vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
i
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF NOTATION
xvi
LIST OF ACRONYMS
xix
LIST OF APPENDIXES
xxii
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background
1
1.2
Problem Statement
5
1.3
Research Purpose
7
1.4
Research Objectives
7
1.5
Research Scopes
8
1.6
Overview of Research Methodology
12
1.7
The Benefit of this Study
13
1.8
Related Works
15
viii
1.9
2
Standard Revision of Submarine Pipeline
15
1.8.2
Computational Fluid Dynamics Solutions
17
1.8.3 Enhancement of Structural Stability
18
1.8.4
19
Spatial Decision Support System
Summary
21
SUBMARINE PIPELINE ROUTING DESIGN
22
2.1
Introduction
22
2.2
Submarine Pipeline Routing Evaluation
23
2.3
Hydrodynamic Forces
27
2.4
Vortex-Induced Oscillations
31
2.5
Pipeline-Soil Stability Analysis
33
2.5.1
Settlement and Flotation
33
2.5.2
Soil Strength Deterioration
34
2.5.3
Effect of Large Soil Movements
35
2.6
Effect of Seabed Irregularities
37
2.7
Scour and Erosion
41
2.8
GIS for Pipeline Routing Evaluation
44
2.8.1 Discrete Cost Map (DCM)
46
2.8.2 Accumulated Cost Map (ACM)
47
2.8.3 Optimal Route (OR)
48
2.8.4 Optimal Corridor (OC)
49
Summary
50
2.9
3
1.8.1
SUBMARINE PIPELINE INSPECTION
TECHNOLOGY
51
3.1
Introduction
51
3.2
The Need of Pipeline Inspection Survey
52
3.3
Internal Pipeline Inspection (IPI)
55
3.4
External Pipeline Inspection (EPI)
58
3.4.1
Multibeam Technology
58
3.4.2
Side Scan Sonar (SSS)
63
ix
3.4.3
Pipeline Protection Methods
68
2.10
GIS in Pipeline Inspection
70
2.10.1 IPI with GIS
70
2.10.2 EPI with GIS
73
Summary
74
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
76
4.1
Introduction
76
4.2
Phase I – Preliminary Works
77
4.3
Phase II – System Design
78
4.3.1
Conceptual Design
80
4.3.2
Logical Design
83
4.3.3
Physical Design
84
4.4
5
65
2.9
2.11
4
Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)
Phase III – System Development
86
4.4.1
Format Conversion
87
4.4.2
Map Digitizing & Editing
88
4.4.3
Geodatabase Development
92
4.4.4
Programming
93
4.4.5
System Customization
94
4.5
Phase IV – System Evaluation
95
4.6
Phase V – Research Documentation
95
4.7
Summary
96
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
97
5.1
Introduction
97
5.2
GIS in Submarine Pipeline Routing
98
5.2.1
LCP Selection
99
5.2.1.1
DCM Analysis
100
5.2.1.2
ACM Analysis
107
5.2.1.3
Shortest Path Analysis
114
5.2.2
Hydrodynamic Analysis
117
x
6
5.2.3
LCP Finalization
123
5.2.4
Subsurface Modelling
132
5.3
GIS in Submarine Pipeline Inspection
134
5.4
Summary
140
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
141
6.1
Conclusion
141
6.2
Recommendations
143
BIBLIOGRAPHY
148
APPENDIX
161
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Hardware and software
8
1.2
Available datasets
10
2.1
Types of submarine pipelines
23
2.2
Constraints involved in pipeline design
24
2.3
Special considerations for pipeline installation in
unstable areas
25
2.4
Linear (Airy) wave characteristics
30
3.1
Major needs of submarine pipeline inspection
53
3.2
Pipeline inspection and monitoring methods
55
3.3
Technologies used in intelligent PIGs
57
3.4
Protection method of submarine pipeline
68
4.1
Spatial E-R model symbology
81
4.2
Basic elements of logical data model
83
4.3
Map georeferencing accuracies
89
4.4
Comparison of spatial interpolation methods
90
5.1
Hazards constraint & its requirements
101
5.2
Discrete cost map classifications – Basic considerations
102
5.3
Discrete cost map classifications – Oceanographic
considerations
5.4
103
Discrete cost map classifications – Hydrodynamic
considerations
103
5.5
Weighting rate of LCP cost models
109
5.6
Length of LCP
114
5.7
Result of Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA)
119
5.8
LCP evaluation – Boundary intersection
125
xii
5.9
LCP evaluation – Profile irregularities
126
5.10
LCP evaluation – Installation depth limits
127
5.11
LCP evaluation – Soil properties
128
5.12
LCP evaluation – Obstruction crossing
129
5.13
LCP evaluation – Coral crossing
129
5.14
LCP evaluation – Pockmark crossing
130
5.15
LCP Finalization
131
5.16
Telemetry contents in VideoDRS
137
5.17
Results of Pipeline Inspection
139
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
1.1
TITLE
PAGE
Submarine pipeline development in Gulf of Mexico
(1999-2003)
2
1.2
Petroleum transportation costs
2
1.3
'Bath tub” failure curve and extending pipelines' lives
3
1.4
Study area
9
1.5
Overview of research methodology
12
2.1
Flow diagram of pipeline routing and weight design
26
2.2
Hydrodynamic forces on pipe
27
2.3
Definitions of linear wave parameters
28
2.4
Flow diagram of hydrodynamic forces computation
29
2.5
Vortex-induced oscillations
31
2.6
Flow diagram of vortex-induced oscillations computation
32
2.7
Storm-induced bottom pressures
34
2.8
Flow diagram of maximum dimensionless stress computation
37
2.9
Pipe configurations due to low depression
38
2.10
Stresses due to low depressions
39
2.11
Pipe configuration due to elevated obstructions
40
2.12
Stresses due to elevated obstructions
41
2.13
Modes of grain transport
42
2.14
Current velocity for sediment transport
43
2.15
Concept of LCP analysis
44
2.16
Methodology of LCP analysis
45
2.17
Discrete Cost Map (DCM)
46
xiv
2.18
Accumulated Cost Map (ACM)
47
2.19
Optimal Route (OR)
48
2.20
Optimal Corridor (OC)
49
3.1
Pigs
56
3.2
Multibeam survey for EPI operation
59
3.3
EPI for exposed pipes
60
3.4
EPI of burial pipe
61
3.5
EPI of free-spanning pipe
61
3.6
Pipe DTM generated from echoes measurement
62
3.7
Typical SSS configurations and its result
64
3.8
ROV surveying
65
3.9
Common configuration of a ROV
66
3.10
Video Tracking Systems (VTS)
67
3.11
Some results of the pipeline edge extraction algorithm on
different real situations
67
3.12
Protection methods of submarine pipeline
69
3.13
Tracking pig with GIS
71
3.14
IPI application with MapObjects
72
3.17
GIS Applications for EPI
73
3.18
EPI with VideoDRS
74
4.1
Flow diagram of preliminary works
77
4.2
Flow diagram of system design
79
4.3
Conceptual Model
82
4.4
Implementation of physical design
84
4.5
ArcToolbox migration wizards
85
4.6
Flow diagram of system development
86
4.7
Methodology of format conversion
87
4.8
Methodology of map digitizing & editing
88
4.9
Oceanographic maps for January 1960
91
4.10
Methodology of geodatabase development
92
4.11
Programming flow
93
4.12
Flow diagram of system customization
94
5.1
LCP methodology
99
5.2
Procedures of source and cost datasets creation
100
xv
5.3
Methodology of discrete cost map creation
104
5.4
Basic considerations for DCM
105
5.5
Special consideration of reclassifications
106
5.6
Model of straight-line distance
107
5.7
Concept of cost maps accumulation
108
5.8
Accumulated cost maps (Model A – F)
111
5.9
Accumulated cost maps (Model G – L)
112
5.10
Concept of direction raster coding
113
5.11
Least cost path (Model A-F)
115
5.12
Least cost path (Model G - L)
116
5.13
Methodology of hydrodynamic analysis
117
5.14
Interfaces of wave calculator & hydrodynamic calculator
118
5.15
Wave characteristic maps- Part I
120
5.16
Wave characteristic maps- Part II
121
5.17
Hydrodynamic maps
122
5.18
LCP errors
123
5.19
Methodology of LCP evaluation
124
5.20
Methodology of subsurface modelling in RockWorks2004
132
5.21
Map of soil types
133
5.22
Screenshot of VideoRDS
136
5.23
Telemetry Display with VideoDRS
137
5.24
General flow of VideoDRS operation
138
xvi
LIST OF NOTATIONS
I
-
Grain size
T
-
Wave characteristics constant value, (2St)/T
4
-
Slope of seabed
K
-
Wave profile
U
-
Density of fluid, 2 slug/ft3 for sea water
G
-
Obstruction elevation
Us g
-
Weight density of steel (490/32.2)
[
-
Water particle displacement (Horizontal)
]
-
Water particle displacement (Vertical)
P
-
Coefficient of soil friction
E
-
Dimensionless tension
Vc
-
Characteristic stress
Vm
-
Maximum dimensionless stress
ax
-
Water particle accelerations (Horizontal)
az
-
Water particle accelerations (Vertical)
AT
-
Axial tension
C
-
Wave Celerity
Cs
-
Remolded cohesive shear strength
CD
-
Hydrodynamic drag coefficient
Cq
-
Group velocity
CL
-
Hydrodynamic lift coefficient
CM
-
Hydrodynamic inertia or mass coefficient
d
-
Water depth
du
-
horizontal water particle acceleration over pipe
D
-
Pipe outside diameter
xvii
Di
-
Pipe internal diameter
D/Wt
-
Pipe-diameter/wall thickness ratio
E
-
Elastic modulus
EI
-
Pipe stiffness
fn
-
Natural frequency of the pipe span
fs
-
Vortex-shedding frequency
FD
-
Combined drag force
Fi
-
Inertia force
FL
-
Combined lift force
Fr.
-
Friction resistance force between the pipe and the seabed
g
-
Constant value of gravity
H
-
Significant wave height
Ho
-
Deepwater wave height
L
-
Wave Length
Lc
-
Characteristic length
Lo
-
Deepwater wave length
Ls
-
Span Length
M
Combined mass of the pipe and added mass around the pipe
per unit length of pipe
Ma
-
Pipe unit mass
MD
-
Displaced mass
N
-
Normal force
p
-
Subsurface pressure
Re
-
Reynolds number
S
-
Strouhal number
SG
-
Specific gravity
SG1
-
Lower range of pipe specific gravity
SG2
-
Upper range of pipe specific gravity
SGC
-
Specific gravity (during construction)
SGo
-
Specified gravity (during operation)
SGfloat
-
Specified gravity (to float the pipeline)
SGsink
-
Specified gravity (to sink the pipeline)
t
-
Time (0 second is used for severe oceanographic condition)
T
-
Average wave period
xviii
u
-
Water particle velocity (Horizontal)
U
-
Flow velocity in boundary layer
Ue
-
Effective horizontal water-particle velocity over pipe height
Uo
-
Measured/calculated horizontal particle velocity at height yo,
v
-
Kinematics viscosity of the fluid about 1.0x105 ft2/sec for sea
water
V
-
Flow velocity
w
-
Water particle velocity (Vertical)
W
-
Submerged weight of the pipe and the weight of the contents
Wa
-
Pipe unit weight in air
WT
-
Pipe wall thickness
z
-
computational oceanographic height
xix
LIST OF ACRONYMS
2D
-
Two Dimensional
3D
-
Three Dimensional
ACM
-
Accumulative Cost Map
AIM
-
Asset Integrity Management
ANSI
-
American National Standard Code
API
-
American Petroleum Institute
ASCE
-
American Society of Civil Engineers
ASCII
-
Amsterdam Subversive Center for Information Interchange
ASE
-
Average Standard Error
ASME
-
American Standard for Mechanical Engineering
AUV
-
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
BS
-
British Standard
CAD
-
Computer-Aided Design
CASE
-
Computer-Aided Software Engineering
CWD
-
Cost-Weighted Distance
CEOM
-
Centro Oceanologico Mediterraneo
CFD
-
Computational Fluid Dynamics
CIC
-
Cloud-In-Cell
COLOS
-
Conceptual of Learning Sciences
CP
-
Communication Plan
DBF
-
Dbase File
DBMS
-
Database Management System
DCM
-
Discrete Cost Map
DGPS
-
Differential Global Positioning System
DHSS
-
Dual Head Scanner Sonar
DNV
-
Det Norske Veritas
DTM
-
Digital Terrain Model
xx
DVS
-
Digital Video System
E-R
-
Entity-Relationship
EPI
-
External Pipeline Inspection
ESDA
-
Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis
ESRI
-
Environmental Science Research Institute
GA
-
Geostatistical Analyst
GB
-
Gigabyte
GEOPIG
-
Geometry Pig
GIS
-
Geographic Information System
GPS
-
Global Positioning System
GUI
-
Graphic User Interface
HCA
-
High Consequence Area
HRTO
-
Hydrographic Research and Training Office
IBP
Instituto Brasileiro de Petróleo e Gás / Brazilian Petroleum
and Gas Institute
IEEE
-
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IHOCE
-
International Hydrographic & Oceanographic Conference &
Exhibition
ILI
-
In-Line Inspection
IMP
-
Integrity Management Plan
IPI
-
Internal Pipeline Inspection
LCP
-
Least Cost Path
LES
-
Large Eddy Simulations
LOOP
-
Louisiana Offshore Oil Port
LSD
-
Limit States Design
MB
-
Megabyte
MCP
-
Management of Change Plan
MSC
-
Meteorological Service of Canada
OC
-
Optimal Corridor
OCM
-
Optimal Corridor Map
OMAE
-
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
OR
-
Optimal Route
OSIF
-
Offshore Soil Investigation Forum
PDF
-
Portable Document Format
xxi
PETRONAS -
Petroliam National Berhad
PKT
-
Packet format
PP
-
Performance Plan
PSI
-
Pounds per Square Inch
PTS
-
Petronas Technical Standard
PTTC
-
Petroleum Technology Transfer Council
PWG
-
Pipeline Working Group
QCP
-
Quality Control Plan
RAM
-
Random Access Memory
RANS
-
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes
RMS
-
Root Mean Square
ROV
-
Remotely Operated Vehicle
SDSS
-
Spatial Decision Support System
SIGSA
-
Sistemas De Informacion Geographica, S.A.
SMYS
-
Specified Minimum Yield Strength
SPIM
-
Submarine Pipeline Integrity Management
SSS
-
Side Scan Sonar
SWL
-
Still Water Level
TIF
-
Tag Image File
TV
-
Television
TXT
-
Text File Format
ULCD
-
Ultrasonic Crack Detection
UML
-
Unified Modeling Language
USBL
-
Underwater Short Base Line
USGS
-
United State Geological Survey
VBA
-
Visual Basic for Application
VHS
-
Virtual High Storage
VTS
-
Video Tracking System
XLS
-
Microsoft Excel Workbook (Microsoft Excel 2002)
xxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
3D Maps of Least Cost Path
161
B
Stratigraphic Maps