more competence in
managing conflict and personally accessible with the percentages score of 92.76
percent and 92.62 percent respectively. Both of the sub-competencies have the
highest percentages score among all the sub-competency. Thus, it shows that the
managers are always the person to deal with the difficult situation of employees
97
when problem arises. In addition, personally accessible of managers is essential in
order to obtain first hand information via employees.
In the interim, the subordinates’ level assesses their managerial level having
the highest percentages score for the sub-competency of participative/empowering
among all the listed sub-competency, with the percentages score of 77.97 percent.
The respondents from subordinates’ level believes that their manager are helps them
become proficient in their work as well as balances the workload among the
employees equitably. Furthermore, they also agree that their manager are excellent in
empowering where they will involve employees in decision making and gives their
input due consideration. Therefore, it would produce some significant level of job
responsibility among the employees so that the employees could manage the work
well.
Table 4.11: Percentage Score for each Sub-Competency
Competency
Sub-Competency
Respectful and
Integrity
Responsible:
Managing Emotions
Managing Emotions
and Having Integrity Considerate Approach
Proactive Work
Managing and
Management
Communicating
Existing and Future Problem Solving
Work
Participative/Empowering
Personally Accessible
Managing the
Individual within the Sociable
Team
Empathetic Engagement
Managing Conflict
Reasoning /
Use of Organizational
Managing Difficult Resources
Situation
Taking Responsibility for
Resolving Issues
Percentage Score
Managerial
Subordinates
Level
Level
85.71
73.54
82.54
71.93
71.27
73.92
87.72
85.95
81.80
92.62
66.03
80.24
92.76
77.15
77.28
77.97
77.54
72.87
71.62
75.16
69.84
76.96
78.10
74.74
98
In the meantime, the sub-competency of empathetic engagement is the lowest
percentages score (71.62 percent) which have evaluated by the subordinates’ level.
This could be due to the nature of work include construction work where the
efficiency of work done have been seem more important compare to the welfare of
the employees. Thus, the managerial level sometimes needs tries to see employees
side of situations whether everything are getting well.
Figure 4.4 shows the tabulation of percentages score for each subcompetency from the feedback of managerial level and subordinates’ level. From the
feedback of managerial level, the highest percentages score was 92.76 percent, which
is the sub-competency of managing conflict and then followed by the 92.62 percent,
which is the sub-competency of personally accessible. Both of the sub-competencies
are in the classification of effective where they are effective in preventing and
reducing stress at work. Meanwhile the lowest percentages score are the subcompetency of use of organizational resource (69.84 percent) and considerate
approach (71.27 percent). Both of these sub-competencies fall in the classification of
development need where there is a need for the development in these areas. Then, the
remaining sub-competencies which have achieves the classification of reasonable are
integrity (85.71 percent), managing emotions (82.54 percent), considerate approach
(71.27 percent), proactive work management (87.72 percent), problem solving (85.95
percent), participative/empowering (81.80 percent), empathetic engagement (80.24
percent) and taking responsibility for resolving issues (78.10 percent)
On the contrary, from the feedback of subordinates’ level, the subcompetency which having the classification of not effective are integrity (73.54
percent), managing emotions (71.93 percent) considerate approach (73.92 percent),
sociable (72.87 percent), empathetic engagement (71.62 percent) and taking
responsibility for resolving issues (74.74 percent). All of these sub-competencies
which under the classification of development need where there is a need of
development in order to prevent and reduce stress at work. Meanwhile the subcompetency which are in the classification of reasonable are proactive work
management
(77.15
percent),
problem
solving
(77.28
percent),
participative/empowering (77.97 percent), personally accessible (77.54 percent),
99
managing conflict (75.16 percent) and use of organizational resources (76.96
percent).
Percentages
Respectful and
Responsible:
Managing Emotions
and Having Integrity
0
Integrity
Managing Emotions
Managing the
Reasoning/Managing Individual within the
Difficult Situation
Team
Managing and
Communicating
Existing and Future
Work
Considerate Approach
20
40
60
80
100
85.71
73.54
82.54
71.93
71.27
73.92
Proactive Work Management
87.72
77.15
Problem Solving
85.95
77.28
Participative/Empowering
Personally Accessible
Sociable
Empathetic Engagement
Managing Conflict
81.80
77.97
92.62
77.54
66.03
72.87
80.24
71.62
92.76
75.16
Use of Organizational Resources
69.84
76.96
Taking Responsibility for Resolving Issues
78.10
74.74
Managerial Level
Subordinates Level
Reasonable
Figure 4.4: Tabulation of Percentage Score for each Sub-Competency
In addition, Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6 shows the radar plot for percentages
scores of each sub-competency derived from the perceptions of managerial level and
subordinates’ level respectively in order to provide a graphical representation of each
100
sub-competency and also provides an overall assessment from the managerial level
and subordinates’ level respectively.
Taking Responsibility
for Resolving Issues
Use of Organizational
Resources
Managing Conflict
Integrity
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Managing Emotions
Considerate Approach
Proactive Work
Management
Empathetic
Engagement
Problem Solving
Participative/Empoweri
ng
Sociable
Personally Accessible
Figure 4.5: Radar Plot for Percentages Score of each Sub-Competency from the
viewpoint of Managerial Level
Taking Responsibility
for Resolving Issues
Use of Organizational
Resources
Managing Conflict
Integrity
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Managing Emotions
Considerate Approach
Proactive Work
Management
Empathetic
Engagement
Problem Solving
Participative/Empoweri
ng
Sociable
Personally Accessible
Figure 4.6: Radar Plot for Percentages Score of each Sub-Competency from the
viewpoint of Subordinates' Level
101
Furthermore, Figure 4.7 shows the radar plot for percentages scores of each
sub-competency derived from the perceptions of from the managerial level and
subordinates’ level which have been superimpose together for better understanding.
The radar plot provided by this graph can be used as a comparison for the future
management competency assessments for improvement. Thus, the more competence
of each sub-competency are shown on this graph as the higher percentage scores on
each measure of sub-competency, and hence, the better the profile, the closer of the
percentages score to the outside of the graph.
Figure 4.7: Radar Plot for Percentages Score of each Sub-Competency from the
viewpoint of Managerial Level and Subordinates' Level
102
In general, all the assessment on sub-competency mentioned previously have
been grouped and classified.
There is a need for the grouping that in many
situations, it is unrealistic for organizations or individuals to assess and/or develop
such a large number of discrete sets of behaviour. Therefore, in order to have more
practical value and make the competency more manageable, the results of the main
competency have been shown in Table 4.12.
From the results shown in Table 4.12, the assessments of managerial level
towards all of their competency fall in the classification of reasonable. Meanwhile,
the assessment of subordinates’ level towards the competency of respectful and
responsible: managing emotions and having integrity and managing the individual
within the team among the managerial level fall in the classification of development
need. Therefore, from the perception of subordinates’ level, there is a need of
development in those both competencies in order to effectively preventing and
reducing stress at construction site. However, the competency of managing and
communicating existing and future work and reasoning/managing difficult situation
fall in the classification of reasonable from the perceptions of subordinates’ level.
Nevertheless, from the feedback of managerial level and subordinates’ level,
the results show that both of the competencies of respectful and responsible:
managing emotions and having integrity and managing the individual within the
team are having less percentages score compare to the other competency of
managing and communicating existing and future work and reasoning/managing
difficult situation. Therefore, there are needed for both competency of respectful and
responsible: managing emotions and having integrity and managing the individual
within the team to be developed in order to effectively preventing and reducing stress
at construction work.
Figure 4.8 shows the tabulation of percentages score for each competency
from previous section in the graphical presentation for better understanding.
103
Table 4.12: Percentage Score and Classification for each Competency
Competency
Respectful and
Responsible:
Managing Emotions
and Having Integrity
Managing and
Communicating
Existing and Future
Work
Managing the
Individual within the
Team
Reasoning/Managing
Difficult Situation
Managerial Level
Average
Percentage Classification
Score
Subordinates Level
Average
Percentage Classification
Score
79.84
Reasonable
73.13
Development
Need
85.16
Reasonable
77.47
Reasonable
79.63
Reasonable
74.01
Development
Need
80.23
Reasonable
75.62
Reasonable
0
10
Respectful and Responsible: Managing
Emotions and Having Integrity
Managing and Communicating Existing and
Future Work
20
30
Percentages
40 50 60
70
80
90 100
79.84
73.13
85.16
77.47
Managing the Individual within the Team
79.63
74.01
Reasoning/Managing Difficult Situation
80.23
75.62
Managerial Level
Subordinates Level
Figure 4.8: Tabulation of Percentage Score for each Competency
104
Moreover, the results of the sub-competency can be further analyzed as
shown in Figure 4.9. Figure 4.9 show the radar plot for average percentages score of
each sub-competency derived from the perception of managerial level and
subordinates’ level. The average percentage score as shown in Figure 4.9 was better
described of the management sub-competency among the managerial level in the
construction site.
Taking Responsibility
for Resolving Issues
Use of Organizational
Resources
Managing Conflict
Integrity
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Empathetic
Engagement
Managing Emotions
Considerate Approach
Proactive Work
Management
Problem Solving
Participative/Empoweri
ng
Sociable
Personally Accessible
Figure 4.9: Radar Plot for Average Percentages Score of each Sub-Competency
Finally, the average percentage score and classification for each competency
from managerial level and subordinates level have been grouped for better
understanding as shown in Table 4.13. From the Table 4.13, the entire competency
falls in the classification of reasonable. However, the competency of respectful and
responsible: managing emotions and having integrity as well as managing the
individual within the team need to be concerned due to the percentages score was
nearly to the classification of development need.
105
Table 4.13: Average Percentage Score and Classification for each Competency
Competency
Respectful and Responsible:
Managing Emotions and Having
Integrity
Managing and Communicating
Existing and Future Work
Managing the Individual within the
Team
Reasoning/Managing Difficult
Situation
Managerial Level and Subordinates Level
Average Percentage
Classification
Score
76.49
Reasonable
81.31
Reasonable
76.82
Reasonable
77.93
Reasonable
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Introduction
This chapter will conclude the study based on objectives of the study. The
aim of this project is to study the management behaviours for preventing and
reducing stress at construction sites. The objectives of this study had been achieved
through a review of the literature and questionnaire survey as described in previous
chapter and are concluded in this chapter. In addition, the limitations of the study as
well as the recommendations for further study are also included in this chapter.
5.2
Conclusions of Study
The conclusions of the study can be drawn as follows:
i.
The first objective was to study the stress prevention system in construction
work. The objective was achieved through a review of literature as discussed
in Chapter 2. In general, there are several approach of stress prevention
system that have been identified, and therefore, a step-wise approach has been
made. The stress prevention system can be carried out in systematic way by a
series of fundamental steps which includes stress recognition, followed by
107
stress assessment, then anti-stress intervention and finally monitoring and
evaluation.
ii.
The second objective was to identify the management competencies for
preventing and reducing stress in construction work. A total of 4 main
behaviour/competency and 12 sub-competencies have been identify from the
review of literature. The main behaviour/competency were respectful and
responsible: managing emotions and having integrity, managing and
communicating existing and future work, reasoning/managing difficult
situations and managing the individual within the team. Meanwhile, 12 subcompetencies were integrity, managing emotions, considerate approach,
proactive work management, problem solving, participative/empowering,
managing conflict, use of organization resources, taking responsibility for
resolving issues, personally accessible, sociable and empathetic engagement.
Each of the sub-competencies was reflected to the competency respectively as
discussed in Chapter 2.
iii.
The third objective of the study was to assess the managerial own’s
competency for preventing and reducing stress at construction site. From the
finding, the percentage score of sub-competency were ranging from 66% 92% and the percentage score of competency were ranging from 79% - 85%.
As conclusion, managerial levels were effective in the sub-competency of
managing conflict with the highest percentage score of 92.76 percent. In
overall, managerial levels possessed the competency of managing and
communicating existing and future work with the highest percentage score of
85.16 percent which fallen in the classification of reasonable.
iv.
The final objective was to assess subordinates’ viewpoint on their
management competency for preventing and reducing stress at construction
site. From the finding, the percentage score of sub-competency were ranging
from 71% - 77% and the percentage score of competency were ranging from
73% - 77%. As conclusion, subordinates level assess their managerial level as
effective in the sub-competency of participative/empowering with the highest
108
percentage score of 77.97 percent. In general, subordinates level assess their
managerial
level
as
reasonable
in
competency of
managing
and
communicating existing and future work for preventing and reducing stress at
work with the highest percentage score of 77.47 percent. However, the overall
percentages score of competency from the assessment of subordinates was
slightly lower than the assessment of managerial level. Hence, this clearly
shows that the subordinates’ level always thought that their manager were less
competence in preventing and reducing stress at construction work as compare
from the perception of managerial level.
5.3
Limitations of Study
While conducting this study, a few limitations were taking into consideration
as follows:
i.
Due to time constraint, pre-assessment of the level of stress at construction
was not determined. Therefore, the selections of sites were done at random.
Thus, the results shown are not reflective of the whole construction industry
either to the type of construction or category of construction.
ii.
The differences in term of the number of respondents for managerial level and
subordinates’ level was not meant to be the determinants of the results due to
the fact that no comparison was done between those categories.
iii.
The study relied on cross sectional data, which the employee ratings were
only collected at one time point, therefore it was impossible to look at the
variance in ratings of the same manager, and control for environmental or
situational bias.
109
iv.
In this study, it still be recognized that some of respondents from
subordinates’ level could have answered more leniently in order to protect
themselves, however, Scullen, Mount and Judge (2003) have suggests that,
due to employees were rating their managers for purely developmental or
research purposes, the ratings are likely to be more accurate than if ratings had
been for administrative purposes (such as pay, or promotion decisions).
5.4
Recommendations for Further Study
This study has created a lot of potential for further studies. Therefore, it is
recommended that further study can be undertaken as following:
i.
Since this study relied on cross sectional data, hence, it is highly
recommended that further study can be carried on within a contractor
organization, that is to say, using non-random sampling where a group of
sample selected specifically within an organization.
ii.
Furthermore, it suggested that further study would also be necessary to collect
more further data to enable a confirmatory factor analysis to be conducted to
analyze the psychometric significance of the factors (competencies), to
explore the second-order factor structure (sub-competencies), and to explore
any differences by demographics in the composition of the framework, such
as by gender, private/public sector and post.
iii.
Finally, there is need for further qualitative research study to be conducted to
look at how the research findings can best be embedded within organizational
culture and practice. This should aim to capture data on organizations
integrating the framework and the tool into their existing processes (e.g.
people management, HR, management development and stress management
processes), in order to allow the development of case studies.
110
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Preventing and Reducing Stress at Work: Identifying and developing the
management behaviours necessary to implement the HSE Management
Standards: Phase Two. Health and Safety Executive.
Zina O’Leary, Z. (2005). Researching Real-world Problems. SAGE, London.
115
APPENDIX A
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
SKUDAI, JOHOR
MASTER DISSERTATION PAPER
(QUESTIONAIRE SURVEY)
MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES FOR PREVENTING AND REDUCING
STRESS AT CONSTRUCTION SITE
AIM OF STUDY
TO STUDY THE MANAGEMENT COMPETENCIES FOR PREVENTING AND
REDUCING STRESS AT CONSTRUCTION SITE
All information given will remain CONFIDENTIAL and used for this study only.
“THANK YOU FOR YOUR KINDLY PARTICIPATION AND CONTRIBUTION”
PREPARED BY:
LIM WEI HAN (HP: 012-5873475)
MASTER OF SCIENCE (CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT)
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA,
81310 SKUDAI, JOHOR.
SUPERVISOR:
EN. ABDUL RAHIM ABD HAMID
DR. KHAIRULZAN YAHYA
116
9, Jalan Pulai 13,
Taman Pulai Utama,
81300 Skudai, Johor
Phone: +612-5873 475
Email: limweihan@hotmail.com
3rd April 2009
Dear Participant,
Questionnaire Survey on the Management Competencies for Preventing and Reducing
Stress at Construction Site
I am currently undertaking a Dissertation as part of my partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree of Master of Science in Construction Management at Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, under the supervision of En. Abdul Rahim Abd Hamid. I
am writing to invite you to participate in research in the form of a questionnaire.
My research is entitled “Management Competencies for Preventing and Reducing Stress at
Construction Site”. As a part of the Dissertation, I am required to collect my own primary
data. Therefore, I have compiled the attached questionnaire survey, which is being sent out
to all managerial staffs such as project manager as well as their subordinates such as
architects, quantity surveyors, site engineer, site supervisor and other professionals within
the contractor organization. Through the questionnaires, I hope to give an overview of the
management competency for the managerial level in the contractor organization whether the
behaviours identified as effective or not for preventing and reducing stress at construction
site. The questionnaire should take about fifteen minutes to complete.
All information supplied by participants will be treated as confidential. Access to the
questionnaires is restricted to the unit coordinator, my supervisor and myself. Completion of
the questionnaire is voluntary.
Enclosed is a set of questionnaire survey form. If you were able to complete and return the
questionnaire before 30th April 2009 (Thursday) it would be greatly appreciated.
Should you have any queries in regards to this matter please do not hesitate to contact me via
email or mobile on +6012-5873 475.
I appreciate your participation and contribution.
Yours sincerely,
WEI HAN
_______________________
Lim Wei Han
Master of Science (Construction Management)
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Skudai, Johor
117
SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION
All information to be given will remain CONFIDENTIAL and used for this study
only.
RESPONDENT’S PROFILE
1. What is your profession?
Project Manager
Site Manager
Project Engineer
Architect
Quantity Surveyor
Site Supervisor
Other (please specify)
__________________________
2. How many years have you worked in your current organization?
5 – 10 years
Less than 5 years
11 – 15 years
More than 15 years
RESPONDENT’S DETAILS
Name
:
_______________________________________
Gender
:
Company Name
:
_______________________________________
Company Address
:
_______________________________________
Male
Female
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
Contact Number
:
_______________________________________
_________________________
_____________________
Official Stamp (Optional)
Respondent’s Signature
118
SECTION B: RESPECTFUL AND RESPONSIBLE: MANAGING EMOTIONS AND
HAVING INTEGRITY
To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
1 – Strongly Disagree
5 – Strongly Agree
2 – Disagree
3 – Slightly Agree
4 – Agree
All questions in this section are prefixed by “My manager…” (if the respondents are
subordinates level) or “I/My…” (if the respondents are managerial level).
Please TICK your answers at following space provided.
No.
Behaviour/Competency
1
2
3
4
5
Sub-competency: Integrity
Is/Am a good role model
Treat our/my team with respect
Is/Am honest
Do the thing as he/I said will do
Never speak about team members behind theirs backs
6
7
8
9
10
11
Sub-competency: Managing Emotions
Act calmly in pressured situations
Take a consistent approach to managing
Moods are predictable
Don’t pass on my stress to my team
Approach deadlines calmly
Welcome suggestions for improvements from my teams
12
13
14
15
16
17
Sub-competency: Considerate Approach
Allow our/my team to plan our/their workloads
Create unrealistic deadlines for delivery of work
Give more positive than negative feedback
Deal with problems themselves/myself rather than
relying on others
Allow our/my team to approach our/their work in
our/their own way
Show a consideration for our/my team’s worklife balance
1
2
Rating
3
4
5
119
SECTION C: MANAGING AND COMMUNICATING EXISTING AND FUTURE
WORK
To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
1 – Strongly Disagree
5 – Strongly Agree
2 – Disagree
3 – Slightly Agree
4 – Agree
All questions in this section are prefixed by “My manager…” (if the respondents are
subordinates level) or “I/My…” (if the respondents are managerial level).
Please TICK your answers at following space provided.
No.
Behaviour/Competency
23
24
25
26
Sub-competency: Proactive Work Management
Clearly communicate job objectives to our/my team
Develop action plans
Monitor our/my team’s workload on an ongoing basis
Encourage our/my team to review how we/they organize
our/their work
When necessary, will stop additional work being taken
on by our/my team
Work proactively
See projects/tasks through to delivery
Review processes to see if work can be improved
Prioritize future workloads
27
28
29
30
Sub-competency: Problem Solving
Deal rationally with problems
Follow up problems on behalf of our/my team
Deal with problems as soon as they arise
Is/Am decisive when decision making
18
19
20
21
22
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Sub-competency: Participative/Empowering
Give us/employees the right level of job responsibility
Correctly judge when to consult the team and when to
make a decision
Keep our/my team informed of what is happening in the
organization
Act as a mentor to our/my team
Delegate work equally
Help team members to develop in their role
Encourage participation from the whole team
Provide regular team meetings
Gives the right level of direction to our/my team
members
1
2
Rating
3
4
5
120
SECTION D: MANAGING THE INDIVIDUAL WITHIN THE TEAM
To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
1 – Strongly Disagree
2 – Disagree
3 – Slightly Agree
4 – Agree
5 – Strongly Agree
All questions in this section are prefixed by “My manager…” (if the respondents are
subordinates level) or “I/My…” (if the respondents are managerial level).
Please TICK your answers at following space provided.
No.
Behaviour/Competency
42
43
Sub-competency: Personally Accessible
Prefer to speak to our/my team personally than use email
Provide regular opportunities for our/my team to speak
one to one
Return our/my team’s call/emails promptly
Is/Am available to talk to when needed
44
45
46
Sub-competency: Sociable
Bring in treats for our/my team
Socialize with the team
Is/Am willing to have a laugh at work
40
41
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Sub-competency: Empathetic Engagement
Encourage individuals’ input in discussions
Listen when a team member asks for helps
Make an effort to find out what motivates our/my team
members at work
Try to see things from our/my team members’ point of
view
Take an interest in our/my team’s life outside work
Regular ask team members “How are you?”
Treat all team members with equal importance
Check everyone is OK rather than just assuming
1
2
Rating
3
4
5
121
SECTION E: REASONING/MANAGING DIFFICULT SITUATION
To what extent do you agree with the following statements?
1 – Strongly Disagree
5 – Strongly Agree
2 – Disagree
3 – Slightly Agree
4 – Agree
All questions in this section are prefixed by “My manager…” (if the respondents are
subordinates level) or “I/My…” (if the respondents are managerial level).
Please TICK your answers at following space provided.
No.
Behaviour/Competency
57
58
59
Sub-competency: Managing Conflict
Act as a mediator in conflict situations
Deal with squabbles in the team before they become
argument
Deal objectively with employee conflicts
Deal with conflicts head on
Try and resolve issues rather than act to keep the peace
60
61
62
Sub-competency: Use of Organizational Resources
Seek advice from other managers when necessary
Use HR as a resource to help deal with problems
Seek help from occupational health when necessary
55
56
63
64
65
66
Sub-competency: Taking Responsibility for Resolving
Issues
Follow up team conflicts after resolution
Support us/employees through incidents of abuse
Make it clear that he/I will take ultimate responsibility if
things go wrong
Address bullying
End of questionnaire
Thank you for your participation.
1
2
Rating
3
4
5