Dr. Paradzai Pathias Bongo1
Community-based disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change: The case
of rural Zimbabwe
INTRODUCTION
This paper is based on a current Department for Overseas Development (DFID) funded
Community-Based Disaster Risk Management project in the semi-arid Southern part of
Zimbabwe, entitled ‘Mainstreaming Livelihood Centred Approaches to Disaster
Management’.2 The paper posits the need for building, supporting and strengthening
communities’ livelihoods so that they become more resilient during and after a hazard as
they mainly use their local resources, institutional arrangements and own conceptions of
risk. It is envisaged that community based risk reduction plans could inform meso and
macro policy levels, thereby shaping the current disaster management regime prevailing
in the country. Since time immemorial, human beings have been faced with various types
of hazards, most of which turned into disasters. In such cases, mainstream and official
prescriptions have focused on response and relief aid, without paying due regard to the
need for reducing the vulnerability of affected communities by increasing their resilience
through building their capacity.
With the effects of climate change worsening globally, communities will be called to be
even more responsive to these changes, as they affect them in newer and unique ways.
They will therefore have to be supported in their adaptation measures, considering that
most developing world governments are already cash-strapped to fund development and
investment, let alone disaster management projects. Yet at the same time, risks that
communities face dictate that livelihood-centred approaches be mainstreamed into
1
Projects Manager Livelihoods and Disaster Risk Management, Reducing Vulnerability (RV) Programme,
Practical Action Southern Africa, Zimbabwe.
2
The project is based initially in 4 countries (Bangladesh, Peru, Zimbabwe and UK), and is being coordinated by a project co-ordinator based in the UK. The project is managed through a core team consisting
of the project co-ordinator, project managers from participating countries and a disaster mitigation
specialist from Sri Lanka. This team meets at least once a year to review progress and agree on outputs and
work plans for the coming months.
1
disaster management and development plans. Disasters and hazards greatly reverse the
gains of development, and ignoring Disaster Risk Reduction in development projects is
self-defeating.
WHY FOCUS ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN DEVELOPMENT?
Disaster risk reduction is defined as, “The systematic development and application of
policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities, hazards, and the unfolding
disasters impacts throughout a society, in the broad context of sustainable development”,
(UNDP, 2004).
There is convincing evidence that the frequency and magnitude of disasters is increasing,
and that poor countries and poor communities are disproportionately affected. More than
half of disaster deaths occur in low human development countries even though only 11%
of people exposed to hazards live there. These countries also suffer far greater economic
losses relative to their GDP than richer countries (DFID, 2004: 1). Death, disablement or
migration of key social actors leads to an erosion of social capital.
Disasters are known to hold back development and progress towards attainment of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Among other repercussions, recent studies
indicate that both governments and donors tend to fund disaster relief and rehabilitation
assistance by reallocating resources from development programmes. This affects the poor
disproportionately through adverse effects on poverty reduction efforts. Many developing
countries have economies based on rain-fed agriculture. This makes development in these
countries particularly sensitive to weather extremes and climatic patterns (Karimanzira,
R.1999: 19). The severity of the 1991/2 drought alone underlines the importance of
taking into account hazards such as meteorological drought in future economic
development policies. According to Karimanzira (1999), in Zimbabwe poor planning
resulted in national strategic grain reserves being sold off. Other services such as health,
education, and water provision came under severe pressure and this reversed much of
development gains achieved in Zimbabwe in the preceding decade.
Development can also cause disaster risk. This happens through unsustainable
development practices that create wealth for some at the expense of unsafe working or
2
living conditions for others or degrade the environment (see Madeley, J, 1999; Low and
Gleeson, 1998; Leach and Mearns, 1996). Vandana Shiva3 argues that local seed varieties
and traditional cropping patterns are being rapidly replaced by hybrid varieties and
monoculture. With the growing economic policies of deregulation, liberalisation and
privatisation, states are advised by International Financial Institutions (IFIs) to withdraw
subsidies and cut social spending to balance fiscal deficits. In the absence of protection
mechanisms for the poor and marginalised against this ‘free market’ mechanism, the
vulnerability of disenfranchised communities is greatly increased. At a social level, some
development paths can generate cultural norms that promote social isolation or political
exclusion (Bongo, P.P, 2003).
Development can also reduce disaster risk. Access to adequate drinking water, food,
waste management and a secure dwelling increases people’s resilience. Trade and
technology can reduce poverty. Investing in financial mechanisms and social security can
cushion against vulnerability. At a social level this can be seen in building community
cohesion, recognising excluded individuals and providing opportunities for greater
involvement in decision-making. Enhanced educational and health capacity increases
resilience.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
The Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) pilot project runs for an initial five years spanning
from January 2006 to December 2010. It is partly premised on the Hyogo Declaration
and Hyogo Framework of Action 2005 – 2015.4 In implementing this project, Practical
Action is working in partnership with two local NGOs, Organisation of Rural
Associations for Progress (ORAP) and Hlekweni Friends Rural Service Centre, which
has a strong Quakers grounding. The project focuses on the roles and linkages between
3
Shiva, Vandana, Poverty and Globalization www.biotech-info.net/poverty_globalization.html
This is a reference document which underscores disaster-development linkages, pledging that “We build
upon relevant international commitments and frameworks, as well as internationally agreed development
goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration, to strengthen global disaster reduction
activities for the twenty-first century. Disasters have a tremendous detrimental impact on efforts at all levels
to eradicate global poverty: the impact of disasters remains a significant challenge to sustainable
development.” (ISDR, WCDR, 2005)
4
3
vulnerable communities, district and national level government institutions and
humanitarian agencies in regards to disaster preparedness and mitigation. It examines
how these agencies can be made more responsive to the needs of poor people by adopting
a livelihood-centred approach to disaster management. There are four main aims:
1. To establish models in at least 3 locations (Bangladesh, Peru, Zimbabwe) where
livelihood-centred approaches to disaster management are combined with other
methodologies such as participatory action development planning in order to link
communities better with wider institutional structures involved in disaster and
development planning. The locations selected encompass areas and communities with
exposure to a mixture of disaster risks including drought, flood, disease and conflict.
2. To develop guidelines and training materials on livelihood-centred disaster
management for use by local and national service providers, planners and
humanitarian agencies.
3. To learn lessons from experiences in implementing this approach, including an
analysis of best practice in building consensus amongst stakeholders on how to link
most effectively with and support communities’ own disaster planning in a
sustainable way. We are also reviewing how the approach can be applied in different
contexts, e.g. in fragile states where institutions are weak and where community/state
relations may be antagonistic. We will undertake peer reviews and share learning on
risk reduction interventions with other NGOs active in disaster risk management.
4. To influence policy makers at all levels involved in disaster management and
development planning to adopt a livelihood-centred approach to disaster risk
management. This will be done through:
o Providing evidence of the positive impact of a livelihood-centred approach to
disaster risk management on the livelihood assets of poor people through collation
and analysis of past and current projects;
o Working in partnership with regional networks, such as Duryog Nivaran and
LaRed, and international networks such as ALNAP to disseminate project findings
and provide a platform for policy discussion and advocacy;
o Forming strategic alliances with other NGOs active in disaster management to
promote joint actions in support of regional or international policy developments.
4
The area of operation (Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe) is plagued with
recurring droughts and is the province with the highest levels of food insecurity. It falls in
the driest region in the country, where the major livelihood viably possible is cattle
ranching. Rain fed agriculture is not profitable and is often not an option in many locales.
The situation is further compounded by the fact that there are few water reservoirs since
it is a very low rainfall area. Many people have therefore diversified out of agriculture
into harvesting forest products for both subsistence and commercial purposes. It also has
occasional episodes of flash floods. Like any other province of Zimbabwe, Matabeleland
South also has been plagued with HIV and AIDS.
Apart from the natural hazards mentioned above, manmade hazards have also taken their
toll in the three districts. The current hyperinflationary environment in Zimbabwe has
impacted negatively on livelihoods and survival strategies. Inflation stands at 8000% and
this has resulted in many people not affording the basic commodities for survival, let
alone school fees and other important household needs. Even those who are trying to start
small income earning activities are hard hit by the high inflation and other macroeconomic maladies. The project is being implemented in 12 wards5 in three Districts,
namely Gwanda, Bulilima and Mangwe, targeting 10 000 beneficiary households.
SUMMARY OF PROGRESS WITH PROJECT ACTIVITIES
A rigorous process of awareness raising and project entry involving stakeholder
consultations and assessments at provincial, district and community level was conducted,
with ORAP and Hlekweni staff (Field Officers) based in the rural area wards responsible
for implementation of activities on the ground. One provincial, three district and twelve
ward inception meetings were held, streamlining the role of each stakeholder, and
created space for buy in and assisted the project team in strengthening and value addition
to existing and newly identified Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and food and livelihood
security initiatives. Thus the awareness workshops have identified strategic implementing
partners who have been given the mandate and support to effectively implement the
5
A ward is usually made up of 6 villages and is overseen by a ward councillor, who sits in Rural District
Council meetings. A ward can have an average of 600 households (approximately 3000 people), though
some have more or less than this.
5
identified initiatives. To this effect, a number of NGOs, extension and other development
agencies have supported project initiatives, notably World Vision, SNV, TBT (Tchinyunyi
Babili Trust), AREX (Department of Agricultural Research and Extension), Department
of Veterinary Services, Matopos Research Station, ICRISAT (International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) and the PME (Provincial Monitoring and
Evaluation) unit, among others.
The lady councillor for Marula Ward,
Mangwe District, addressing villagers at
the Ward inception meeting, May 2007.
Ward inception workshop for Manama Ward,
Gwanda District, in process.
A Provincial stakeholder brainstorming workshop on Disaster Risk Reduction that saw
participation from a wide spectrum of players, was conducted. The workshop
demonstrated the central role played by ‘disaster-proofing’ development initiatives. Some
of the identified initiatives included strengthening soil and water conservation initiatives,
exploring more livelihood strategies away from agriculture, hazard awareness education
and other forms of disaster risk reduction so as to guard the gains made in food and
livelihood security.
A participatory household DRR and food security and livelihoods baseline survey was
conducted in the three Districts, from mid to late August 2007. The major challenges
identified by communities in order of severity were: shortages of food and water (largely
located in recurrent droughts), transport, unstable prices, sanitation and health problems
(HIV and AIDS). This raises implications on the need for the project to take into
consideration these challenges when designing future livelihood protection and DRR
interventions. A strong partnership involving Practical Action, Hlekweni Friends Rural
Services and ORAP has been created through mutually agreed dialogue and
6
communication processes. Harmonisation of rural development experiences, approaches
and financial management practices has been achieved through joint institutional
planning and technical support meetings. Joint Management Team (JMT) meetings
involving project managers meet every three months to review operations and the
Steering Committee involving Directors of the three organisations meet after every four
months to provide strategic direction to the project.
Facilitation Skills Training for 40 District Training Team members was successfully
conducted, preceding the CBP trial run process carried out three months later. The CBP
trial run was an important opportunity for testing the CBP manual and to train District
Training Teams (DTTs) from other districts to enable them to go and facilitate the
production of community based plans for their wards. Adopting a multi-stakeholder
approach and creating space for other organisations such as World Vision and
government departments was an effective strategy to spread knowledge on the CBP
process.
Community Based (Disaster Risk Management) Planning (CBP), (CBDRM)
Community Based Planning was piloted in Zimbabwe’s Gwanda and Chimanimani Rural
Districts in 2002. The planning system seeks to engage poor and vulnerable groups in
communities to improve the quality of their plans, improve the quality of services and to
influence resource allocation. These development plans will be integrated into the local
authority plans and subsequently into the central government budgeting cycle.
The benefits for conducting CBP in Zimbabwe are;
Opportunities for promoting community empowerment and ownership in the
development process.
A reliable method for obtaining realistic and focused plans at ward level.
Potential for integrating ward (micro) and local authority level (meso) plans.
Harmonisation and integration of plans of various actors at ward and district level.
Identification of additional sources of revenue for implementing local plans.
7
Opportunities for capacity building for institutions operating at sub-district level.
Transparency in the selection and prioritisation of projects at all levels.
Opportunities
for
improved
accountability
during
project
and
programme
implementation. (Gumbo, D.,2007)
Stages in Community Based (Disaster Risk Management) Planning
1. The first step was to conduct a community leadership debriefing meetings in the
12 wards. The meetings preceded actual planning and were held a week or two
before the actual planning week. The CFT first met the community leadership and
the ward committee. The objective was to explain the CBP process to the
community leadership and get them to mobilise the different sections of the
community. Full community participation enhances community ownership as
people realise this is their process that demands local action and not only
resources from outside.
Community debriefing for CBP
2. The second step was community debriefing. Here village heads called for village
assembly meetings. The aim was to mobilise representatives of many different
sections of the community. Two or three villages would attend one debriefing
meeting whose duration ranged from 2-3 hours; therefore the CFT in each ward
could do up to two debriefing meetings per day.
By the end of this meeting:
8
The broad community in the each village understood background information
on CBP, the objectives of CBP, the planning process and expected outputs
The broad community was committed to supporting an inclusive planning
process
(which
prioritised
the
needs
of
all
people
including
marginalised/vulnerable groups)
The main socio-economic groups were identified and each socio-economic
group selected a representative to participate in the intensive planning process.
3. The third step involved collection of background information on the ward. This
background information was collected by the CFT members between preplanning
and the actual planning week and pooled together at the beginning of the planning
week so that it could be validated and updated in the planning sessions or any
gaps in it could be identified and filled. Examples of information collected
included:
basic statistics on the people who live in the community (number of people,
number of households, number of people in different age groups, different
ethnic groups).
Infrastructural information: number and location of boreholes, number of
houses with and without pit latrines etc.
Health records. Disease patterns, understanding the main diseases/illnesses
that people suffered from and when (e.g. malaria, rainy season and the under
5s)
Understanding soils and land capabilities, understanding the main crops and
varieties that people grow and the diseases they suffer from.
information on who are the service providers in the ward (government and
non governmental organisations). Their future focus, their direct community
investment and finding out whether they would be present at the intensive
planning or would send their resource envelope.
4. The next step was the intensive community based planning process. Crucial at this
juncture was to present the findings of the pre-planning meeting concerning the
9
different socio-economic groups identified in the community. These were
discussed and amended to develop a final list.
Community hazard risk mapping,
Madabe Ward, Mangwe District
Community hazard risk mapping, Natane
Ward, Bulilima District.
Technical backstopping…Practical Action
International DRR Project Coordinator
Pieter Van Den Ende closely following a CBDRM
planning workshop in Mangwe rural area, Zimbabwe.
Video case study during Livelihoods and DRR
training for DTT and CFT, Mangwe and
Bulilima Districts.
Participatory vulnerability and capacity
assessment in session, Madabe Ward.
Group work during Livelihoods and DRR
training for the DTT and CFT, Gwanda District.
10
5. The community plan then took shape through the use of a variety of PRA tools. It
was then compiled by a team chosen from the CFT, after which it would be
presented back to the community for comments and revision. The plan would then
be submitted to the Rural District Council and ready for implementation.
DISCUSSION
We have seen how rural communities in drought prone rural Zimbabwe are taking
action to reduce the impact of hazards and disasters on their livelihood asset base. This is
being done against a background of changing climate patterns even in Matabeleland
South Province. At the beginning of October 2007, this usually arid region experienced
unexpected heavy rains even before the beginning of the ‘known’ rainy season in the
country. Last winter (June 2007), the same area that usually has very high temperatures
also experienced frost, which in some cases led to destruction of crops like tobacco and
some horticultural crops. Even in the early stages of this project, we see the signs of
climate change impinging upon rural people’s livelihoods, making an inquiry into climate
change imperative. Longer term climate predictions can inform strategic decisions about
the location and approach of development interventions. Short-term and medium term
climate monitoring should be strengthened. This should not be dominated by
meteorology, but should focus on how climate is affecting poor people’s livelihoods, and
how the poor perceive this (DFID Key Sheet 5, p. 3).
In many cases, responses to climate change may be a case of strengthening current
development initiatives, rather than doing anything differently. Africa currently has a
‘relief culture’ that should be discouraged. Focus should rather be on ‘risk reduction’ or
risk management culture that focuses more on social protection, preventative measures,
and promoting increased resilience through access to markets and income generation
opportunities. Pro-poor economic growth that is resilient to climate variability and
enhanced policies and institutional mechanisms for reducing the vulnerability of the poor
to shocks are imperative. In Matabeleland Province, a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan
has been unveiled, and this still needs refining as it does not explicitly address climate
change issues. There is also a Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan, spearheaded by
11
World Vision Zimbabwe under the auspices of the Provincial Administrator’s office.
Although this is a good starting point in disaster mitigation issues, largely missing from
the plan is input from grassroots community and risk reduction measures, particularly to
slow-onset disasters like HIV and AIDS and drought.
The Zimbabwe DRR project is putting emphasis on the key role played by knowledge
generation and dissemination on climate change and disaster risk reduction. Coupled with
this will be an emphasis on the need for more evidence of effective responses by
individuals and governments to current and increasing climate variability. There are plans
to translate the current livelihoods and DRR training manual into the local vernacular
languages to enable accessibility of information to a wider grassroots audience. This can
inform the identification of effective adaptation responses.
The linkage between macro-level policy and institutional arrangements is seen in the
shrinking economic base that appears to stifle DRR efforts. As the economic climate gets
more intricate, rural communities are being faced with dwindling alternative livelihood
diversification options out of agriculture, causing them to even further exploit the
degraded natural resource base. This could lead to a vicious cycle of poverty,
environmental destruction and vulnerability. The major challenge is the fragmented
nature of pieces of legislation dealing with disaster management and above all the
weaknesses of the Civil Protection Act. It is apparent that disasters affect the environment
and people, more than anything else. However, in Zimbabwe, different administrative
sections handle disaster management and environmental management. There is need to
rethink this arrangement in the light of coordination, attitudes, and accountability.
Some DRR approaches include climate insurance, though this project has not taken this
on board owing to a number of limitations. There is a small climate insurance market in
Africa owing to a number of reasons. Insurance companies are finding past climate
variability a poor predictor of future risks, leading to volatile markets and costs of
insurance. Climate change will probably increase demand and/or need for insurance,
while at the same time increasing its cost. This therefore makes climate insurance less
12
attractive to poor regions like Southern Africa. Climate variability, drought and poor
people’s vulnerability are not taken as separate emergency issues in this project. Africa
has highly variable and unpredictable climate. For example, rainfall in the Sahel varies
for the region as a whole, over short distances, from year to year, and within single
seasons (DFID Key Sheet 10). Baseline data on African climate, which is essential to
drive models of future climate, is sketchy at present. El Nino has dominant influence on
climate patterns in Africa – it is linked to reduced summer rainfall in South East Africa
(e.g. the drought in Southern Africa in 1991/2), and to higher than average rainfall in
Eastern Africa-but it is not fully understood, and is mixed up with the effect of climate
change.
Models of climate change suggest that climate in Africa will become more variable, for
instance, in the next 50 years: Africa is likely to get drier in the northern and southern
latitudes and wetter in the tropics. These overall trends hide variations between regions
and countries, for example Southern Africa may be drier as a whole but some countries
may be wetter than average. The frequency and intensity of severe weather events is
likely to increase, among other key predictions. Food security is likely to be affected by
increased frequency and intensity of droughts and/or floods.
Trends such as the rising
burden of HIV and AIDS and the impact of prolonged conflict are reducing the ability of
the poor to cope with the existing climate. If current AIDS trends continue in Africa, it is
predicted that life expectancy will fall to below 30 years of age by 2010. It is already
changing social structures in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, 2.2 million people are
living with HIV and AIDS, and 600 000 children have been orphaned by the pandemic,
losing both their immediate and extended families.
In the spirit of enhancing community participation and ownership, the government of
Kenya has developed a community based surveillance questionnaire that collects
information on the movement of pastoralists and the length of time and distance to fetch
water supplies. This early warning system forms part of a wider natural resource and
drought management program that supports building institutional capacity for
contingency planning. In South Asia, the concepts and practices of community based
13
disaster management and risk reduction are receiving widespread recognition. These
approaches (like the one adopted in this project), emphasise community based risk
assessments and vulnerability and capacity analysis, with a prime role assumed by the
communities at-risk. Community perspectives and practices need to be integrated into
disaster risk reduction policies (South Asia Disaster Report, 2005: 127). Participatory
Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) is a useful tool in disaster preparedness and response. The
essence of PVA is for the community not only to develop community action plans, but
also to have their confidence built through valuing their knowledge and to constantly
seek opportunities to enhance their resilience to difficult conditions6. The RV (Reducing
Vulnerability) Social Scientist is developing the livelihoods monitoring tool that will
capture key issues regarding people’s livelihoods in the current environment and will act
like an early warning system/disaster preparedness tool. Community volunteers will be
trained on data collection- to be implemented in all our project areas under RV.
Development has tended to overlook DRR owing to ‘…a perverse architecture of
incentives stacked against disaster risk reduction’, (DFID, 2004: 4). It is generally a longterm, low visibility process with no guarantee of tangible results in the short-term.
Furthermore, both donors and NGOs are under pressure to disburse and expend funds
efficiently and within relatively short time spans, while DRR is a longer term, lower-cost
but relatively staff intensive process.
CONCLUSION
This project will no doubt benefit a lot from the climate change, hazard, poverty,
development and vulnerability interface, which continues to yield new lessons and trends
through research on the direct experiences of communities and regions affected by
climate change and hazards. Far removed from the various contestations and international
relations implications of climate change ostensibly through atmospheric pollution, the
poor rural communities will still need to engage in activities that protect their assets from
the impacts of climate change and other hazards and strengthen their livelihood base,
upon which their survival depends.
6
ActionAid, PVA Case Studies, pva@actionaid.org
14
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AREX
:
Department of Agricultural Research and Extension
CBDRM
:
Community Based Disaster Risk Management
CBP
:
Community Based Planning
CFT
:
Core Facilitation Team
DFID
:
Department For International Development
DRR
:
Disaster Risk Reduction
DTT
:
District Training Team
GDP
:
Gross Domestic Product
ICRISAT
:
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
IFIs
:
International Finance Institutions
JMT
:
Joint Management Team
MDGs
:
Millennium Development Goals
NGO
:
Non-Governmental Organization
ORAP
:
Organization of Rural Associations for Progress
PME
:
Provincial Monitoring and Evaluation Unit
PADET
:
Patriots for Development Trust
PRA
:
Participatory Rural Appraisal
PVA
:
Participatory Vulnerability Analysis
RV
:
Reducing Vulnerability
SNV
:
Netherlands Development Organisation
TBT
:
Tchinyunyi Babili Trust
UNDP
:
United Nations Development Program
15
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17
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