vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
DEDCLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACTS
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vi
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xvii
LIST OF APPENDIXES
xix
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General
1
1.2
General Specification
2
1.3
Problem Statement
2
1.4
Objectives
4
1.5
Scope of Study
4
1.6
Organization of Thesis
5
1.7
Unit Conversion
5
vii
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
6
2.2
History of Bridge Construction
7
2.2.1 Ancient Structure
7
2.2.1.1 Ancient Structural Principles
8
2.2.1.2 Trial and Error
9
2.2.1.3 The Earliest Beginnings
9
2.2.1.4
12
Timber Bridges
2.2.1.5 Stone Bridges
13
2.2.1.6 Aqueducts and Viaducts
14
2.2.1.7 Religious Symbolism
17
2.2.1.8 Vitruvius’ De Architectura
18
2.2.1.9 Contributions of Ancient Bridge 19
Building
2.3
The Middle Ages
20
2.3.1
Preservation of Roman Knowledge
20
2.3.2
Bridges in the Middle East and Asia
21
2.3.3
Revival of European Bridge Building
21
2.3.4
Construction and History of Old
22
London Bridge
2.3.5
The Era of Concrete Bridges and Beyond 25
2.3.6
Concrete Characteristics
25
2.3.6.1
Early Concrete Structures
26
2.3.6.2
Concrete Arch Bridges
27
2.3.6.3
Prestressed Concrete Bridges
28
viii
2.4
Concrete Bridges after the Second
29
World War
2.4.1 Cable-Stayed Bridges
30
2.5
Recent Bridge Projects
37
2.6
Contributions of Modern
38
Concrete Bridge Construction
CHAPTER III
THEORITICAL BACKGROUND
3.1
Choice of Abutment
3.1.1 Design Consideration
Choice Of Bearing
3.2
40
41
42
3.2.1 Preliminary Design
44
3.2.2
Constraint
45
Selection of Bridge Type
46
3.3
3.3.1 Preliminary Design Consideration
47
3.3.2 Design Standard for preliminary design
48
3.4
Reinforced Concrete Deck
49
3.4.1 Analysis of Deck
49
3.4.2 Design Standard for Concrete
50
3.4.3 Prestressed Concrete Deck
51
3.4.4 Pre-Tension Bridge Deck
52
3.5
Composite Deck
54
ix
3.5.1 Construction Method
3.6
Steel Box Girder
55
3.6.1 Steel Deck Truss
56
3.6.2 Choice of Truss
57
Cable Stay Deck
58
3.7
3.8
Suspension Bridges
3.8.1 Design Consideration
3.9
Choice of Pier
3.9.1 Design Consideration
3.10
CHAPTER IV
54
59
61
62
63
Choice Of Wingwalls
64
3.10.1 Design Consideration
65
METHODOLOGY
4.1
Introduction
66
4.2
Design Flowchart
67
4.2.1 BS 5400 and AASHTO-Seismic
67
Design Flowchart
4.3
Result and Analysis
80
4.3
Discussion and Conclusion
93
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.0
Introduction
5.1 Future Research
94
95
x
5.1.1 Future Challenges in
95
Bridge Engineering
5.2
Improvements in Design, Construction,
96
Maintenance, and Rehabilitation
5.2.1 Improvements in Design
96
5.2.2 Improvements in Construction
97
5.2.3 Improvements in Maintenance
98
and Rehabilitation
5.3
Conclusion
100
REFERENCES
101
APPENDIXES
104
xi
LIST OF TABLES
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Stay Cable Arrangements
32
2.2
Recent Major Bridge Projects
37
3.1
Selection of bridge type for various span length
46
3.2
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
60
BD 52/93 Specifies a Group Designation
4.1
Steel area for different code of practices.Consider
80
for seismic reading 0.15 g
4.2
Cost of steel area for different code.Consider
80
for seismic reading 0.15 g
4.3
Steel Area for different code of practice.Consider
81
for seismic reading 0.075 g
4.4
Cost of steel area for different code.Consider
for seismic reading 0.075g
81
4.5
Time History Analysis due to End Member of Force
by using British code analysis (Staad-Pro)
84
4.6
Time History Analysis due to End Member of Force
by using American code analysis (Staad-Pro)
84
4.7
Time History Analysis due to joint displacement
by using American code analysis (Staad-Pro)
85
xii
4.8
Time History Analysis due to joint displacement
by using British code analysis (Staad-Pro)
86
4.9
Time History Analysis due to support reaction
by using American code analysis (Staad-Pro)
87
4.10
Time History Analysis due to support reaction
by using British code analysis (Staad-Pro)
88
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Corbelled Arch and Voussoir Arch
14
2.2
The Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France
15
(taken from Brown 1993, p18)
2.3
The Puente de Alcántara, Caceres, Spain
16
(taken from Brown 1993, p25)
2.4
The Ponte Sant’Angelo, Rome, Italy
17
(taken from Leonhardt 1984, p69)
2.5
Old London Bridge, London, Great Britain
23
(taken from Steinman and Watson 1941, p69)
2.6
The Plougastel Bridge under Construction
28
(taken from Brown 1993, p122)
2.7
Stay Cable Arrangements
31
2.8
The Oberkassel Rhine Bridge, Düsseldorf,
33
Germany (taken from Leonhardt 1984, p260)
2.9
The Lake Maracaibo Bridge, Venezuela
33
(taken from Leonhardt 1984, p271)
2.10
The Pont de Brotonne, France
34
(taken from Leonhardt 1984, p270)
2.11
The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, Japan
38
(taken from Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority 1998, p1)
xiv
3.1
Open Side Span
40
3.2
Solid Side Span
41
3.3:
Elastomeric Bearing
43
3.4
Plane Sliding Bearing
43
3.5
Multiple Roller Bearing
43
3.6
Typical Bearing Layout
44
3.7
Various of Deck Slab
49
3.8
Aspect Ratio vs Skew angle graf
50
3.9
Type of Girder
52
3.10
Types of Beam-Slab
53
3.11
Typical Composite Deck
54
3.12
Cross section of Steel Box Girder
55
3.13
Type of truss
56
3.14
Bridge Truss
57
3.15
Simple Cable Stay Bridge
58
3.16
Suspension Bridge
59
3.17
Types of Parapet
60
3.18
Different Pier Shape
63
3.19
Load acting on Retaining Wall
64
3.20
Distribution Surcharge Load
64
4.1
AASHTO–LRFD seismic design flowchart
69
4.2
BS 5400 design flowchart
71
4.3
Design Flowchart of I Girder Bridge
according to AASHTO
Design flowchart of I-Girder Bridge
according to BS 5400
Design Flowchart of Column Bent Pier
according to AASHTO
Design Flowchart of Column Bent Pier
according to BS 5400
73
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Design Flowchart of Stub Abutment
according to AASHTO
75
76
77
78
xv
4.8
Design Flowchart of Column Bent Pier
79
according to BS 5400
4.9
Steel Area for different code of practice.Consider
82
for seismic reading 0.15 g
4.10
Steel Area for different code of practice.Consider
82
for seismic reading 0.075 g
4.11
Cost of steel area for different code.Consider
83
seismic reading 0.15 g
4.12
Cost of steel area for different code.Consider
83
seismic reading 0.075g
4.13 a Mode Shape of bridge structure during
89
earthquake event for American code design
4.13 b Mode Shape of bridge structure during
90
earthquake event for American code design
4.13.c Natural Frequency vs Participation graph
90
4.13.d
91
Time History Analysis graph for
American code design
4.14. a Mode Shape of bridge structure during
91
earthquake event for British code design by
using Lusas Software
4.14. b Mode Shape of bridge structure during
earthquake event for British code design by
using Lusas Software
92
xvi
4.14.c.
Natural Frequency vs Participation graph
92
4.14.d.
Time History Analysis graph for British
93
code design
xvii
LIST OF SIMBOLS
S
-
Distance Between Flanges
MDL
-
Dead Load Moment
MLL
-
Moment Due to Live Load
MLL + I
-
Moment Due to Live Load + Impact
MB
-
Total Bending Moment
MSDL
-
Moment Super Imposed Dead Load
Es
-
Modulus of Elasticity for Steel
Ec
-
Modulus of Elasticity for Concrete
n
-
modular ratio
r
-
stress ratio
k&j
-
coefficient
b
-
Unit width of slab
d
-
minimum depth required
As
-
Required Area Steel Bar
D
-
Distribution Steel
Beff
-
Effective Width
DF
-
Distribution Factor
I
-
Impact Moment
MMax
-
Maximun Moment
R
-
Reaction of Support
V
-
Shear Force
PAE
-
Active Earth Pressure
KAE
-
Seismic Active Earth Pressure Coefficient
ĭ
-
Angle of Friction Soil
A
-
Acceleration Coefficient
į
-
Angle of Friction Between Soil and Abutment
xviii
ȕ
-
Slope of Soil face
Kh
-
Horizontal Acceleration Coefficient
Kv
-
Vertical Acceleration Coefficient
F’T
-
Equivalent Pressure
W
-
Abutment Load
ĮȕȖ
-
Single Mode Factors
S
-
Site coefficient
VY
-
Force Acting on Abutment
Pe
-
Equivalent Static Earthquake Loading
FA
-
Axial Force
r
-
Radius of Gyration
fC
-
Concrete Strength
fS
-
Grade Reinforcement
MU
-
Ultimate Moment
k
-
Stiffness
vS
-
Static Displacement
xix
LIST OF APPENDIXES
APPENDIX
TITLE
A
Design Sheet Calculation
B
Bridge Structure Drawing
C
El –Centro Data