Development beyond the Central City:
Eco-Infrastructure in Ulcinj, Montenegro
Gretchen Mikeska and John Tabor
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
December 2009
Development beyond the Central City: Eco-Infrastructure in
Ulcinj, Montenegro
Gretchen Mikeska and John Tabor
December 2009
Abstract
The principal objectives and scope of the current study are to examine how eco-infrastructure
can be sustained within a multiuse area of a municipality in a transition economy in a way that
protects habitat, ensures public access, and is adequately funded and managed. The case of
Ulcinj, Montenegro, is presented for this purpose. The methodology employed reviews the
available literature and best practices to identify possible models, and then considers them in the
context of Ulcinj for their relevance and feasibility. The comparative analysis identifies six
examples of nature preserves that successfully protect habitat, ensure public access, and operate
sustainably with adequate funding and management. The examples are taken from California,
Croatia, Chile, Bolivia, Costa Rica, and Guatemala. The principal conclusions from the study are
that, even though there are formidable challenges to resolve, models do exist which can be
adapted and applied in Ulcinj, Montenegro. One approach that is particularly promising is the
use of conservation easements that ensure the preservation of habitat and public access through
payments to land owners derived from various sources.
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
Development beyond the Central City: Eco-Infrastructure in
Ulcinj, Montenegro
Gretchen Mikeska and John Tabor
December 2009
1. Context
Montenegro has long understood that tourism, particularly coastal tourism, is key to its longterm economic prosperity. Travel and tourism’s contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) is
expected to rise from 26 percent in 2008 to 31 percent by 2018. Increasing the tourism sector’s
contribution is even more important considering Montenegro’s recent independence from Serbia
and its goal of European Union (EU) membership.
Due to its natural habitats, cultural attractions, and diverse landscapes, Montenegro should be
able to further increase the tourism sector’s contribution to GDP. While its focus has previously
been on economic tourism, luxury and ecological tourism are likely areas of significant sector
growth.
The wildlife habitat of Ulcinj is important for additional reasons. It is a key link in the flyway of
birds that migrate between northern Europe and North Africa twice per year. These birds depend
on the Ulcinj habitat to rest and feed in preparation for their next flight. If this habitat is
removed, some species may become extinct while others may decline in population.
As part of the World Bank’s Montenegro Sustainable Tourism Development Project, the
assignment “Preparation of the Final Design for Eco-Infrastructure in the Bojana Delta” was
undertaken in 2008 by the Urban Institute (United States) and Hydro-Engineering Institute
Sarajevo (HEIS). Successor projects plan to construct the eco-infrastructure in Ulcinj,
Montenegro, according to designs developed by this project.
Project supporters believe Ulcinj has the environmental assets to attract a major ecotourism
industry. Wildlife habitats for waterfowl and migrating bids, sea turtles, and exotic plants can be
connected with foot and bicycle trails along the Ulcinj coast and Bojana River, supported by an
information center.
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
1
2. Objectives of the study
To assess how the eco-infrastructure can be continually sustained in the case of Ulcinj,
Montenegro, this paper will study international experiences and consider three aspects of
sustainable eco-infrastructure:
First, what experiences exist with regard to protecting wildlife habitats on lands being developed
as resorts and adjacent private property? Habitat that must be maintained in its natural condition
may cut across various properties, requiring special measures applied to multiple owners.
Second, what do current practices suggest about ensuring long-term public access to publicly
funded eco-infrastructure on or near private properties? Unless specific provisions are made in
the case of Ulcinj, eco-infrastructure could become inaccessible due to resort development and
private property restrictions.
Third, what options exist for financing and operating the eco-infrastructure? For example, user
fees, stakeholder fees, and business fees from the new eco-infrastructure could fund the ongoing
operating costs.
3. Comparative international experiences
The development of eco-infrastructure in support of a successful ecotourism strategy almost
always involves a broad set of stakeholders and requires balancing the various –sometimes
competing- interests of the different stakeholders. Table 1 presents an overview of the main
interests and concerns as viewed by the key stakeholders in Ulcinj, including the municipal
government and other government entities, the private sector, and the local environmental
community.
Table 1. Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Tourism Projects—The Case of Ulcinj,
Montenegro
GOAL
To Provide Eco-Infrastructure for Sustainable Ecotourism
Key
stakeholders
Values and
priorities
National and municipal
governments and coastal
commissions
• Increased national
and local economic
development
• Increased
government revenues
• Improved public
services
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
Resort, business, and
property owners
•
•
•
Increased investment
opportunities
Increased business
formation and growth
Greater income and
profits
Environmental,
community development
institutes and NGOs
• Protected valuable
habitat, flora and
fauna
• Ensured public access
• Increased local jobs
and quality of life
2
Strengths
•
•
•
Weaknesses
•
•
•
•
•
Opportunities
•
•
•
Constraints
•
•
•
Issues and
objectives: how
to---
•
•
•
Attractive location
for exclusive resorts
Interest of
international resort
developers
Interest of
international tourism
organizations
•
Inadequate public
services and
infrastructure
Inadequate revenues
Deficient regulation
Fragmented land
ownership
Overlapping
jurisdictions
•
Growing market for
luxury tourism
Expressed interest of
major investors
Favorable image of
Montenegro for
tourism
Global financial crisis
Competing interests
of luxury and
ecotourism
Nature protection
requirements for
entry to EU
Attract resort
developers with land
acquisition, zoning,
tax incentives,
regulation
Provide supporting
public services and
infrastructure
Form public-private
partnerships
•
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Attractive location
for exclusive resorts
Supportive
government policies
and incentives
Investor interest
Supportive local
business community
•
Lack of experienced
local partners
Lack of experience
with integrated
resort—ecotourism
development
Fragmented land
ownership
Untrained work force
Inadequate
infrastructure
Growing market for
luxury tourism
Improved capital
access
Few alternate
locations for luxury
resorts
Global financial crisis
Competing uses of
habitat for luxury and
ecotourism
Increasing litter and
pollution
•
Establish exclusive
resorts
Increase tourist
attractions
Provide supporting
services for increased
tourism
Generate income
from ecotourism
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Valuable natural
habitat, flora, and
fauna
Strong potential for
ecotourism
Interest of
international and
local institutes and
NGOs
Limited influence on
public policy
Limited capacity for
joint action
Fragmented land
ownership
Lack of funds for
land acquisition and
research
Growing market for
ecotourism
Growing interest of
EU and international
groups in ecotourism
Excessive hunting,
development, and
public use of habitat
Litter and pollution
Use of habitat for
luxury resorts
Finance operation,
maintenance and
repair of ecoinfrastructure
Organize and operate
eco-infrastructure and
services, implement
management plan
Manage success
(many ecotourists) to
avoid habitat
destruction
3
As a result, a combination of different interventions and options will likely be needed to sustain
the proposed eco-infrastructure. Options and planning approaches that may need to be pursued in
the development of an eco-infrastructure plan for Ulcinj include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Confining trails and facilities, when possible, to publicly owned land;
Swapping publicly owned developable land with privately owned land to be set aside for
habitat and ecotourism trails and facilities;
Requiring pubic access to eco-infrastructure facilities located on resort lands;
Purchase of land needed for wildlife habitat and eco-infrastructure by the Government of
Montenegro (GoM) land banks, or international environmental organizations;
Expropriation of private land for habitat and eco-infrastructure;
Maintaining eco-infrastructure through public-private partnerships (PPPs) that will
operate and maintain the facilities by charging user fees and selling concession goods to
tourists;
Obtaining easements from landowners that host critical wildlife habitat and ecoinfrastructure;
Conducting scientific assessments of plant and wildlife conditions initially and
periodically thereafter to determine whether the habitat is being maintained or is
deteriorating;
Preparing and implementing management plans to ensure appropriate levels of usage and
environmental protection;
Generating sufficient revenues to sustain operations, maintenance, and repair.
To assess the viability of these different options and approaches, a survey of international
experience contained in relevant literature is presented in this section. These international
practices are a good representation of the spectrum of policy alternatives available in the pursuit
of sustainable eco-infrastructure.
Consideration of each case will broadly be made within the framework defined in table 1 for the
Ulcinj case. Application of these experiences to Ulcinj and conclusions follow in sections 5 and
6.
Ellwood-Devereux Coast, Santa Barbara, California
This nature preserve has an open space and habitat management plan for a contiguous 652-acre
open space and natural area that provides for habitat preservation and public access. Its partners
include the city and county governments, a state university, and a private housing developer.
Habitat—Local officials placed publicly owned land held by three jurisdictions under one
integrated master plan. They also arranged land swaps to trade public property for private
property. The private developers were allowed to develop the traded property while the public
authorities reserved the property they acquired to be open space. The land traded to developers
was close to existing developments, thereby improving the efficiency of public services and
minimizing the environmental impact of development.
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Public Access—Long-term public access to publicly funded trails and facilities and protection of
habitat for flora and fauna was accomplished partially through placement of trails on publicly
owned open space and partially through negotiated easements with surrounding property owners.
Nature trails were located for viewing of interesting flora and fauna, while avoiding sensitive
habitat.
Finance and Operation—The construction, operation, and maintenance of the site comes from
partner budgets, public and private grants, bond sales, fees, and philanthropy.
Reference—This plan can be viewed online on the web site of the University of California, Santa
Barbara. 1
Crna Mlaka Ornithological Reserve, Croatia
The Crna Mlaka Ornithological Reserve is near Zagreb, Croatia. It is a large and important
sanctuary for water birds and migratory birds, which feed and breed there. It has an artificial
wetland environment resulting from long-term aquaculture. Its bird population is considered at
risk due to a decline of fish production. It may offer useful information as new developments in
Solana (Salt Works) Ulcinj affect its resident and migrating water fowl.
Habitat—There are 14 carp production ponds in the reserve, and they are critical to the survival
of the birds. The carp ponds previously operated on a commercial basis, but due to poor
marketing and high water taxes, the carp ponds are not profitable, and many have fallen into
ruin.
Public Access—Public access is being increased to contribute to the financial health of the park.
Finance and Operation—A new management plan has important provisions for public and
private uses of the ponds, including commercial production of carp and other fish, sport fishing,
and ecotourism, each which would be a source of funding for support of the reserve.
Reference—Additional information is available
http://www.mzopu.hr/doc/Neap/44 Crna Mlaka.pdf.
on
the
Crna
Mlaka
web
site,
The Valdivian Coastal Reserve of Chile and the Eduardo Avaroa National Park of Bolivia
The Valdivian Coastal Reserve protects 147,500 acres of biologically rich temperate rainforest in
the Valdivian Coastal Range. The Eduardo Avaroa National Park protects flocks of flamingos in
a volcanic environment. The Valdivian rainforest was in danger of being cut for timber, as had
happened in other parts of the range. The Avaroa National Park was underfunded and poorly
managed, with environmental damage caused by indiscriminate usage and pollution. In each
case, the Nature Conservancy was able to assist local environmentalists.
1
http://facilities.ucsb.edu/_client/pdf/planning_ellwood/documents/OSP/Draft_OSP_0304_complete.pdf
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
5
Habitat—The Nature Conservancy joined with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Chilean
government, NGOs, and communities to purchase and manage the Valdivian Coastal Reserve. It
is now seeking a private buyer to purchase its forestland. Funds from the land sale would be used
to establish a foundation that manages the reserve. It will also assign a portion of the forest to the
government for operation of a national park.
Public Access—Easements for public access are being made a condition of resale of the
Valdivian Reserve and of the agreement to donate land to the Chilean government for a national
park. Historically, the major problem at Eduardo Avaroa National Park of Bolivia was
uncontrolled access and usage. The Nature Conservancy prepared a scientific assessment and
management plan which set guidelines and locations of usage within the park.
Finance and Operations—The Nature Conservancy designed self-funding systems to pay for the
operation and maintenance of the protected areas, which includes user fees and concessions. The
management plan contains an operating budget and provides for park rangers, sanitation services,
and other support required to keep the park in its natural condition.
Reference—More information on the Valdivian Coastal Reserve of Chile and the Eduardo
Avaroa National Park of Bolivia is available from the Nature Conservancy. 2,3
The World Bank–Funded Costa Rica Ecomarkets Project
This World Bank–funded Costa Rica Ecomarkets Project was one of the first projects to
recognize and pay for conservation values associated with natural forests. The project built on
preceding efforts funded by the Costa Rican government and donors. Lessons learned from it
have been shared by the World Bank with other nations in Latin America, Africa, and Central
Asia.
A government agency, the National Forestry Financing Fund (FONAFIFO), entered agreements
with private land owners that established conservation easements to protect and enhance their
forests. The land owners were paid periodically for the value their forests contributed to
biodiversity, carbon sequestration, hydropower generation, preservation of watersheds for water
users, wild life refuges of interest to ecotourists and others, buffer zones for national parks, and
for reforestation and afforestation, in keeping with the Kyoto Protocol.
Habitat—The forests were viewed as more than wildlife habitat and were valued for other
benefits, such as carbon sequestration, which compensated for air pollution caused by vehicle
exhaust. Three and a half percent of the national tax on gasoline was contributed to the
FONAFIFO. The value of the wildlife habitat was monitored through periodic censuses of key
species, such as spider monkeys, Baird’s tapirs, great curassows, and tinamous.
Public Access—Public access to the forests was provided through the ecotourism industry.
2
3
http://www.nature.org/aboutus/howwework/src=t2
http://www.nature.org/magazine/autumn2006/forests/art18590.html
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
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Finance and Operations—Since the ecological benefits encompassed more than ecotourism, the
costs was spread among vehicle users, hydropower companies, municipal water suppliers, and
others, in addition to ecotourism operators. Also, reforestation was compensated by the Clean
Development Mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol. The German Development Bank (KfW) and
Conservation International were also involved. A World Bank grant was provided to give
sufficient time for the revenue collection and payment institutions and mechanisms to become
established and self-sustaining.
References—More information on the Costa Rica Ecomarkets Project is available from the
World Bank. 4, 5
Debt-for-Nature Swaps
Habitat, Finance and Operations—Debt-for-nature swaps are a mechanism to sustain long-term
conservation efforts in countries with forests of great natural value and which have a large
foreign debt. Under the Tropical Forest Conservation Act of 1988 (United States), eligible
countries agree to use their debt payments to finance tropical forest conservation in their own
countries. The creditor discounts or forgives the debt in return for a commensurate contribution
by the debtor nation to a national trust fund that sponsors conservation programs.
The Nature Conservancy has participated in a number of these swaps, including those for Costa
Rica, Guatemala, and Jamaica. The Guatemala deal is the largest debt-for-nature swap yet under
the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (United States) and the fifth swap facilitated by the
Conservancy. With this debt-for-nature swap, the Nature Conservancy will be able to magnify its
conservation efforts in Guatemala.
The Nature Conservancy raised $1 million in the United States toward the deal, $500,000 of
which was donated by American Electric Power and $200,000 by the Nature Conservancy’s
Maine program. The U.S. government is providing $15 million toward the agreement. These
funds were used to purchase much larger amounts of debt owed by these countries to the United
States Government. The countries then paid the amounts previously paid to the U.S. Treasury
into conservation trust funds. These trust funds are then used by the borrower nation to
demarcate valuable forests and conserve them.
Reference—More information is available from the Nature Conservancy 6
4
http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwcec/docs/doc updates/NCSU_Blue_Ribbon_Panel_Final.pdf.
http://www.wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/03/21/
000020953_20070321110303/Rendered/PDF/ICR433.pdf.
6
http://www.nature.org/pressroom/press/press2641.html.
5
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
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4. Discussion and analysis: applications for Ulcinj Municipality
The comparative experience outlined above has several common themes. In each case, valuable
natural habitat was in danger of being lost to various kinds of development, exploitation, or
neglect. Also, public access to the habitat was uncertain or unmanaged. Finally, there was no
sustainable means to protect and sustain ecotourism and supporting eco-infrastructure. The
solutions to these problems involved the acquisition of habitat through public and private
initiatives, preparation and use of conservation plans and business plans, and legal provision for
public access easements. These solutions could conceivably help the GoM, Ulcinj Municipality,
and its stakeholders to address similar situations. Each solution is examined in greater detail
below, with contributions from relevant literature and with consideration of conditions in Ulcinj.
Protection of Habitat
In Ulcinj Municipality, portions of the valuable wildlife habitat are owned respectively by the
national government, the municipality, a large private salt works (Solana Ulcinj), and numerous
private owners of small properties. In addition, the Morsko Dobro (a coastal commission)
controls usage of a wide band of coastal property. Overlaid on these lands are several national
and municipal development plans and policies that regulate land use. In addition, illegal use of
land for private vacation homes and businesses, sand pits, ambient garbage, unrestricted usage by
tourists, and out-of-season and excessive hunting add to the difficulty of protecting wildlife
habitats, as well as flora and fauna. A study for a proposed new nature preserve has been
prepared by an environmental consultant, and a complimentary eco-infrastructure design by the
Urban Institute is under way. The new national and municipal initiative to develop exclusive
resorts with private investment on some of the same properties completes the range of interests
that must be reconciled and integrated, if upscale tourism, ecotourism and infrastructure are to be
harmonized and sustained. A number of options for successful integration of these competing
land uses are described below.
•
Joint Review Panel, MOU, and Management Plan. Similar to the initiative of the City of
Goleta, County of Santa Barbara and University of California—Santa Barbara (refer to the
Plan located at the Reference footnote 1).
•
Land Swaps. Since the GoM owns considerable land in Ulcinj, it may be able to reach
agreements with land owners to swap parcels that are important for conservation for other
parcels that offer commensurate benefits, such as residential or commercial potential. The
GoM has the power of eminent domain, but appears reluctant to use it.
•
Land Trust. At present, the largest single private property in Ulcinj contains the most
abundant bird population. The Bajo Sekulic Salt Company (Solana Ulcinj) owns 1,500
hectares of salt pans and surrounding wetlands and channels with prime habitat. The
environmental NGO EuroNatur prepared a management plan for it several years ago which
has not yet been adopted. The land is now scheduled to be sold to the developer chosen by
the GoM for primarily tourism uses, such as a resort, golf course or airport – all which could
have significant negative impact on habitat and the birds living there. One alternative could
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
8
be to enhance the salt works’ value to tourists as a nature preserve held and operated by a
Land Trust. Like the Crna Mlaka fish ponds in Croatia, Solana Ulcinj must continue its salt
work operations to maintain the habitat for birds. A Land Trust could assist in this effort. A
Land Trust could also buy other privately-owned prime habitat in Ulcinj Municipality, such
as the forest corridor that parallels the Bojana River, as well as the shores of Lake Šas.
“Land trusts, also called conservancies, are private non-profit organizations that protect land
directly, by owning it.” 7 Land Trusts operate internationally, regionally and locally, in
accordance with their charters. The Nature Conservancy is an example of an international
Land Trust.
•
Conservation Easements. The example above for conservation easements in Costa Rica could
be a worthy option for protecting and enhancing wildlife habitat and forests in Ulcinj. Since
Solana Ulcinj is a major property in Ulcinj, a business operated by a private company, and is
home to invaluable bird species, the company could be paid periodically to protect its
property from conflicting uses that could damage the habitat. This additional income could
make it worthwhile from a business perspective to avoid selling it for resort development.
Also, the forest corridor along the Bojana River, the vicinity of Šas Lake, and parts of Velika
Plaža could be protected with similar conservation easements for private property. A portion
of the gasoline tax and tourism taxes might be funding sources for these payments. Payments
by the municipal water utility might also be made to help protect the watershed. An
independent organization would be required to administer the funds received from taxes and
fees charged to users and beneficiaries of the habitat. Since the World Bank made a grant to
the Costa Rican management organization to allow it time to become established and
implement revenue collection means, perhaps it might do so for Ulcinj as well.
•
Debt for Nature Swaps. This device for funding conservation by foreign debt payments has
been used successfully in several countries, such as those named above. The World Bank is
the largest creditor to Montenegro, holding 187.1 million Euros of its debt stock as of the end
of 2008. 8 It could conceivably participate with conservation groups in a debt-for-nature swap
for conservation of natural assets in Ulcinj. The funds could be used for land acquisition,
easement payments, conservation education, and operation and maintenance of ecoinfrastructure. This option may work well as long as the priorities of the debtor country
(Montenegro) match those of the donors and creditors involved in the debt-for-nature swap.
Uncontrolled or Uncertain Public Access to Habitat
Some of the prime property along the Bojana River has been used for construction of illegal
cottages. Some beach-side businesses have been built in sensitive dunes and bird habitat. Visitors
drive and park on the dunes, and litter as well. The Eduardo Avaroa National Park in Bolivia and
the Ellwood-Devereux Reserve in California offer examples of how a management plan can
7
Brewer, Richard. 2003. Conservancy: The Land Trust Movement in America. Hanover and London: University
Press of New England.
8
www.gov.me/files/1232363628.xls
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
9
restrict visitors to certain paths and areas that provide interesting views without disturbing the
wildlife and habitat, maintain order with park rangers, and ensure a clean environment through
services paid from visitor fees charged by the Park administration.
When the exclusive resorts are being designed, an environmental management plan, visitor trails
and observation facilities could be prepared with participation all major stakeholders, including
GoM agencies, the municipality, resort developers, and nature and community development
groups. Public access could thus be assured for prime wildlife habitat while allowing the resort
developers to reserve their facilities for the exclusive use of guests. This is the current focus of
The Urban Institute’s project in Ulcinj.
Underfinanced and Unmanaged Habitat and Infrastructure
Velika Plaza has been a dumping ground for many years. Part of the problem seems to be caused
by a division of responsibility between Morsko Dobro, which collects revenues from touristrelated businesses, and the municipality of Ulcinj, which is responsible for solid waste removal
and disposal. There appears to be no sharing of revenues or contracting of cleaning services
between Morsko Dobro and the municipality.
The successful examples of nature preserves cited above indicate a combination of scientific and
management plans can be the basis for systematic care of habitat and infrastructure. Equally
important are the provision of an empowered organization, with funds and a capable staff that
implements the plans. Revenues from reliable and continuous sources make the management of
these natural habitats sustainable.
BRL Ingénierie produced a plan for creation of a nature preserve in Ulcinj. This plan includes a
scientific assessment of flora and fauna and proposal for protection of wildlife and their habitat.
If this plan is approved by the GoM, it can provide the scientific basis for a management plan,
and the creation of an institution responsible for management of Ulcinj’s sensitive habitat and
appropriate eco-infrastructure.
The present division of labor among government entities in Ulcinj indicates that a unified
organization should be responsible for overall management of habitat and eco-infrastructure. The
municipality currently has an office responsible for local economic development. Perhaps it can
be the nucleus for such an organization.
If bridge funding similar to that granted by the World Bank to the Costa Rican National Forestry
Financing Fund can be obtained, this could finance the period where a new organization
responsible for management and finance of the nature preserve and eco-infrastructure can be
created and become effective.
A consensus-based process that includes all the key stakeholders may produce the required
harmonization of interests in a plan that combines a nature preserve with eco-infrastructure and
several exclusive resorts. Since the number of stakeholders would be large and potentially
unwieldy, the planning process could utilize a variant of the Large Scale, Real-Time Strategic
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
10
Planning model 9 . This model is often used with large complex organizations. The municipality
of Ulcinj would be considered the organization in question, while GoM ministries, Morsko
Dobro, resort developers, property owners, local business leaders, and scientific and civic NGO’s
would be the major stakeholders.
The strategic planning process could begin as soon as the developers of Velika Plaza and Ada
Bojana are selected by the GoM and the conceptual designs for the resort development are
prepared by the developers. An exercise of several days duration would then be held where the
resort, nature preserve, and eco-infrastructure plans would be presented to all major stakeholders.
Small mixed groups of stakeholders would analyze all plans with the assistance of experts and
facilitators. Each group would make a list of features of the plans that were accepted by all group
members, features that had issues that needed to be resolved, and changes that would make the
plans even better. The small groups would present their findings in a plenary session, with
facilitators organizing questions and comments. Following the plenary session, the developers
would meet separately to decide which changes could be made and which could not. The
developers would then make final presentations of their plans to the stakeholders. To the extent
that the plans were congruent, they would be implemented. Those plans or parts of plans that still
had unresolved issues would be referred to binding arbitration. This process would only work if
all major stakeholders agreed to use it in its entirety before the process began.
5. Results
Of the options described in section 3, progress has been made to address these deficiencies and
may offer models for use in Ulcinj, Montenegro.
•
In California, much of the valuable habitat was already in public ownership but managed
separately by two local governments and a university. Other valuable habitat was owned
by a private developer who was about to build a large residential project on it. These
conditions combined to threaten a delicate and important coastal habitat.
•
The land in Chile was in private hands and required purchase and protection to avoid
exploitation. The habitat in Croatia was being lost due to failing commercial aquaculture.
Ulcinj is losing habitat due to a variety of causes (e.g., proposed resort development,
declining salt industry, unmanaged use).
•
Funds were made available in Chile through a conservation fund of the Nature
Conservancy, along with contributions by others. The Conservancy operates a revolving
fund that accepts donations of money and property, estate bequests, and other instruments
such as IRAs that take advantage of American tax concessions given for private
contributions to public causes. The revolving fund purchases endangered wildlife habitat,
9
Osborne, David, and Peter Plastrik. 2000. The Reinventor’s Fieldbook: Tools for Transforming Your Government.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 549-553.
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
11
creates a management plan for it, places requirements for controlled public access to it,
and then seeks one or more private buyers who will hold the habitat in trust. The funds
generated by the resale of this land then returns to the revolving fund for use with future
purchases of habitat.
•
In Bolivia, excessive usage was degrading the environment. The second theme was that
public access to the habitat was uncontrolled and unprotected by law. The third theme
was a lack of viable plans for sustainable ecotourism and operation and maintenance of
supporting infrastructure.
•
Costa Rica reversed a long trend toward cutting the forests that had enormous ecological
value. It did so by eliminating the incentives that landowners had to gain income from
logging, ranching, agriculture and commercial development the land. It replaced those
sources of income with payments that rewarded them for retaining the natural values of
their forests, such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity, watershed preservation, and
ecotourism.
•
Guatemala and other countries have used debt for nature swaps brokered by NGOs such
as the Nature Conservancy and sponsored by large creditors holding the countries’
foreign debt, such as the U.S. Treasury and the World Bank. Montenegro has not used
this mechanism to fund nature protection, but it does owe a substantial foreign debt to the
World Bank and might seek a nature-debt swap.
•
To our knowledge, no strategic planning process combined with binding arbitration has
been attempted for large scale organizations. But if all major stakeholders agree to use it,
the process could be effective and feasible. Given the consequences of doing nothing
(e.g., loss of essential habitat, lack of appropriate local economic development) the effort
would certainly be warranted.
6. Conclusions
The comparative experience reported in this paper of successful management of nature
preserves, valuable habitat, and eco-infrastructure in other countries strongly suggests that Ulcinj
can become a center of sustainable ecotourism. Much work will be needed to build a consensus
among the disparate stakeholders as to the extent and location of a nature preserve in Ulcinj, the
design and goals of eco-infrastructure that will promote sustainable ecotourism throughout
Ulcinj Municipality, and how this will be harmonized with resort development. The questions of
what property will be included; how public access will be secured, managed, and sustained; how
it will be operated and maintained; and what will be the short- and long-term sources of funding
will need to be fully resolved.
Assembling the properties needed for a nature preserve and further reaching eco-infrastructure
system (e.g., walking and biking trails, visitors center, observation towers) might be most easily
IDG Working Paper No. 2009-07
12
accomplished using the incentives adopted in Costa Rica. Under this scenario, no land swaps,
expropriation of property, or uncompensated easements would be necessary. Owners of private
properties, including the exclusive resorts operating on long-term leases, would be compensated
for protecting and preserving the natural habitat on their lands. Their compensation would
recognize the broader benefits to society of their natural assets, such as carbon sequestration,
watershed preservation for water supply, ecotourism, and tourism related businesses. Their
contributions and compensation would be specified in conservation easements that would be
legally binding.
Revenue streams would need to be identified and assigned to the organization responsible for
managing the preserve and infrastructure. Sufficient bridge funding from the GoM and/or donors
should enable a management organization to implement the collection taxes and fees for
payment of conservation easements and funding operating and maintenance costs. Part of the
nature preserve might need reforestation where vital wildlife habitat has been destroyed.
Possibly, the cost of reforestation might be defrayed with contributions of donors under the
Kyoto Protocol.
Given the long accumulation of ambient solid waste in much of Ulcinj’s valuable habitat, a
major clean-up will be needed and should be included in the funding for launch of the nature
preserve and eco-infrastructure system. From the beginning, park rangers should patrol and
enforce rules for sanitation and protection of habitat. Scientific NGOs and government institutes
should be charged with continuous monitoring of habitats and species along the ecoinfrastructure system and the preserve. They will also need to monitor the number and nature of
ecotourism activities to ensure such are not endangering sensitive habitats and wildlife.
Finally, the importance of Ulcinj not only for Montenegro’s emerging ecotourism industry but
for the preservation of essential migratory and water fowl habitat makes it necessary that any
local economic development in the municipality, including the establishment of exclusive
resorts, be harmonized with preservation of its natural assets.
Our overall conclusion is that there are international examples of success in creating and
operating nature preserves and eco-infrastructure under conditions similar to those found in
Ulcinj Municipality. These examples warrant confidence that Ulcinj can likewise achieve this
result.
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