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UNIT 5
COMMUNICATION
AIMS
The aim of this unit is to increase your awareness of the need for
communication at all stages of the SDLC. Even though communication is
not an area only appropriate to the systems development field, it is a
crucial factor at all stages of the SDLC and it is important we discuss this
topic before proceeding onto the next stage of the SDLC, Systems Analysis.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should understand:
1.
The importance of communication in systems development projects.
2.
How users may get involved in the work of systems development.
3.
How to conduct a system investigation.
4.
How to organise a meeting.
5.
How to make a presentation.
6.
What is involved in writing a report.
INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
Much of the day-to-day work of the systems analyst involves dealing with
the people who work in an organisation. As well as having the required
technical knowledge, the systems analyst must have an understanding of
the organisation and its objectives and be able to interact well with people
at all levels. In order to be effective, a systems analyst needs to learn and
develop a wide range of communication skills.
REASONS FOR COMMUNICATING
The inter-personal communications, which are needed in information
systems development, are not any different from the general business
communications that are used every day. At various stages, during
systems development, it is necessary to inform, persuade, sell, instruct,
describe, educate, reveal, notify, report, explain, brief, discuss, train,
recommend or inspire. You will need to ask questions, examine, probe,
enquire and make requests. The main reasons are: to inform, to
investigate, to persuade and to explain.
The development of a new information system usually gives rise to several
changes in the working environment. Everybody who is likely to be affected
will be concerned about these changes, the users, the managers, the
unions and perhaps even the customers or suppliers of a company. If these
groups are not kept adequately informed, there might be misconceptions
and rumours about the new system. These will inevitably disrupt the
progress of the systems development project, so it is important to keep
everybody informed and aware of changes that will affect them.
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CO-OPERATION
The systems analysis stage is one of the most important stages of
information systems development. The full definition of the system
requirements does not emerge until all of the relevant facts have been
found and correlated. This stage requires the active and willing cooperation of the end-users. The number of people who are involved in the
project is greatest at this stage and great care must be taken to manage
and conduct communications so as not to alienate anybody.
OWNERSHIP
When the system is nearing completion, it is necessary to sell it, even if it
has been developed at the request of the users themselves. They need to
be persuaded that the system, which is being delivered, is in fact what they
ordered. At this stage, it is the aim of the development team to get the
users to assume ownership of the system.
Implementation of the new system will involve the users in changes to
their work practices. It will be necessary to explain these changes.
Someone will have to demonstrate the operation of the new system to the
users. Training and education of users are among the tasks that
accompany system implementation.
THE RIGHT ATTITUDE
The personality of the systems analyst is an important factor. Some people
are just not suited to the role. They have the requisite technical knowledge
but they lack the personal qualities that are needed. They need to be
flexible, because they will be called upon to perform many different tasks
and to work on different kinds of problems. They need to be sensitive, both
to the needs of others and to the effect their behaviour has on other
people. They need to be tactful, even when they know they are right.
SAQ 1
Star Trek’s Mr. Spock, though logical, knowledgeable and intelligent, is not
a good role model for a systems analyst. Why is this so?
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
A LITTLE BIT OF THEORY
The formal study of communications theory is quite clearly beyond the
scope of this unit, but it provides a number of useful concepts for the
practising systems analyst. These concepts apply to all forms of
communication and provide a framework for the discussion of the different
types of human communication that are used in systems development.
According to the theory, communication involves a SENDER putting a
MESSAGE into a MEDIUM, to send through an ENVIRONMENT to an
intended RECEIVER. These are the important factors in the success of any
type of communication.
The knowledge, attitude and objectives of the sender, as well as the ability
of the sender to shape and send the right message, affect the quality of the
communication. It is important to select the right medium. This should be
appropriate to the environment in which the communication is to take
place. Above all, it is important to take into account the knowledge,
attitudes and expectations of the receiver. What the receiver knows and
does not know inevitably determines the usefulness of a communication.
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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication may be formal or informal. Formal communication is
effective because people know what to expect in a formal communication,
it is on the record, authoritative and it gives legitimate status to decisions
and actions. Informal communication is effective because it is usually
faster, more flexible, more efficient and provides more feedback. Most of
the work gets done in this way, but both types of communication are
needed to get things done properly.
Communication may be written or oral. Written communication has more
permanence. Once it has been produced, people can have access to it
whenever it suits, or they may ignore it entirely. On the other hand, oral
communication is more immediate. It demands attention. Also, it provides
better feedback, of the verbal as well as the non-verbal kind. Oral
communication is more flexible.
Both written and oral methods may be either formal or informal. Figure 6.1
shows the different kinds of communications used in systems development,
formal and informal, written and oral. Sometimes the communication will
be between two people. This is called one to one communication; at other
times it will be one to many, for example a presentation, or many to many,
as in a meeting. The systems analyst needs to develop communication
skills to suit each type of situation.
SAQ 2
What are the advantages of the different types of communications used in
a systems development project?
WRITTEN
ORAL
FORMAL
Terms of Reference
Minutes of Meeting
Agenda
Discussion Record
Report
Letter
Procedure Manual
Rule Book
Reference Manual
Meeting
Presentation
Interview
Lecture
INFORMAL
Staff Newsletter
Noticeboard
Electronic Bulletin Board
Noticeboard
Memo-Note
Electronic Mail Message
Discussion Note
User Manual
Training Manual
Draft Report
Brainstorming Session
Informal discussion
Conference Call
Conversation
One-to-One phone call
Tutorial
Figure 6.1
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PARTICIPATION OF USERS IN SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
Communication is best regarded as a two-way process, between the sender
and the receiver. As a systems analyst/communicator, you will sometimes
be the sender and sometimes the receiver. The other people with whom
you will be communicating will be mainly the end users of the proposed
system.
In recent years, much attention has been given to the important topic of
user participation in systems development. A number of different ways of
involving the users have been tried. These include having user
representatives on the project board, employing users on the systems
development team and using an approach called participative design.
USER REPRESENTATIVES
User representation on the project board is a legal requirement in some
countries. Representatives of the users are responsible for overseeing
changes in work practices, which may affect working conditions. Their brief
is to defend workers rights rather than assist in the development itself.
TEAM MEMBER
Selecting users to work on the systems development team appears to be a
good idea. It has the advantage that the user’s expertise and local
knowledge are available to the team. The user selected for this role is
usually very enthusiastic about the project and may possibly be considering
a career move into systems development. However, this person may not be
very representative of the users as a whole. Selection of the right person is
therefore crucial.
PARTICIPATIVE DESIGN
Participative design has been successful with small groups of users. In this
approach, the users make the design decisions while the analysts and
systems design professionals act in an advisory capacity, making
suggestions and providing information. It has been found that many
revisions of the design may be needed before a satisfactory solution is
reached. The systems development team then takes over the
implementation of the system. This method may be distinguished from that
which is now being used with fourth generation languages, in which the
users actually implement parts of the system themselves.
SUMMARY
One way or another, users will be involved in the development of
information systems. Their views will have to be taken into account. It will
always be necessary to understand their needs, achieve their co-operation
and gain their consent. Effective communication is the key to all of these.
In particular, interviewing, conducting meetings, making presentations and
writing reports are considered the most important communication
techniques for the systems analyst. These topics will be considered in turn
in each of the succeeding sections. It is not the intention of this unit to turn
you into a skilled communicator. This takes years of practice on the job.
The following sections contain guidelines, which are intended to help you
appreciate the need for effective communication at many different stages
of the SDLC.
INTERVIEWING
Systems analysis is an important task in systems development work.
Unless it is done properly, the system will be unsatisfactory to the users.
This is one of the most common reasons why systems fail. If all of the
relevant facts are not discovered before important decisions are made,
then it will be costly to reverse these decisions, or even impossible.
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WHAT NEEDS TO BE INVESTIGATED?
The investigation in the systems analysis stage should cover each of the
following areas:
Background - terms of reference, consultants’ reports, comparable
systems in the same industry, etc.
Existing system - aims and objectives, the existing information system,
data flows, stored data, tasks, procedures and decision rules.
Volumes, frequencies, ratios.
Problems with the existing system, new requirements, user priorities,
management priorities and future enhancements.
Changes in the environment i.e. new legislation, taxation, competition.
INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES
Asking questions is one of the most useful techniques for fact-finding and is
used extensively in systems investigation. Other techniques, such as
observing work practices and searching existing records are used as well.
Answers to some questions may be found by sending out postal
questionnaires but the face-to-face interview is regarded as the principal
fact-finding technique.
An interview may be described as a planned discussion. It takes place in
the context of an overall plan of the investigation and each interview is
itself planned.
PREPARATION
It is advisable to prepare for a discussion by studying the background to
the application as thoroughly as possible. Reading the reports of previous
projects, existing procedure manuals or articles in the trade press
concerning the application can be extremely beneficial in helping to
understand the problem area(s). Browsing through existing files, or looking
at input and output documents, can provide the basis for asking the right
questions. This is important, because there is no point in wasting other
people’s valuable time asking questions, especially if the answers are
readily available to anyone who takes the time to look for them in the files.
THE INFORMAL SYSTEM
On the other hand, it is not a good idea to rely too much on previous
reports, because they are likely to be out of date or even considered
irrelevant. In the case of procedure manuals, it is best to bear in mind that
very often there is an informal system working alongside the formal
system.
That is, people in an organisation may invent their own way of coping with
a particular problem/situation and this solution, though accepted in
practice, may never have been documented in the official procedure
manual. Some forms, for example, may be used to carry information that
they were never intended to carry, to departments that were never
supposed to use them. There is no point in waving the relevant regulation
in people’s faces. The informal procedure has its own validity, by virtue of
custom and practice as well as the fact that it works. The systems analyst’s
job is to find and document all the facts that are relevant to the systems
study.
OTHER TECHNIQUES
Observation and searching records help to prepare for the interviews
themselves. They help to determine the topics that need to be covered in
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the interviews. Afterwards, they can be used to crosscheck or corroborate
new material, which has been discovered or discussed at interviews.
PLANNING THE INVESTIGATION
Generally speaking, most investigations begin with a preliminary discussion
with the project sponsor to review the terms of reference. It is necessary to
make a brief study of the background of the project before beginning any
interviews. The first interview should not be postponed for too long,
however.
It is not good practice to be investigating the workings of any area or
department without first meeting the boss, introducing yourself and
explaining what you intend to do. This is essentially a ‘top-down’ approach.
Starting with the boss, interview people at the top of the hierarchy before
moving down to the more junior levels.
In each department, the first interview should be with the person in charge
of the department. It is essential to get this person on your side from the
start. Their perspective on the objectives and special problems of the
department makes a good starting point. This person may have valuable
insights that will help you. Even if this were not true, at least the boss
should be able to tell you who the key people in the department are and
suggest who to interview. In any case, it helps to have the boss’s
permission to start interviewing the other members of the department.
These interviews are going to take people from their normal duties,
perhaps away from their desks, probably for long periods of time. In a busy
department, any significant amount of interviewing is going to need the full
co-operation of the boss. Gaining this co-operation is a good start.
PLANNING THE INTERVIEW
It is necessary to plan separately for each interview:
When to have the interview.
Where to have it.
What to talk about.
When - Using the top-down approach discussed above, you will probably
have a list of people in the sequence in which you want to interview them.
But people will not always be available when you want them. The best
approach is to be flexible and be prepared to wait. Get to know people’s
secretaries. They can usually keep you up to date on movements and
cancellations of previous engagements. It is necessary to make
appointments and keep them.
Where - The best place is the person’s own office or work area. You may
be able to make some useful observations at the same time. On the other
hand, during the interview it is necessary to avoid interruptions. For some
workers, this means having the interview in some other place, free from
interruptions. For others, it may mean asking to have all calls diverted.
Again, some people may co-operate with this while others will agree but
insist on taking important calls. This is something you will have to tolerate.
What to talk about - Some analysts prefer to have a list of questions
made out in advance while others make a list of topics to be covered. In
either case, be prepared to be flexible, following the interviewee’s lead.
Questions should be open, encouraging the respondent to expand on the
answers, to give opinions and to contribute information that the analyst
may not have been aware of. Given the opportunity, some people will
roam. Be prepared to change the subject as tactfully as possible. It helps if
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you refer to your list in doing so, to make the person aware that you have
an agenda to get through.
ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS
Ask questions at the right level. Do not ask the department manager about
the detailed workings of some clerical procedure. Ask the clerk. The
manager may have forgotten or be unaware of some changes which have
been made. On the other hand do not ask the stock clerk about the
likelihood of sales increasing. This may seem obvious, but it is being
mentioned here to support the point already made about the need for
planning. Your questions should be of the problem-solver type rather than
the order-taker type of question. See Figure 6.2.
ORDER-TAKING QUESTIONS
PROBLEM-SOLVER QUESTIONS
How much curtain material do you
need?
How long are your windows?
How wide are they?
Do you want full length or window
length curtains?
Do you want a petrol or diesel
engine?
Is performance more important to
you than running costs?
What is your annual mileage?
Will this involve a lot of long trips?
Do you want a laser printer or a
dot-matrix printer?
How much can you afford?
How many pages will be printed per
day?
Do you want very fast printing?
Will the printer be situated in an
office where other people are
working?
What exception reports will you
require?
Will you need to monitor the
performance of product groups?
For example, when sales of a
particular product group go below a
certain level, you might like a report
listing these.
Or when sales exceed a certain
level...
Figure 6.2
CONDUCTING THE INTERVIEW
In conducting the planned discussion, certain practices are recommended.
Having made an appointment, arrive on time. Dress for the occasion. The
formality of dress varies from one organisation to another. If in doubt
about what to wear, it is better to err on the side of formality.
It is essential to adopt a positive listening attitude. Let the other person
know that you are paying attention to what they are saying. The subject of
body language is often mentioned in this regard. It is not recommended
that you use it to play “amateur psychologist” to judge the veracity or
reliability of people’s responses. On the other hand, appropriate use of eye
contact and posture can help to put the other person at ease.
NOTES
It is important to record the facts and opinions that have been gleaned
during the discussion. Ideally this should be done as soon as possible after
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the interview, but it is necessary to take some rough notes during the
discussion itself. If this seems to make the interviewee uncomfortable, then
ask if they would prefer you not to take notes. In any case, it is considered
better to ask permission and explain that you need to write things down.
Most people are co-operative in this, if only they’re approached in the right
way. At the end of the discussion, check back over your notes and ask the
interviewee to confirm that you have got the main points of the discussion
and interpreted their remarks correctly.
THE FOLLOW-UP
At the end of the discussion, thank the interviewee for their time. Be sure
not to stay any longer than planned. If necessary, make another
appointment or leave the way open for a return visit at a later stage.
Rewrite your notes as soon as possible, in a legible form. The use of a
special form called a Discussion Record is recommended. This is a form
giving details of the time, place and purpose of the discussion. It notes the
names of the participants and the main points discussed. There is room for
cross-referencing each item to other discussion records, sample documents
or other parts of the system documentation, such as charts or diagrams.
It is considered good practice to send a copy of the discussion record to the
interviewee.
Afterwards it will be necessary to crosscheck some of the facts uncovered
by the discussion. This can be done by using other fact-finding techniques
such as observation or searching or by planning further interviews or by replanning some of the discussions that have yet to take place.
SAQ 3
What other fact-finding techniques are used, besides interviewing?
SAQ 4
Make a list of the Do’s and Don’ts of Interviewing.
MEETINGS
Most of the face-to-face communication between systems analysts and
users takes place in a one-to-one setting, but from time to time in the
course of systems development it will be necessary to attend meetings.
These will include meetings with the project sponsor, the users, user
management, systems management, operations people, development staff
and the project board.
PURPOSE
A meeting is a gathering of people to exchange views, to take decisions, to
make plans or to give advice to someone. Occasionally, someone may want
to make a short presentation at a meeting. Many meetings incorporate a
number of items of business.
There are many reasons why a meeting may be needed but it is best to
avoid using meetings except when it is absolutely necessary. This is
because it is easy to waste time at a meeting, unless it is run extremely
well. The number of participants at the meeting amplifies the amount of
time wasted. This is an important consideration.
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As far meetings are concerned, the role of the systems analyst is normally
that of an ordinary participant, sometimes that of secretary and rarely that
of chairperson. Whichever is the case, it is necessary to prepare properly.
PREPARATION
For an ordinary participant, preparation includes finding out:
Who will be at the meeting?
What time does it begin?
Where is the location of the meeting?
What is the background to the items on the agenda?
Putting an item on the agenda involves more work. It is necessary to
review the background material more thoroughly and be prepared to lead
the discussion on that topic. Supporting documentation or handouts may
be required. The secretary will need adequate notice if an item is to appear
on the agenda.
AGENDA
The agenda shows the order of business at the meeting. It is normally sent
to each of the participants well in advance of the meeting itself. Sometimes
it serves as official notice of the meeting. The agenda may be posted on a
notice board, sent by memo or by electronic mail. The items on the agenda
depend on the purpose of the meeting. This may be to agree the terms of
reference for the systems analysis stage, to inform users of changes that
will be needed in purchasing procedures or to reach agreement on the
installation date of the new system. It also depends on the stage the
project is at and on who is at the meeting.
At regular meetings, such as that of the project board, it is customary to
read and agree the minutes of the last meeting, and then to discuss
matters arising from the minutes. These are usually the first items on the
agenda. Any other business is another agenda item that is customary to
have. This is normally last. It is considered better to have the shorter items
earlier on the agenda. This gives the meeting a brisk pace and a businesslike atmosphere.
THE SECRETARY
The secretary does most of the work in connection with a meeting. It is an
important role and gives the person doing it a certain amount of influence
over the proceedings. The secretary is responsible for the arrangements,
including the time and place of the meeting. Mornings are considered
better, if people are available. Immediately after lunch is not a good time,
neither is just before finishing time.
The meeting should not clash with other meetings that have been
arranged. The secretary may be asked to re-arrange a meeting that
conflicts with other meetings. A meeting room will have to be booked. It is
important to give adequate notice of the time and place. On the other
hand, arrangements that are announced too early may cause great trouble
if they have to be changed later.
MINUTES
As well as the physical arrangements, the secretary is responsible for
maintaining a list of participants, noting attendance and apologies, for
drawing up the agenda, for taking and circulating the minutes and also for
briefing the chairman. The minutes of a meeting record the proceedings,
particularly the decisions reached and the tasks that have to be done
before the next meeting. They should be circulated as soon as possible,
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certainly before the next meeting takes place. During the meeting, rough
notes should be taken, covering the main points discussed. It is not
necessary to note precisely who said what. It is better to note the different
points of view without attributing them to anyone in particular. This will
save time at the next meeting and avoid useless discussion over the exact
wording of what was said.
This practice is normally acceptable, though it gives the secretary a certain
amount of power to emphasise certain things and play down others.
Similarly, the placement of items on the agenda gives the secretary the
means to promote topics, which might otherwise be relegated to an
unimportant position.
THE CHAIR
It is the responsibility of the chair to see that the meeting is conducted
fairly and properly. A good chairperson will be fair and impartial on all
issues, giving equal time to all participants who want to contribute. If a
person feels strongly about some issue that is going to be discussed then
they should not chair the meeting, particularly if they want to participate in
the discussion.
At some point in the meeting, someone may propose a motion. If it is
seconded, a vote will be taken. The chair should see that the voting is
conducted properly. If an amendment is proposed and seconded then the
amendment should be put to the vote first. If the amendment is carried
then the meeting should vote on the amended motion. Otherwise the
unamended motion is put to the vote.
FORMAL VS. INFORMAL
One of the main purposes of a formal meeting is the validation of
agreements and decisions. Many people prepare for meetings by
canvassing support for their point of view beforehand. This is valid and
should be recognised. But if it is not done properly it can alienate other
people, who may see it in a different light. The time allowed for discussion
at meetings is, by nature, very short compared to the importance of some
of the topics. You may have heard of the meetings like the one that spent
ninety minutes discussing the location of the new bicycle shed and only five
minutes discussing a project involving a two million euro extension to the
factory. This happens. One valid reason for it could be that the decision
was reached at less formal discussions prior to the meeting.
EXERCISE
Sometimes, after a system has been implemented, a dispute arises
between the developers of the system and the system owners and/or end
users as to whether the system is performing correctly. How can disputes
like this be avoided?
MAKING A PRESENTATION
Oral presentations have a number of different uses in systems
development:
To introduce and generate interest in a written report.
To emphasise the key points in a report.
To sell the new system to its owners or users.
To provide a forum for questions, feedback and discussion.
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ARRANGEMENTS
The person making the presentation is normally responsible for all of the
arrangements, except where a presentation is being made to a client
company. In this case, it is always a good idea to check the arrangements
beforehand, to make sure that they are satisfactory. Like a meeting, the
arrangements for a presentation include choosing a suitable place and time
and making a booking. It is important to ensure that all of the equipment
needed will be available and working on the day. It may be necessary to
have handouts prepared and duplicated in advance.
PREPARATION
The key to successful preparation is to know the audience. Find out who
they are, what they already know, what they will want to know about the
new system, as well as what their objections are likely to be.
Plan the content of your presentation on that basis. It is impossible to
cover every angle in a presentation, so be selective. If possible, refer to the
report or a specially prepared handout rather than going into detail.
Concentrate on your strongest arguments; do not overload the
presentation, signpost the presentation. This means, tell the people what
you are going to say, say it and then tell them what you have said. Link the
different sections of your talk together. For example, if you have just
finished a section, say
“That is all I want to say about the costs of the new system, now I am
going to talk about the benefits...”
An effective strategy in talking about systems development is to first
discuss a problem, then review a number of possible solutions, ruling some
of them out, come up with a satisfactory solution and recommend it.
Some people write out the presentation in full. This is not necessary, but it
has some important advantages. The wording of the arguments can be
considered. The timing of the presentation can be gauged accurately. The
linking of the sections can be planned. However, there is temptation to try
to memorise the speech or worse still, to read it out from the pages on the
day of the presentation.
It is better to make notes. If desired, write out the talk first, underline the
main points and links and then make notes. Notes should be on cards. It is
a good idea to memorise the opening remarks or introduction and then to
rely on the notes for the rest of the presentation.
For your first presentation, it is advisable to practice or rehearse the
presentation, using whatever visual aids will be employed during the
presentation itself.
VISUAL AIDS
No presentation is complete without the use of at least a few visual aids.
They can be used for illustration, charts or diagrams, headings, main
points, etc. They add variety and help to increase the impact of what is
being said. A black board is the simplest visual medium that may be used
in the course of a presentation, but a white-board is better, allowing more
effective use of colour.
Other media such as overhead projectors are better because they allow
visual aids to be prepared beforehand. These can be used more than once
in the same presentation and over again in later presentations. Overhead
projector visuals incorporating graphics and text can be prepared on a PC,
printed out and photocopied onto acetate sheets. This is a convenient way
of producing monochrome visuals. They can be highlighted by the use of
colour. The number of colours should be restricted to three or four. PCbased presentation software like Microsoft PowerPoint allows slides to be
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prepared for presentation on the computer screen. The sequencing and
timing of the slides can be specified in advance. A large number of slides
can be included in a single presentation. Screen images can be projected
onto an overhead projector.
The flip chart is a much simpler display medium and is recommended for
several reasons. A flip chart is portable, needs no electricity and can be
used with a minimum of special equipment. Displays can be prepared in
advance and/or built up during the presentation.
With the overhead projector, there is a tendency for everybody, including
the presenter, to be mesmerised by the image on the screen. The
presenter puts a slide on the projector, reads the image from the screen
cannot think of anything else to say and moves on to the next slide.
The best method of delivery using either a projector or a flip chart is to
have headings only. The presenter will then use these headings as a
guideline and elaborate on each of them in their own way.
DELIVERY
The delivery of a presentation should be pitched at the right level of
formality, so as not to alienate the audience. The audience may consider
the presenter too cool and detached if they are formal or too familiar and
cavalier if they are informal. The wrong approach can lose valuable support
for the system that is being presented. It is always better to err on the side
of being too formal until you get to know the audience better. Some
presenters like to include at least one joke in their presentations. Obviously
this may backfire, for example, someone may be offended or the audience
may have heard the joke before.
AVOID MANNERISMS
There are a number of mannerisms, which seem to plague presenters. The
following is a list of the most common ones. See if you can add to it.
Talking to the projector screen.
Talking to the end wall.
Talking to the light.
Talking to one’s notes.
Talking to one’s shoes.
Shifting incessantly from one foot to the other.
Fiddling with car-keys, pen, watch, spectacles or pointer.
Jingling coins.
OBJECTIONS
In any presentation, there are bound to be some objections to what is
being said. If you are proposing a particular course of action, it may not
suit everybody. Some people like to show their peers how much they know
by making objections. Do not regard these as personal attacks. If you are
interrupted, say firmly but gently that you will take questions at the end of
the talk. That may be the end of the matter.
A good preparation for serious criticisms includes listing the likely
objections and forestalling them in various ways. One way is to anticipate
questions, bring them up and answer them in the course of the
presentation. Another way is to prepare the answers, let people raise their
objections at the end of the talk and answer them then, provided they can
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be answered satisfactorily. If you have overlooked some important aspect,
do not try to handle it there and then, but promise to look into it and
report back later. If you are sure that it is only a small point and the
change will not cost very much or cause too much trouble, you may like to
incorporate it in the design. “Yes, I can do that for you” is a winning
argument.
Sometimes the purpose of a presentation is to gain approval for some
proposal. If your proposals are likely to be controversial, do not try to rush
them through. Use the presentation to make your case, leaving the
decision to another time. Ask people to read your report or whatever
handouts accompany your presentation.
SAQ 5
List a number of charts or diagrams that might be used in a presentation to
user management.
WRITTEN REPORTS
Written communication tends to be the most formal type of communication
in systems development. This is because the relationship between the
developers and the business users is in the nature of a contract. Written
agreements are important to the two sides and form the basis of this
relationship. The terms of reference (see Unit 4) constitutes a formal
communication between the I.T. executive and the systems development
team. Other formal communications include the written reports, which are
produced by the team at various stages of the SDLC.
PROJECT REPORTS
The number and type of these vary depending on the size and duration of
the project, the style of project management and the degree of user
involvement. The most important ones are:
The Report on the Feasibility Study.
The Scope Document.
The Functional Specification.
The Project Implementation Plan.
The Post-implementation Review.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of a written report include some or all of the following:
To inform.
To convince.
To obtain approval for a particular course of action.
To justify the need for various changes.
To enumerate the problems associated with a particular system.
To ensure completeness in the recording of facts.
Unit 5: Communication
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The formality of a report is important. Many formal reports require a formal
response. The authorisation for a report normally comes from senior
management and it is normally addressed to them. The list of recipients of
a report may be an important consideration. Some reports are confidential.
All of this means that writing a report requires careful preparation.
PREPARATION
Preparation involves finding out all the facts that will be needed, organising
them, structuring them and deciding on the main sections or chapters of
the report. As always, it is important to consider your readership. Many of
them will be busy people who will want to be given the salient points, not
masses of detail. Detail has a place in reports, which is in the appendices.
It is customary to include a summary consisting of one or two pages.
Writing this properly can be very troublesome, so do not leave it to the
end, when you will be especially conscious of all the problems and
exceptions you have been writing about. A good summary is essential, not
an afterthought. It is also good practice to include an Executive Summary
at the start of the report. This will briefly inform the reader about the
contents and structure of the report that follows.
WRITING THE REPORT
Having collected, selected and arranged your material, writing the report is
the next step. Outlining is a facility, which allows you to enter the main
headings and sub-headings of your report and collapse the text itself so
that you can view the overall structure at various levels and re-organise it
as required.
Spelling checkers not only proof-read your document for spelling errors,
but allow you to enter new words of your own to the dictionary. A
thesaurus suggests alternative words to be used instead of a particular
word. Use it to add variety, but be careful, because the meanings usually
vary.
WORDING
It is recommended that you use short words in preference to long ones,
active voice rather than passive voice. Avoid the use of computer jargon
(or provide a glossary) and take care to be correct in using the local
terminology of the industry or organisation.
STYLE
Use your own style. Try to avoid long sentences. Watch out for paragraphs
that consist of one or two sentences. They are usually complex sentences
consisting of many dependent sub-clauses. Have one main idea per
paragraph. Link the paragraphs together. Use headings and sub-headings
to guide the reader.
LAYOUT
A formal report should have the following components:
The title page.
The table of contents.
An executive summary (maximum of two pages).
The main text, divided into chapters.
Recommendations or conclusions.
The appendices.
A glossary where appropriate.
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Charts and diagrams where appropriate.
The layout should reflect the structure of the report. Highlight the headings
using capitals or bold letters. Wide margins and clear typeface make a
report more attractive to the reader. The use of these facilities will help to
get your message across and ultimately help to attain your objective, which
is to produce a working system that is satisfactory to the system owners as
well as the users.
MANUALS AND TECHNICAL WRITING
TYPES AND USES OF MANUALS
Another necessity for written communication in systems development is the
requirement for manuals and user documentation. As well as training in the
use of the new system, the users will require user manuals and reference
manuals. The user manual should contain a tutorial guide to using the
system. This should be a step-by-step guide and have plenty of examples.
The computer operations personnel will need a manual of instructions for
operating the system. This should include specific instructions on backing
up the files and recovering them in the event of a system failure. If the
system generates a large number of reports, then there should be
instructions on the scheduling and distribution of these. If special
stationery is required for some of the output, then this should also be
specified in the manual.
Where a system is being installed in many different locations, the
preparation of manuals is of more importance. In any case, manuals should
be prepared well in advance of the proposed installation date. They will be
needed for training and training should commence before the system is up
and running.
TRAINING
Every system needs a certain amount of user training. Modern systems
contain excellent help facilities. In-context help provides the facility to get
help on exactly the function that is troubling the user at the time. Users
can learn as they go along. Tutorial guides are sometimes provided on-line
in addition to the help facilities.
ON-LINE MANUALS
Some sophisticated systems require many volumes of manuals. The
problem is aggravated by the need to keep them up-to-date as the system
is revised or improved. The solution to this difficulty is to maintain the
manuals electronically, allowing selected pages to be printed as required.
The advantages of having the manuals on-line are that everyone can get
access to them when they want, they are easily updated and the latest
version is always the one available.
CONCLUSIONS
Communication is an important aspect of the systems analyst’s work. At all
times, it is important to keep in touch with the people who will be involved
with the new system. It is important to have a professional attitude. This
means having consideration and respect for the users and managers with
whom you are working. You need them more than they need you. If you
succeed in getting their co-operation, you increase the effectiveness of
your own work.
The increasing participation of users in systems development is a trend
that is likely to continue.
Unit 5: Communication
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Interviewing, meetings, presentations, written reports and manuals are the
main types of communication used in systems development.
RECOMMENDED READING
Hawryszkiewycz, I.T. (2001) Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design
(5th Edition).
ISBN 1-7400-9280-5, Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 19.
Whitten, Bentley & Dittman (2004) Systems Analysis & Design Methods (6th
Edition).
ISBN 0-07-247417-3, McGraw-Hill.
Chapter 6, Pages 250-256.
Chapter 10, Pages 418-424.
SUGGESTED ANSWER TO EXERCISE
Sometimes, after a system has been implemented, a dispute arises
between the developers of the system and the system owners and/or end
users as to whether the system is performing correctly.
How can disputes like this be avoided?
Disputes like this can arise for two reasons: one possible cause is that the
system as implemented is different from what was specified. Another
reason could be that the specification itself was incorrect. In other words
the users did not get the system that they wanted, because the wrong
specification was implemented. In either event the key to the answer is
communication.
In the case of a specification that is correct but is being implemented
incorrectly, the fault lies either in the specification itself or in the
relationship between those who wrote the specification and those who
implemented it. Perhaps the specification was ambiguous, or unreadable or
in some way unintelligible to those who had to read it. We try to avoid this
problem by choosing appropriate specification techniques, which are
understood by all the members of the project team. Examples of these
techniques include: data flow diagrams, program specifications etc.
Where an incorrect specification has been implemented correctly, this is
probably due to a lack of communication between the systems analyst and
the system owners or the end users of the system. It is the responsibility
of the analyst to promote full and open communication with the users of
the proposed system. This is important if disputes are to be avoided,
because once a dispute like this begins; there is no objective way of
settling it.
Sometimes system specifications include objective measures of
performance, but it is hard to specify everything in this way. This is not the
way to avoid disputes. Too much detail in the specification leads to a
situation in which the users are not inclined to read the specification fully
and thoroughly, either through lack of time or because they feel that it is
none of their business. Unless special steps are taken to acquaint the users
with the specification and how it affects them, there is a risk of
misunderstanding and later on, disagreement.
During the systems analysis stage, the analyst is concerned with finding
out the facts concerning the systems requirements. It is important to
complete this as fully as possible before embarking on the design stage.
However, it is impossible to find out everything in the limited time allowed
and some decisions will have to be made on the basis of partial
information. Some decisions taken earlier on may even need to be
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reversed. In the past, it was common to ask the users to sign an
agreement stating that no changes to the requirements would be made
after a certain date, but this is not a good practice, for two reasons:
(1) It is unreasonable to expect a user to know exactly what is needed in a
system if they have never used it.
(2) The users will not be satisfied anyway, even if they have signed away
their rights to dispute. Dissatisfied users will not help to promote the
acceptance of the system.
In addition, users often find that as they become more familiar with the
system, they appreciate what the possibilities are and can be more
demanding.
For these reasons, the wise analyst will try to be as flexible as possible for
as long as possible in order to try to accommodate changing user
requirements. To do so requires a good relationship between the analyst
and the users, based on mutual respect and trust. It is the analyst’s
responsibility to foster this relationship.
Prototyping is an alternative way of developing information systems. It is
rapidly gaining acceptance because of its many benefits. The most
important of these is the effect on the relationship between users and
system developers.
In one form of prototyping, the user interface is presented to the users to
try out and experiment with. Changes can be made before the real system
is implemented. In this way, many potential disputes can be avoided.
A full prototype is a working model of the system that has been
implemented without regard to technical features such as efficiency or
security. The users are invited to use the prototype system and comment
on its suitability. Any criticisms the users have can be taken into account in
implementing the next version of the system. It is possible to go through
many cycles of revision before the final version is produced.
Whichever way the system is developed, it is important to ensure that the
users assume ownership of the system when it is ready. Apart from helping
to ensure that the users get the system that they want, the prototyping
approach ensures that the developers gain the co-operation of the users in
the development of the system.
Unit 5: Communication
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ANSWERS TO SAQS
SAQ 1
Mr. Spock lacks one important characteristic, which a systems analyst must
have, tact. Dealing with people at all levels of the organisation and getting
their co-operation requires an honest respect for people and an
understanding of what it is to be “human”.
SAQ 2
Different Types of Communication
FORMAL
People know what to expect.
It is “on the record”.
Authoritative.
Legitimised.
INFORMAL
Faster than formal.
More flexible.
More efficient.
Better feedback.
WRITTEN
Permanent record.
Access as required.
More time to interpret it.
More time to absorb it.
ORAL
More flexible than written.
Immediate effects.
It demands attention.
More feed back.
Different types of feedback.
SAQ 3
Other fact-finding techniques:
Observation.
Searching existing files, reports.
Collecting sample reports documents.
Questionnaire survey.
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SAQ 4
DO’s and DON’TS of Interviewing:
DO
Plan the sequence of interviews.
Interview top-down.
Do your background research first.
Plan each interview.
Make arrangements.
Ask the right questions.
Be flexible.
Take notes.
Record the discussion.
Send a copy of the discussion record.
Follow-up on the facts raised.
DON’T
Interview without checking first.
Mistake opinions for facts.
Continue note taking if this makes the other person uncomfortable.
Rush the interview.
Engage in griping sessions.
SAQ 5
Use of charts/diagrams in presentations:
Organisation chart.
Costs and benefits graph.
Project plan bar chart.
Context level data flow diagram.
Level one data flow diagram.
Unit 5: Communication
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