Unit 14: Social Psychology
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Define social perception
 Explain the major influences on first impressions and why first impressions often make lasting
impressions
 Discuss the role of cognitive biases in judgments that we make about the causes of behavior
 Explain what attitudes are and how they are acquired
 Discuss how attitudes are related to behavior and how they change in response to persuasive
appeals
Terms and Concepts:
Social Psychology
Social Perception
Impression Formation
Social Schema
Stereotypes
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Attribution
Dispositional Causes
Situational Causes
Fundamental Attribution Error
Actor-Observer Effect
Self-Serving Bias
Attitude
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
I.
II.
Social Psychology and Social Perception
A.
Social psychology—the study of how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by
our social interactions with others and by the culture in which we live
B.
Social perception—the process by which we come to form an understanding of our social
environment, on the basis of three sources
1.
Observations of others
2.
Personal experiences
3.
Information we receive
Impression Formation
A.
Background information on impression formation
1.
Impression formation—the process by which we form an opinion or impression of
another person
2.
First impressions usually formed quickly
3.
Tend to be long-lasting and difficult to change
4.
Affect how we relate to the person we have formed an impression of
B.
Personal disclosure
1.
More favorable impression formed of people willing to disclose personal information
about themselves
2.
Revealing too much too soon results in a negative impression
3.
Cultural norms a factor in personal disclosure
C.
Impressions as social schemas
1.
Social schema
a.
Impression is a type of social schema
b.
Social schema is a mental image or representation we use to understand our
social environment
c.
Information about others is filtered through the social schema
d.
Existing schema influences how we perceive new information
D.
Stereotyping
1.
Preconceived ideas about groups of people
2.
Stereotypes can influence first impressions
3.
Stereotyping a normal cognitive activity; helps us process social input more
efficiently
4.
May be some truth in commonly held stereotypes
5.
III.
IV.
V.
Stereotyping on basis of race, ethnicity, gender, and the like is ineffective,
unfounded
E.
Self-fulfilling prophecies
1.
Initial impression influences subsequent exhibited behavior towards that person
2.
Behavioral message sent (perhaps unintentionally) then influences response of the
other individual
Attributions: Forming Personal Explanations of Events
A.
Attribution—a personal explanation we form about the causes of behavior or events we
observe
1.
Dispositional causes—attributing behavior to internal traits
2.
Situational causes—attributing behavior to external factors
3.
Attributions are affected by cognitive biases
B.
Fundamental attribution error
1.
We tend to overlook situational factors when interpreting behavior of others
2.
Tendency is to make internal attributions when interpreting behavior of others (our
focus is on the actor, not surroundings)
3.
Doesn’t apply to displays of emotion—we tend to attribute those to the situation
4.
Members of collectivist cultures less likely to make fundamental attribution error
(less emphasis on the individual in these cultures)
C.
Actor-observer effect
1.
Tendency to attribute causes of our own behavior to external (situational) factors,
make internal attributions regarding other people’s behavior
2.
Actor-observer effect probably due to differing perspectives (Heider, 1958)
3.
Can alter actor-observer effect by changing presentation of the event
4.
Personal contact, interaction with others increases our awareness of situational
factors that impact their behavior
D.
Self-serving bias
1.
Tendency to attribute our personal successes to our own inner traits (internal
attribution)
2.
Tendency to make an external (situational) attribution with regard to things that did
not work out well
3.
Helps to keep our self-esteem intact
4.
Much more widespread in Western than in Eastern cultures
a.
Westerners value protection of self-esteem; Eastern cultures emphasize selfcriticism, humility
Attitudes
A.
An evaluation or judgment (either liking or disliking) regarding a person, object, or issue
B.
Three components to attitudes
1.
Cognitions—set of beliefs
2.
Emotions—feelings of liking or disliking
3.
Behaviors—what is manifested in actions
C.
Sources of attitudes
1.
Attitudes acquired from many sources in social environment
2.
Sources include parents, teachers, peers, personal experiences, media
3.
Individuals of similar backgrounds tend to hold similar attitudes
4.
Possible genetic link to attitudes (resulting from commonality in intelligence,
personality)
D.
Attitudes and behavior
1.
We expect a strong correspondence between attitudes and actual behaviors
2.
Research reveals behavior only somewhat related to attitudes
3.
Possibly due to great variation in situational factors
4.
Correspondence related to stability and strength of attitude; also how directly it
applies to a given situation
Persuasion
A.
We are constantly bombarded by messages designed to influence our attitudes
B.
Frequently involve political figures or merchandise available for purchase
C.
Relationship between appeals and possible attitude change
1.
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
a.
Central route to attitude change—when motivation is high, have skills and
knowledge needed for careful evaluation of message
b.
Peripheral route to attitude change—when motivation low; listeners more
influenced by cues attending the message
2.
Variables influencing persuasion
a.
Source—greatest influence when speaker credible, likable, similar
b.
Message—repetition, usually best to present both sides (with opposition side
refuted), not appear to serve own interests
c.
Recipient—easier to persuade people of low intelligence, low self-confidence;
also when people in a more positive mood (more likely to see message in a
positive light)
RELATING TO OTHERS
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the major determinants of attraction
 Discuss the factors linked to helping behavior
 Define prejudice, and explain how it develops
 Discuss what can be done to reduce prejudice
 Explain the factors that contribute to human aggression
Terms and Concepts:
Attraction
Matching Hypothesis
Proximity
Reciprocity
Prosocial Behavior
Bystander Intervention
Social Norms
Prejudice
Discrimination
In-Groups
Out-Groups
Out-Group Negativism
In-Group Favoritism
Out-Group Homogeneity
Authoritarian Personality
Contact Hypothesis
Frustration
Racism
Stereotype Threat
I.
Attraction
A.
Background factors in attraction
1.
Includes feelings of liking, positive thoughts, positive actions
2.
Liking and love both topics in social psychology
B.
Similarity
1.
Similarity serves as validation for each other
2.
Common ground important but room in relationships for differences
C.
Physical attractiveness
1.
Physical attractiveness seems to be most important factor in initial attraction
2.
Are gender and cultural differences regarding importance of attractiveness
3.
Physical appearance affects how we are perceived (e.g., smiling, glasses)
4.
Cross-cultural similarities in standards for facial beauty
5.
Support for matching hypothesis—that we choose those similar in attractiveness
D.
Proximity
1.
Friends usually those who live (or sit in classroom) near us
2.
Proximity increases opportunity to be exposed to, get to know, others
E.
Reciprocity
1.
Liking those who like us back
II.
III.
2.
Reciprocal interactions build upon themselves, increase liking
Helping Behavior
A.
Background factors in helping behavior
1.
Story of Kitty Genovese
a.
Stabbed to death in street in Queens, New York (1964)
b.
Many neighbors watched, no one helped
c.
In other situations, people risk careers and lives to help others, even
strangers
d.
What explains help in some cases, and not others?
2.
Prosocial behavior—behavior that is beneficial to others
a.
Altruism—pure helping, no thought of return (does this really exist?)
b.
Helping to benefit helper
B.
Bystander intervention
1.
Result of a decision-making process
a.
Is there a need for help?
b.
Is it a true emergency?
c.
Decision to assume personal responsibility
d.
Choose form of help
e.
Implement course of action
2.
Interpret situations in light of these factors
C.
Influences on helping
1.
Situational ambiguity—less help likely when situation is confusing
2.
Perceived cost—less help likely if costs (including psychological) are high
3.
Diffusion of responsibility—less help likely when more people witness
4.
Similarity to those in need of help—also more help for kinship members
5.
Facial features—baby-faced people more likely to get helped
6.
Mood, gender, race
a.
More help likely when helper in a good mood
b.
More assistance still typically given to women
c.
Not helping may be a subtle way to express racism
7.
Attributions regarding the cause of need—more help to innocent victim
8.
Social norms—especially a factor when request is made in front of others
Prejudice
A.
Background factors regarding prejudice
1.
A preconceived attitude, usually negative, without rational evaluation
2.
Has cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components
a.
Cognition—biased beliefs, stereotypes
b.
Emotion (usually negative)—feelings of prejudice
c.
Behavior—discrimination
3.
Often a disparity between voiced attitude and actual behavior
4.
Stereotypes and prejudices are resistant to change
5.
Prejudice and discrimination increase during social upheaval, scarcity
B.
The development of prejudice
1.
An outgrowth of negative stereotypes
2.
Stereotypes are learned
3.
Everyone has some stereotypes—partly a cognitive, adaptive strategy
a.
In-group/out-group distinction
b.
Out-group homogeneity
C.
Why some people are more prejudiced than others
1.
Learning and experience play key roles
2.
Parental influence, cognitive style, personality (e.g., authoritarian) are factors
D.
Reducing prejudice
1.
Contact hypothesis (Gordon Allport, 1954)
a.
Social and institutional support
b.
Acquaintance potential
c.
Equal status—opportunity for contact on equal footing
d.
Intergroup cooperation—towards common goal
2.
Teaching empathy
3.
People can take steps to change beliefs and/or behavior
IV.
V.
Human Aggression
A.
Background factors regarding aggression
1.
Stereotyping and prejudice can lead to more negative behaviors
2.
Much violence in the history of humanity, no less so in past century
B.
Explanations for aggression
1.
Instinct
a.
A survival mechanism—protect family, species
b.
Aggressive, dominant males may produce stronger offspring
c.
Current view is aggression too complex to be explained just on basis of
instinct (probably is a combination of causes)
2.
Biological influences
a.
Possible abnormal brain circuitry (may involve serotonin)
b.
Testosterone and aggression are related
3.
Learning influences
a.
Social-cognitive approach: children learn through observation, modeling
b.
Aggressive behavior increases if reinforced
4.
Sociocultural influences
a.
Consider social stressors (social problems, child abuse)
b.
Attempt to use aggression, violence for coercion
5.
Alcohol use
a.
Possibly implicated in half of homicides, one-fourth of rapes
b.
Alcohol loosens inhibitions, restraints; affects judgment
6.
Emotional influences
a.
Frustration—when path to goal is blocked
b.
Anger
c.
Neither frustration nor anger necessarily lead to aggression
7.
Environmental influences—outdoor temperature shown to be a factor
Exploring Psychology: How Does Racism and Stereotyping Affect Stereotyped Groups?
A.
Racism
1.
Negative perspective solely due to racial membership
2.
May lead to lowered, internalized expectations
B.
Stereotype threat
1.
Awareness of others’ negative outlook
2.
May impair performance, lower motivation
C.
Racism and stereotype threat may also affect physical health
GROUP INFLUENCES ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Define social identity
 Discuss the significance of the Asch study on conformity
 Discuss factors that influence conformity
 Explain the principles that compliance techniques are based on
 Discuss why Milgram' findings were so disturbing and why his methods were controversial
 Explain how the presence of others affects individual performance
 Define deindividuation, group polarization, and groupthink
Terms and Concepts:
Personal Identity
Social Identity
Conformity
Compliance
Social Validation
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Bait-and-Switch Technique
Low-Ball Technique
Door-in-the-Face Technique
Obedience
Legitimization of Authority
Social Facilitation
Social Loafing
Deindividuation
Group Polarization
Risky-Shift Phenomenon
Groupthink
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Background Factors Regarding Group Influence
A.
Humans are very social creatures
B.
Since social connections vital, others wield powerful influence
Our Social Selves
A.
Two components of psychological identity (self-concept)
1.
Personal identity (individual identity)
2.
Social identity (group identity)
B.
Social identity more prominent in collectivist cultures
C.
Western cultures more likely to emphasize individuality, autonomy
Conformity
A.
Fitting our behavior to prevailing social standards
B.
Lack of conformity involves risk of social disapproval
C.
Asch study (a social psychology classic) on conformity
1.
Judging length of lines (matching to a target line)
2.
Three-fourths of participants gave wrong answer (to conform) at least once
D.
Why do some people conform more than others?
1.
People assume the majority must be correct
2.
Greatest concern is being accepted by the group
3.
Simply easier to go along with group than disagree
4.
Other characteristics
a.
Women slightly more likely to conform than men
b.
More conformity among collectivist cultures than individualistic
c.
More conformity among individuals with low self-esteem, social shyness,
especially strong need to be liked
d.
Conformity tends to decline with age (after childhood)
E.
Situational factors
1.
More conformity when behavior public than in private
2.
Conformity increases as group size increases (up to three or four people)
3.
With dissent from anyone else in group—conformity drops sharply
4.
Note that some degree of conformity is helpful (groups run more smoothly)
Compliance
A.
Acceding to requests or demands from others
B.
Factors related to compliance
1.
Authority figure
2.
Social validation
3.
Need for consistency in behavior
a.
Foot-in-the-door-technique (people who first comply with a small request are
more likely to agree to a more demanding favor later)
b.
Bait-and-switch technique (people who have shown interest are more likely to
comply with switch to more expensive product)
c.
Low-ball technique (people who have already made the decision to buy are
more likely to accede to more expensive purchase offer)
4.
Door-in-the-face technique—based on reciprocity
a.
First request is large, unreasonable favor
b.
Greater compliance rates for smaller, follow-up task
Obedience to Authority
A.
Atrocities of Nazis during WWII raised questions
B.
Research program to test obedience created by Stanley Milgram (1960s)
1.
Cover story for experiment—the effects of punishment on learning
2.
Sixty-five percent of participants went to “severe shock” voltage
3.
Some variation related to proximity of “teachers” to “learners”
4.
Also raised questions regarding ethical treatment of subjects
C.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Why do people obey immoral commands?
1.
Socialization to obey authority
2.
Also some impact from social comparison, foot-in-the-door technique
D.
Evaluating Milgram’s legacy
1.
Cannot duplicate study because of ethical considerations
2.
Hard to learn more about full nature of obedience (and authority)
3.
Perhaps more emphasis needed on personal responsibility
Social Facilitation and Social Loafing
A.
Social facilitation
1.
Working harder when in presence of others
2.
Presence of others increases performance of dominant responses
3.
For complex tasks, presence of others impairs
B.
Social loafing
1.
Less effort expended when working as member of a group
2.
Thought is other group members will pick up slack
3.
Less likely to occur when individual performance is evaluated
Mob Behavior
A.
Deindividuation—loss of personal sense of identity within a crowd
B.
May result in more destructive behaviors (than individual would exhibit when alone);
inhibitions are loosened
C.
Results from sense of anonymity, shift of focus from self and inner standards to group and
group actions
Group Decision Making
A.
Group polarization
1.
Tendency to adopt more extreme version of one’s views when in a group
2.
Risky-shift phenomenon—extreme views may lead to more extreme actions
3.
Why does group polarization occur?
a.
Social validation—hearing others’ similar views strengthens one’s own views
b.
Normative influence—if group view is stronger than own personal view,
personal view is adjusted to conform to intensity level of group
B.
Groupthink
1.
Concern to reach a consensus outweighs concern to critically evaluate issue
2.
Pressure is to conform to majority opinion
3.
Ways to minimize occurrence of groupthink (Janis, 1982, 1997)
a.
Encourage group members to consider all alternatives, weigh all evidence
b.
Group leader should avoid stating a preference at outset
c.
Call upon outsiders to voice opinions and analyses
d.
Encourage group members or outsiders to play “devil’s advocate”
e.
Subdivide group; smaller groups review issues independently
f.
Hold several group meetings and evaluate all new information before final
decision is made