Anatomy - The Study of Form
• Examining structure of the Human Body
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–
–
–
Anatomy - The Study of Form
• Exploratory Surgery
• Medical imaging
– viewing the inside of the body without surgery - Radiology
inspection
palpation
auscultation
percussion
• Gross Anatomy
– study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye
• Cytology
– study of structure and function of cells
• Histology (microscopic anatomy)
• Cadaver dissection
– examination of cells with microscope
– cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their
relationships
• Ultrastructure
– the molecular detail seen in electron microscope
• Comparative anatomy
• Histopathology
– microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
– study of more than one species
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1-2
Physiology - The Study of Function
Living in a Revolution
• Modern biomedical science
• Subdisciplines
– neurophysiology
– endocrinology
– pathophysiology
– technological enhancements
•
• Genetic Revolution
• Comparative Physiology
• human genome is finished
• gene therapy is being used to treat disease
– Because of limits on human experimentation
1-3
Scientific Method
1-4
Experimental Design
• Test a hypothesis- an educated speculation or possible
answer to the question
– characteristics of a good hypothesis
• consistent with what is already known
• testable and possibly falsifiable with evidence
• Falsifiability – if we claim something is scientifically true,
we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to
prove it wrong
1-5
• Sample size
– number of subjects used in a study
– controls for chance events and individual variation
• Controls
– control group and treatment group
– comparison of treated and untreated individuals
– use of placebo in control group
• Experimenter bias
– prevented with double-blind study
• Statistical testing
• Peer Review
1-6
1
Hierarchy of Complexity
Hierarchy of Complexity
• Reductionism – theory that a large, complex system
such as the human body can be understood by studying
its simpler components
Organism
• Holism – there are ‘emergent properties’ of the whole
Organ system
organism that cannot be predicted from properties of the
separate parts
– humans are more than the sum of their parts
Tissue
Organ
Cell
Macromolecule
Organelle
Atom
Molecule
1-8
Characteristics of Life
Anatomical Variation
• Organization
• No two humans are exactly alike
• Cellular composition
– variable number of organs
• missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries
• Metabolism
– anabolism, catabolism and excretion
• Responsiveness and movement
– stimuli
Normal
• Homeostasis
Pelvic kidney
• Development
Horseshoe kidney
– differentiation and growth
• Reproduction
• Evolution
Variations in branches of the aorta
Normal
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Homeostasis
Physiological Variation
• Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change,
• Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity
• Typical physiological values
activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain
relatively stable internal conditions
– reference man
• 22 years old, 154 lbs, light physical activity
• consumes 2800 kcal/day
– reference woman
• same as man except 128 lbs and 2000 kcal/day
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1-12
2
Room temperature (°F)
Negative Feedback, Set Point
Negative Feedback Control of Blood Pressure
75
Furnace turned
off at 70°F
Person rises
from bed
Blood pressure rises
to normal; homeostasis
is restored
70
Set point 68°F
Set point
65
Blood drains from
upper body, creating
homeostatic imbalance
Furnace turned
on at 66°F
60
Cardiac center
accelerates heartbeat
Time
(b)
Baroreceptors above
heart respond to drop
in blood pressure
Figure 1.11
Baroreceptors send signals
to cardiac center of brainstem
1-13
Positive Feedback
1-14
Anatomical Terminology
• Self-amplifying cycle
• Standard International Anatomical Terminology
– leads to greater change in the same direction
– feedback loop is repeated – change produces more change
– Terminologia Anatomica was codified in 1998
by professional associations of anatomists
• About 90% of medical terms from 1,200
Greek and Latin roots
1-15
Medical Imaging
1-16
Medical Imaging
• Radiography (x rays)
• Radiopaque substances
– penetrate tissues to
darken photographic film
beneath the body
– dense tissue appears
white
– over half of all medical
imaging
– injected or swallowed
– fills hollow structures
• blood vessels
• intestinal tract
(b) Cerebral angiogram
1-17
Figure 1.13b
1-18
3
Medical Imaging
Medical Imaging - Nuclear Medicine
• Computed
Tomography (CT
scan)
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)
– assesses metabolic state of tissue
– distinguished tissues most active at a
given moment
– mechanics
– formerly called a CAT
scan
– low-intensity X rays
and computer analysis
• slice type image
• increased
sharpness of image
• inject radioactively labeled glucose
(c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan
Figure 1.13c
1-19
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–
–
–
–
positrons and electrons collide
gamma rays given off
detected by sensor
analyzed by computer
image color shows which tissues
were using the most glucose at that moment
– damaged tissues appear dark
Medical Imaging
Medical Imaging
• Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI)
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–
–
–
1-20
• Sonography
– second oldest & second
most widely used
slice type image
superior quality to CT scan
best for soft tissue
mechanics
– mechanics
• high-frequency sound
waves echo back
from internal organs
• alignment & realignment of
hydrogen atoms with
magnetic field & radio waves
• varying levels of energy
given off used by computer
to produce an image
(a)
– avoids harmful x rays
• obstetrics
• image not very sharp
(e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI)
(b)
1-21
Anatomical Position
Atlas A (Orientation to Anatomy)
Thyroid cartilage of larynx
Thyroid gland
•
•
•
•
•
Anatomical position
Anatomical planes
Directional terms
Body regions
Body cavities and
membranes
• Organ systems
• Visual survey of the body
Brachial nerve plexus
Brachiocephalic v.
Subclavian v.
Subclavian a.
Aortic arch
Superior vena
cava
Coracobrachialis m.
Humerus
1-22
Axillary v.
Axillary a.
Cephalic v.
Brachial v.
Brachial a.
Heart
Lobes of lung
Spleen
Stomach
Large
intestine
•
•
•
•
Person stands erect
Feet flat on floor
Arms at sides
Palms, face & eyes facing
forward
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Tensor fasciae latae m.
Penis (cut)
Pectineus m.
Adductor longus m.
Gracilis m.
Ductus
deferens
Epididymis
Testis
Scrotum
Adductor magnus m.
Rectus femoris m.
Figure A.14
A-23
4
Forearm Positions
Anatomical Planes and Sections
• supinated
– palms face forward or
upward
• pronated
Frontal
plane
Transverse
• Section implies actual cut or slice to
reveal internal anatomy
• Plane imaginary flat surface passing
through the body
plane
– Sagittal plane divides body into right
and left sections
– Frontal (coronal) plane divides body into
anterior (front) & posterior (back)
sections
– Transverse (horizontal) plane divides
the body into superior (upper) & inferior
(lower) sections
– Oblique
– palms face rearward
or downward
Sagittal
plane
A-25
Figure
A.2
Anatomical Sections
(a) Sagittal section
A-26
Figure A.3
Directional Terms
(b) Frontal section
Ventral / Dorsal
Anterior /Posterior
Superior / Inferior
Proximal / Distal
Medial / Lateral
Superficial / Deep
Cephalic
Rostral
Caudal
• Intermediate directions - often given as combinations of these
terms (ex. Dorsolateral)
• Different meanings for humans and four-legged animals
(c) Transverse section
A-27
A-28
Abdominal Quadrants and
Regions
Body Regions
• Axial region = head, neck, & trunk
– thoracic region = trunk above diaphragm
– abdominal region = trunk below diaphragm
Quadrants
Regions
• Appendicular region = upper & lower limbs
– upper limb
– lower limb
Hypochondriac
Right
Left
upper
upper
quadrant
quadrant
Epigastric
region
Subcostal line
region
Lumbar
Umbilical
region
Right
Left
lower
lower
quadrant
quadrant
region
Intertubercular
line
Inguinal region
Midclavicular
Hypogastric
region
line
(a)
A-29
(c)
FigureA-30
A.6
5
Anatomical Terminology (dorsal)
Anatomical Terminology (ventral)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cephalic (head)
Cranial r.
Facial (face)
Nuchal r.
Cervical (neck)
Acromial r
(back of neck)
Thoracic (chest):
Sternal
Pectoral
(shoulder)
Axillary (armpit)
Interscapular r.
Scapular r.
Brachial (arm)
Vertebral r.
Cubital (elbow)
Umbilical
Antebrachial
Abdominal
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Inguinal (groin)
Lumbar r.
Sacral r.
Gluteal r.
Pubic :
Mons pubis
Palmar (palm)
(buttock)
Dorsum of hand
External genitalia:
Penis
Scrotum
Testes
Lower limb:
Coxal (hip)
Patellar (knee)
Perineal r.
Femoral r.
Lower limb:
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal r.
Crural r.
Crural (leg)
Tarsal (ankle)
Pedal (foot):
Dorsum
Tarsal r.
Calcaneal r.
Plantar surface
(sole)
(a) Anterior (ventral)
(b) Anterior (ventral)
(heel)
(c) Posterior (dorsal)
(d) Posterior (dorsal)
© McGraw-Hill Companies/Joe DeGrandis, photographer
Figure A.5
A-31
Dorsal Body cavity: Cranial Cavity & Vertebral
Canal
Dorsal and Ventral Body cavities
• Dorsal Cavity
– cranial cavity
– vertebral canal
Cranial cavity
Vertebral canal
Cranial cavity
• Ventral Cavity
Diaphragm
• abdominal cavity
• pelvic cavity
Abdominal cavity
• Lined by serous membranes
- Parietal serous membrane
• Filled with viscera
Pelvic cavity
- Visceral serous membrane
(a) Left lateral view
A-33
Figure A.7
– cranial cavity
Vertebral canal
– thoracic cavity
– abdominopelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity
• contains brain
Thoracic cavity
– vertebral canal
Diaphragm
• contains the spinal cord
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
(a) Left lateral view
Figure A.7
Thoracic Cavity
A-34
Pericardial Membranes
• Mediastinum - region between lungs
Parietal pericardium
Pericardial cavity
– heart, major blood vessels, esophagus,
trachea, & thymus
visceral pericardium
parietal pericardium
pericardial cavity
pericardial fluid
Visceral pericardium
Thoracic cavity:
• Pericardium – around heart
–
–
–
–
A-32
Pleural cavity
Mediastinum
Pericardial cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominopelvic cavity:
Heart
Abdominal cavity
Diaphragm
• Pleura – around lungs
Pelvic cavity
– visceral pleura
– parietal pleura
(b) Anterior view
(a) Pericardium
A-35
Figure A.7
A-36
6
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Pleural Membranes
Thoracic cavity:
Pleural cavity
Parietal pleura
Pleural cavity
Mediastinum
Pericardial cavity
Diaphragm
Visceral pleura
Abdominopelvic cavity:
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
Lung
Figure A.7
(b) Anterior view
– abdominal cavity contains most digestive organs, kidneys & ureters
– pelvic cavity contains rectum, urinary bladder, urethra & reproductive organs
Diaphragm
•
Peritoneum - Serous Membranes of Abdominopelvic cavity
– visceral peritoneum
– parietal peritoneum
(b) Pleurae
Figure A.8b
A-37
A-38
Organ Systems
Organ Systems
Integumentary system
Skeletal system
- peritoneal cavity
- peritoneal fluid
Muscular system
A-39
Lymphatic system
Figure A.11
Respiratory system
Nervous system
Urinary system
A-40
Endocrine system
Figure A.11
Organ Systems
Circulatory system
Digestive system
Male reproductive system
A-41
Female reproductive system
Figure A.11
7