Department of IEM
Research Methodology
I sem----M.Tech:12MIE12
Faculty Incharge: Dr. C.S.Chethan Kumar
Prescribed Textbook: Research Methodology by C.R.Kothari ,Revised Edition
Reference: Business Research Methods by Richard K Zimkund, 7th edition
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing the hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting the data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.”1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.”2 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement
from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital
instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our
inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This
inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining
the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.”3 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for
some theoretical formulation.
Research method -It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research
methods and research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. use in performing research
operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course
of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research,
particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data
and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution
possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the
required solution; 2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns; 3. The third group consists of
those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.Research methods
falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of research.
Research methodology-it is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean
and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is
necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ
from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously
evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely
what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk
of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a
particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are
capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as
it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post
facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover
causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental
(to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for
knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly,
research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations
about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications
will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of
applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at
discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other
techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e.,
research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a
particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated,
however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore,
while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks
will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables
under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical
research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some
way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required
to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research
design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz,
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and
(iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of
a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed. There are several research designs, such as,
experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either
informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-andafter with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block
design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher
must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research
(v) the cost factor relating to research
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex
post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies)
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies.we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of
any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.”
On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although
they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific
method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the
branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of
all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any
kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the
Scientific Method and is a man of science.” Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as
determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation
of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation,
logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying
proportions.” In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and
accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops the
consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it
becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony
with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations
which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. Experimentation is done to test
hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among variables. But the conclusions
drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for either faulty assumptions,
poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty interpretations. As such the
researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the experimental design and must
state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide
scientifically gathered information to work as a
basis for the researchers for their conclusions. The scientific method is, thus, based on certain
basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence
2. It utilizes relevant concepts
3. It is committed to only objective considerations
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects
5. It results into probabilistic predictions
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing the
conclusions through replication
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure 0 Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a
method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems. Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a
leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of
research is not methodologically sound. Research to many researchers and even to their guides,
is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials. The
consequence is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or
realities. Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before
undertaking research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological
aspects. As such, efforts should be made to provide short- duration intensive courses for meeting
this requirement.
There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and
business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side. A
great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison
among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some
mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get ideas
from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done
by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied
by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business
organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers.
Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be solved
by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which and the
places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given toward identification of
research problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of immediate concern to
the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a code of
conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of
research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that efficient secretarial
assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time. University Grants
Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the time
and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc., rather than in
tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new
Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is felt more in
libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus, efforts should be
made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on account of
the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in coverage by the
concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems relating
to the process of data collection and related things.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few
things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know
for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in
social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what
it can contribute to practical concerns On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is
increasingly being looked to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human
relations , which is not ethical because as the problem is in favor of a party this means that the
truth has not been favored and it has been hidden and this leads to another and so on and hence
the research may no more lead to any benefit of the society
Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of
a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results .and The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by
the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of
business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational
problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both for
government and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For
instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people
and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to
probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can
devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry,
working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature
of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is
necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such
information indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of
research problems. These day nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions. Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for
the purpose of formulating .
efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers to the
application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business
problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization
problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly
concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the determination of
motivations underlying the consumer (market) behavior. All these are of great help to people in
business and industry who are responsible for taking business decisions. Research with regard to
demand and market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is
generally not difficult for a firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits
of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these
days. Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based
mainly on sales estimates which in turn depends on business research. Once sales forecasting is
done, efficient production and investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped
the purchasing and financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more
logical and scientific decisions.
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of
any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.”7 On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research
methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is
usually given the name of scientific method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific
method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all
logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material;
the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes
their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.”8 Scientific method is
the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of
these three in varying proportions.”9 In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions
explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops
the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable
phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is
most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey
investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. Experimentation is done to
test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among variables. But the conclusions
drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for either faulty assumptions,
poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty interpretations. As such the
researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the experimental design and must
state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide
scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality,
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing the
conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure.”10 Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a
method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material supplied
by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying the
needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be sacrosanct to business
organisations in the country so much so that it proves an impermeable barrier to researchers.
Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a
business unit will not be misused.
There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side and
business establishments, government departments and research institutions on the other side. A
great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory liaison
among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing some
mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can get ideas
from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the research done
by the academics.
The suggestion I feel that must be done is by promoting the universities and other educational
system so that their knowledge can contribute to the business in the country the companies will
have a even wider r&d and the ideas and innovations will together contribute to both the
company and the individuals benefit As the problem faced by the education system is the
funding and motivation so the companies can fund and monitor the process to get mutual
benefits.
Components of a research problem:
Title page of the research proposal: A research proposal should be submitted with a title.
Introduction: Emphasize the importance of the proposed research and describe the research
topic or theme. This is usually done in one or two paragraphs. In all cases it should be stated
whether a relationship exists between the proposed research and research undertaken before. If
no such research has been undertaken previously, this should be pointed out.
Motivation (the “so what?” question): Present, as clearly as possible, the source of interest
in the topic or theme. Also state why the topic justifies the research and indicate what is
proposed with the research?
MSRIT Page 6
For example, the topic was selected because of practical problems experienced in the particular
field. This is often part of the introduction or context-setting.
Preliminary review of relevant literature: Indicate that a review of literature has been
started (and is underway) that helps the researcher to distinguish the research problem clearly.
Literature. Therefore, it is necessary also to indicate the other sources from which data will be
obtained.
Problem description/statement: Give a clear and concise description of the research
problem, purpose, or question. The researcher should denote exactly what he or she intends to do
and what he or she wants to achieve with the research. This description will later serve as the
point of departure for the wording of the title of the research paper, dissertation or thesis, as well
as provide the focus of the final discussion
Research methodology (This is also referred to as the strategy for research.): Briefly but
clearly indicate the methods of data collection either within a quantitative or qualitative
methodology; as well as the techniques for data collection
Example. Questionnaires and measurement (the validation of the techniques). Indicate whether
field workers will be used to collect data and whether computer programs will be employed to
analyze the data. The researcher should also indicate in this section of the proposal which
strategies will be followed during the research (i.e. the actions and their sequence) .
For example, a questionnaire will be constructed first, and then the data will be analyzed,
followed by the writing of the relevant chapter. Motivate the particular actions and their
sequence, and give target dates for their completion. Identify the target population (universe), i.e.
the respondents and the sample sizes.
IF APPROPRIATE, formulation of a hypothesis: Formulate a hypothesis which will form
part of the research proposal. Indicate whether the hypothesis is inductive or deductive
Clarification of concepts and terms: Define key concepts and terms to clear up ambiguities
and obscurities. The concepts clarified for the research proposal will eventually form part of the
list of terms clarified for the research report.
Framework: The research proposal should include a preliminary framework of the chapters
of the research report. Also give a brief indication (one or two sentences or a short paragraph) of
the proposed contents of each chapter, as well as the target dates for the completion.
Sources: Include a short list of sources. For example, list those sources which were consulted
during the literature survey to distinguish the research problem. Once accepted, the research
proposal will serve as a guideline to the researcher. It will enable him or her to collect relevant
data only and not waste time and effort on (Sidetracks could be interesting to explore, but they
do not contribute to solving the research problem at hand.) Please check with your
advisor/department for other specific directions and requirements for your proposal.
rephrasing the research problem:
The researcher must rephrase the problem into a working proposition. Rephrasing the problem
means putting the problem in specific terms that is feasible and may help in the development of
working hypotheses. Once the researcher has gone through the above steps systematically, it is
easy to rephrase the problem into analytical and operational terms.
It is natural to stand at the beginning of a research project and feel overwhelmed by the amount
of published research that exists in databases, literature reviews, and reference pages. At the
same time, each new research project brings the hope of discovering something new. As a
researcher will have the chance to dive more deeply into less frequently encountered pools of
knowledge.
Steps 1, 2, and 3: Choosing a Topic:
Well, the researcher is doing research and is now ready to settle down on a specific topic.
Following steps are (For the purposes of the subject of decomposition.)
Choosing a Specific Topic in Three Steps:
1. Choose any topic or topics in the universe. - "e.g., something about organic matter"
2. Be a little more specific about your topic. - "e.g., compost and soil"
3. Be a lot more specific about your topic - "e.g., soil nutrients released by organic matter
decomposition"
4. Repeat these three steps three or more times to give yourself a few examples of topics to
choose from. When you have a few examples, choose the topic that you feel meets your course
requirements, the needs of your intended (or imagined) audience.
Once you feel terrifically solid about the topic you have chosen, you are ready to narrow down
your topic.
Steps 3and 4: Narrowing Down Your Topic:
During the first three steps, you chose a topic. For some, this topic may seem like it's ready to be
written about, but the level of precision required in the context of academic writing requires
researcher will go through a few additional steps.
Narrowing a topic in 3 Steps, starting from a topic that was selected using the 3Step choosing a
topic process.
1) Make one or two more words more specific:
In this case, we replaced the words "soil nutrients" with nitrogen and replaced "organic matter"
with food waste to make the topic we wish to write about as precise and as specific as possible.
Example: "soil nutrients nitrogen released by organic matter the decomposition of food waste"
2) OK, we've added a few words to make the topic more specific. Now turn the topic into a
complete sentence that actually makes a statement.
Example: The form of nitrogen released by the decomposition of food waste is poorly
understood.
3) Make the sentence as precise and arguable as possible:
If you compare the following example with the previous step, you might notice how the context
of decomposition moves from just a generalized process of decomposition to a particular process
that involves household waste.
Defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall
study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view. How to define a research problem is
undoubtedly a tedious task. However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid
problems encountered in a research operation. The usual approach is that the researcher should
himself pose a question (or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the
concerned individual, organization or an authority should pose the question to the researcher)
and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for
formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach generally does not produce
definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad general terms
and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in
no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this is frequently overlooked which
causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic
manner, giving due weight age to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other:
(i) State the problem in general way. (ii) Understanding the nature of the problem. (iii) Surveying
the available literature. (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions. (v) Rephrase the research
problem.
i. State the problem in a general way:
First state the problem in general terms with respect to some practical, scientific or intellectual
interest. For this, the researcher may himself read the concerned subject matter thoroughly or
take the help of the experts. Often, the researcher states the problem in general terms it depends
on the researcher if he/she wants to narrow it down approach. For this the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter. In case of social research the researcher
should do some field observation and preliminary survey. The problem stated should also be
checked for ambiguity and feasibility.
ii. Understand the nature of the problem:
The next step is to understand the nature and origin of the problem. The researcher needs to
discuss the problem with those related to the subject matter in order to clearly understand the
origin of the problem, its nature, objectives, and the environment in which the problem is to be
studied. For better understanding the nature of the problem researcher can enter into the
discussion with those who have a good knowledge of a problem or similar other problems.
iii. Survey the available literature:
All available literature including relevant theories, reports, records, and other relevant literature
on the problem needs to be reviewed and examined. This would help the researcher to identify
the data available, the techniques that might be used, types of difficulties that may be
encountered during the study possible analytical new methods of approach to the present
problem. MSRIT Page 11
iv. Developing ideas through discussions:
The researcher may discuss the problem with his/her colleagues and others related to the
concerned subject. This helps the researcher to generate new ideas, identify different aspects on
the problem, gain suggestions and advices from others, and sharpen his focus on certain aspects
within the field. However, discussions should not be limited to the problem only, but should also
be related to the general approach to the problem, techniques that might be used to solve the
problem.
v. Rephrasing the research problem:
Finally, the researcher must rephrase the problem into a working proposition. Rephrasing the
problem means putting the problem in specific terms that is feasible and may help in the
development of working hypotheses. Once the researcher has gone through the above steps
systematically, it is easy to rephrase the problem into analytical and operational terms.
Ans : There are two types of data
1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
1. Methods of collecting primary data ,particularly in surveys and descriptive researches
important ones are
i) Observation method
ii) Interview method
iii) Through questionnaires
iv) Through schedules
Other methods which include
v) Warranty cards
vi) Distributor audit
vii) Pantry audits
viii) Consumers panels
ix) Using mechanical devices
x) Through projective techniques
xi) Depth interviews and
xii) Content analysis
2. Methods of collecting secondary data are
i) Various publications of central ,state and local government
ii) Various publication of foreign government
iii) Technical and trade journals
iv) Books magazines and news papers
v) Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry etc
vi) Reports prepared by research scholars , universities , economists , etc
vii) Public records and statistics ,historical document and other sources of published information
Collection of the data through schedule is one of the method which is most suitable for
conducting enquiry regarding family welfare in India QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Research methodology (12MIE12) M-TECH 1ST
YEAR IEM, MSRIT
Merits
interpret questions when necessary
-response is generally low in the case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators
who are able to get answer to all questions
respondent is illiterate
Demerits
amount of
money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing training to them
Ans: Dr.A.L. Bowley very aptly observes that it is safe to take published statistics at their face
value without knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticize
arguments that can be based on them
The points which should be considerd before using published data are
i) Relaibility of the data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said
data
a) Who collected the data?
b) What are the sources of the data?
c) Were they collected by using proper methods?
d) At what time were they collected?
e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
ii) Suitability of the data : The data suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found
suitable for another enquiry . Hence if the data are found to be unsuitable they should not be used
by the researchers
iii) Adequacy of the data : If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
for the purpose of present enquiry , they should be considered as inadequate and should not be
used by the researchers
From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data . This already
available data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable .suitable , and
adequate.But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from
authentic sources
Merits
ctly see what people do rather then relying on what they say they do
Limitations
-people usually perform better when they know that they are observed
ehave the way they do
Examples of observation method are
A principal watching a teacher give a lesson to her class in order to judge her.
A scientist looking at a chemical reaction in an experiment
A doctor watching a patient after administrating an injection
Projective techniques are used for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists
to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives , urges QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Research methodology
(12MIE12) M-TECH 1ST YEAR IEM, MSRIT
or intentions which are such that respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure
out himself
Some of the major projective techniques are
Word association test : These tests are used to extract information regarding such words
which have maximum association .The same idea is exploited in marketing research to find out
the quality which is mostly associated with brand of the product .A number of qualities of a
product may be listed and informants may be asked to write brand names processing one or more
of these.These techniques are frequently used in advertising research .
Sentence completion test:Thewse tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word
association tests . This technique permits the testing not only of words , but of ideas as well and
thus ,helps in developing hypothesis and in the construction of questionnaire.
Story completion test : Such tests are step further wherein the researcher may contrive stories
instead of sentences and ask the informants to complete them.
Verbal projection test: These are the tests where in the resapondent is asked to comment on
or to explain what other people do.
Pictorial technique
Thematic apperception test(T.A.T):The TAT consists of a set of pictures deal with
ordinary day-to-day events while others may be ambiguous pictures that are shown to the
respondents who are asked to describe what they think the pictures represents.
Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a series of cartoons withg
words inserted in ‘balloons’ above .The respondant is asked to put his own words in an empty
balloon space provided for the purpode in the picture
Rorschach test:This test consist of ten cards having print of inkblots without meaning .The
respondent are asked to describe what they perceive in such symmetrical inkblots and the
responses are interpreted on the basis of some predetermined psychological frame work.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Research
methodology (12MIE12) M-TECH 1ST YEAR IEM, MSRIT
Holtzman inkblot test(HIT):This test from W.H.Holtzman is a modification of the
Rorschach Test explained above .This test consists of 45 inkbolt cards.Only one response per
card is obtained from the subject and the responses from the subject are interpretated at three
levels from appropriateness acuuracy(F),or inaccuracy(F-).
Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement test: This test is designed for group administration . It
consists of twenty five plates , each containing three sketches that may be arranged in different
ways to potray sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them in a sequence which
he consider as reasonable.
Play techniques: Under play technique subject rae asked to improvise or act out a situation in
which they have been assigned various roles . The researcher may observe such traits has
hostility , dominance , sympathy , prejuidice or absence of such trials.
Quizes tests and examinations: In this procedure both long and short questions are framed to
test through them the memorizing and analytical ability of candidates .
Sociometry : This technique is used for describing the social relationships among individuals
in a group. Sociagrams are constructed to identify leaders and followers , this approach has been
applied to the diffusion of ideas on drugs among medical practitioners .
Ans: A case study is in depth research on a particular subject that usually spans a long period of
time .one doing a case study often submerges one’s self study in their study ,this is qualitative
over quantitative
A survey is a less in depth .however ,a survey allows for a researchinto a much larger group of
people .and often applicable to larger society if the results have smaller margin of error this is
quantitative over qualitative
Merits:
the behavior pattern of concerned unit .
experiences
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Research
methodology (12MIE12) M-TECH 1ST YEAR IEM, MSRIT
method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of social units and its
relationship
them
al units which is generally not possible if we use
either the observation method or method of collecting information through schedules
depending upon the prlevant circumstances
with the nature of the universe
historical analysis
analyzing ability and skill
tive purposes
Limitations
often not comparable
the collection of the information in a case study
followed in collection of the information and only few units are studied
consumes more time and require lot of expenditure
e
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Research
methodology (12MIE12) M-TECH 1ST YEAR IEM, MSRIT
Data through questionnaire
Data through Schedule
erally sent
through mail to informants ,but otherwise
the research worker or the enumerator
without further assistance from the sender
,who can interpret questions when
necessary
economical as we have to spend money
only to create questionnaire and to mail it
needed to train the enumerators and to
send to the place of the respondent
donot respond and many questionnaire
return without answering all questions
enumerators are there who are able to get
answers to all questions
respondents do not return the
questionnaire in time
with the help of the enumerators
not possible as the questionnaire is sent
through post or mail
e
help of the enumerators
the respondents are literate
respondents are illiterares
distribution of sample is possible under
the questionnaire method
enumerators over relatively wider areas
relatively more under the questionare
complete and accurate as enumerators can
method , particularly when people are
remove the difficulties
unable to understand the questions
properly
and competence of enumerators
more on the quality of the questionnaire
itself
Research Design
1. Explain the meaning of a Research design.
The extraordinary problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.
The research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted, it constitutes
the blue-print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes
an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in
respect of
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made or conducted?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out for appropriate result?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping the above mentioned in view the design decisions, one may split the overall research
design into the following parts.
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study.
(b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made.
(c)The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed.
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified.
In the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
In Simple, research design at least, contain
* A clear statement of the research problem.
* Procedure and techniques to be used to gather information.
* The population to be studied.
* Method to be used in processing and analysing data.
(a)Extraneous variables:
Extraneous variables are classified according to their origin:
(i) Subjective variable:
These are the inherent characteristics of the Experimental Unit that might affect outcomes.
Hence examples of subjective variable might include age, gender and other demographic details
and x, y and z although this is very much dependent on the object in the experiment.
(ii) Experimental variable:
These are characteristics of the experimenter or the experimental team which might influence
how the experiment is conducted or how the experimental subject response/behaves in the
experimental setting.
(iii) Situational variables:
These are characteristics of the environment in which the experiment is being conducted which
may have an effect on the result. The nature of these variables is very much dependent on the
nature of the experiment but temperature, time and humanity could all be situational variables.
(b) Confounded relationship:
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
(c) Research hypothesis:
When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific
Methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement
that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must
contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are
not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not
termed research hypotheses.
(d) Experimental and Control group:
In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is
termed a „control group‟, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is
termed an „experimental group‟. In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control
group and the Group B an experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special
studies programmes, then both groups would be termed „experimental groups.‟ It is possible to
design studies which include only experimental groups or studies which include both
experimental and control groups.
(e) Treatment:
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as „treatments‟. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the
usual studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine
through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of
wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
research study.
Different research design can be categorized as
3.1 Research design in case of exploratory research studies:
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose
of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing
the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is
on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies
must be
flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under
study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly
defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies.
3.2 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnosis:
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The
studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research
studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view of the
research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as
such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in
diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and
must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of „population‟ he
wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies,
the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough
provision for protection against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for the
economical completion of the research study. The design in such studies must be rigid and not
flexible and must focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should
the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
3.3 Research design to case of hypothesis-testing research studies:
Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where
the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies
require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of
research design in such studies, we often mean the design of experiments.
Professor R.A. Fisher‟s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such
designs was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station. As such
the study of experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research. Professor Fisher found
that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and then by conducting
experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and inferences drawn
from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental
designs for testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental
designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since
experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use, though in a
technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) in
experimental designs.
In exploratory study the research design is put into more précised manner for further
investigation or study. the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough
to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt
flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is
transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data.
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The
studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic research
studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive research
studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view of the
research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as
such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in
diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly , what he wants to measure and
must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of „population‟ he
wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies,
the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough
provision for protection against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for the
economical completion of the research study. So its found that “Research design in exploratory
studies must be flexible but in descriptive studies, it must minimize bias and maximise
reliability.”
Research design is a systematic way of representing the research which is to be carried out. It
must make sure that research is based on a properly developed prototype. It must be prepared
according to good practice guidance given by governing authority. It must take care of safety and
well being of participants take precedence over the development of treatments and the furthering
of knowledge.
The decisions at all stages of research, especially for discrimination and respect participants
equality and diversity. It should make sure of detailed data collection. And analysing of
assumptions and conducting proper experiments. And binding up with the proper report.
Its found that, single design is not suitable for research design because of various aspects. There
are so many researchers conducting research, but the mode, field and area of interest and
conducting the experiments will be different for every research. They vary from one to other. So
its not so suitable for single research design in all research studies.
(a) Two group simple randomized design:
In two group simple randomized design, first of all the population is defined and then from the
population of sample is selected randomly. Futher, requirement of design is that item, after being
selected randomly from the population, be randomly assigned to the experimental and control
groups. Thus , this design yields to two group is technically described as representatives of the
population. In a diagram form this design can be shown in this way:
Fig. Two- group simple randomized experimental design.
Since in the sample randomized design the element constitute the sample are randomly drawn
from the same population and randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups.
(b) Latin square design;
It is an experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research. The conditions under
which agricultural investigations are carried out are different from those in other studies for
nature plays an important role in agriculture. For instance, an experiment has to be made through
which the effects of five different varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a
certain crop, say wheat, it to be judged. In such a case the varying fertility of the soil in different
blocks in which the experiment has to be performed must be taken into consideration, otherwise
the
results obtained may not be very dependable because the output happens to be the effect not only
of
fertilizers, but it may also be the effect of fertility of soil. Similarly, there may be impact of
varying
seeds on the yield. To overcome such difficulties, the L.S. design is used when there are two
major extraneous factors such as the varying soil fertility and varying seeds.
The Latin-square design is one wherein each fertilizer, in our example, appears five times but is
used only once in each row and in each column of the design. In other words, the treatments in a
L.S. design are so allocated among the plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any one
row or any one column. The two blocking factors may be represented through rows and columns
(one through rows and the other through columns). The following is a diagrammatic form of
such a design in respect of, say, five types of fertilizers, viz., A, B, C, D and E and the two
blocking factor viz., the varying soil fertility and the varying seeds:
Fertility level 1 2 3 4 5
The above diagram clearly shows that in a L.S. design the field is divided into as many blocks as
there are varieties of fertilizers and then each block is again divided into as many parts as there
are varieties of fertilizers in such a way that each of the fertilizer variety is used in each of the
block (whether column-wise or row-wise) only once.
(c) Random replication design:
The limitation of the two-group randomized design is usually eliminated within the random
replications design. In the illustration just cited above, the teacher differences on the dependent
variable were ignored, i.e. the extraneous variable was not controlled. But in a random
replications design, the effect of such differences are minimised (or reduced) by providing a
number of repetitions for each treatment. Each repetition is technically called a „replication‟.
Random replication design serves two purposes viz, it provides controls for the differential
effects of the extraneous independent variables and secondly, it randomizes any individual
differences among those conducting the treatments.
(d) Simple factorial design:
In case of simple factorial designs, we consider the effects of varying two factors on the
dependent variable. Simple factorial design is also termed as a „two-factor-factorial design‟,
whereas complex factorial design is known as „multifactor- factorial design.‟ Simple factorial
design may either be a 2*2 simple factorial design, or it may be, say, 3*4 or 5*3 or the like type
of simple factorial design. We illustrate some simple factorial designs as under
Eg: 2*2 simple factor design
In this design the extraneous variable to be controlled by homogeneity is called the control
variable and the independent variable, which is manipulated, is called the experimental variable.
Then there are two treatments of the experimental variable and two levels of the control variable.
As such there are four cells into which the sample is divided. Each of the four combinations
would provide one treatment or experimental condition. Subjects are assigned at random to each
treatment in the same manner as in a randomized group design. The means for different cells
may be obtained along with the means for different rows and columns. Means of different cells
represent the mean scores for the dependent variable and the column means in the given design
are termed the main effect for treatments without taking into account any differential effect that
is due to the level of the control variable. Similarly, the row means in the said design are termed
the main effects for levels without regard to treatment.
Informal experimental design:
In this there are 3 types, they are as follows
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.
(i) Before-and-after without control design:
In such a design a single test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured
before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the dependent
variable is measured again after the treatment has been introduced. The effect of the treatment
would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment. (ii) After-only with control design:
In this design two groups or areas (test area and control area) are selected and the treatment is
introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at
the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in
the control area from its value in the test area.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design:
In this design two areas are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for
an identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced into the test area
only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an identical time-period after the
introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the
dependent variable in the control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.
Different research survey can be classified based on the survey study. In that experience survey
is one among them. Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation
or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis
in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate
for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects
of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research
problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in
exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering
relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such
studies are talked about
(a) The survey of concerning literature
(b) The experience survey and
(c) The analysis of „insight-stimulating
Examples:
The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by
earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research.
It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this
way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases
where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for
deriving the relevant hypotheses from it.
Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in one‟s area of interest may as well
as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt
to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is
himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for
hypothesis formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.
Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey people who
are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a
representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be
interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the
systematic questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that
the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not
previously considered. Generally, the experience collecting interview is likely to be long and
may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to
be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the
respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time
of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable
the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research
hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for
doing different types of research. Analysis of „insight-stimulating‟ examples is also a fruitful
method for suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is
little experience to serve as a guide.
This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which
one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the
investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse
information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an
appropriate procedure for evoking insights.
It‟s a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The design of study defines the study type
(descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental, review).
Now a day, research is carried out everywhere, but it is important to have proper in-lines within
it. They are nothing but the finding the area of interest. If it‟s once identified then the researcher
can carry research. But after identification of area of interest and need of the research, the design
of the research plays very important role. It becomes very important task to carry out the
experiment. The research problem is defined in such a way that, it should be in understanding
manner and should be in-line, for the further reference. So the design of research plays important
role in research.
Once this all is done, the researcher should contribute his research to the society or for the people
or add value to it. The research should be help full to everyone, and it should be cost efficient.
Also it adds value to the personal. It will be employed by every individual for the reference.
These are certain basis which adds stratification to employ in public on inflation.
Problem Definition:
As a researcher, we know that defining a problem is the first step in a research process.
Researcher has to lay down certain boundaries within which he/she has to study the problem
with a pre-defined objective in mind.
Defining a problem is a tedious task, and this must be done intelligently to avoid confusions that
arise in the research operation. Systematic steps to define a problem in best way are:
i. State the problem in a general way:
First state the problem in general terms with respect to some practical, scientific or intellectual
interest. For this, the researcher may himself read the concerned subject matter thoroughly or
take the help of the experts. Often, the researcher states the problem in general terms it depends
on the researcher if he/she wants to narrow it down approach. For this the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter. In case of social research the researcher
should do some field observation and preliminary survey. The problem stated should also be
checked for ambiguity and feasibility.
ii. Understand the nature of the problem:
The next step is to understand the nature and origin of the problem. The researcher needs to
discuss the problem with those related to the subject matter in order to clearly understand the
origin of the problem, its nature, objectives, and the environment in which the problem is to be
studied. For better understanding the nature of the problem researcher can enter into the
discussion with those who have a good knowledge of a problem or similar other problems.
iii. Survey the available literature:
All available literature including relevant theories, reports, records, and other relevant literature
on the problem needs to be reviewed and examined. This would help the researcher to identify
the data available, the techniques that might be used, types of difficulties that may be
encountered during the study possible analytical new methods of approach to the present
problem.
iv. Developing ideas through discussions:
The researcher may discuss the problem with his/her colleagues and others related to the
concerned subject. This helps the researcher to generate new ideas, identify different aspects on
the problem, gain suggestions and advices from others, and sharpen his focus on certain aspects
within the field. However, discussions should not be limited to the problem only, but should also
be related to the general approach to the problem, techniques that might be used to solve the
problem.
. Rephrasing the research problem:
Finally, the researcher must rephrase the problem into a working proposition. Rephrasing the
problem means putting the problem in specific terms that is feasible and may help in the
development of working hypotheses. Once the researcher has gone through the above steps
systematically, it is easy to rephrase the problem into analytical and operational terms.
Research problem is the fuel that drives the scientific process, and is the foundation of any
research method and experimental design, from true experiment to case study.
OR
It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
The main issues are:
sample.
rk.
Example:
Let us consider the problem of minimum ground clearance of xyz car.
When the company knows the problem of minimum clearance from the customer then the design
engineer firstly conceptualize what the problem is and then the engineer defines the problem in a
technical way and then start accessing the problem. Then the engineer discusses the problem
with his colleagues and starts analyzing whether it is possible to make changes in the design.
Then the new prototype is made keeping in mind the problem statement and gathering the
resources to solve the ground clearance problem. MSRIT Page 4
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in literature, in theory, or in
practice that point to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
Research problem is one which requires a researcher to find the best solution for the given
problem.
EXAMPLE: If government wants to stop the prevention of AIDS then the medical researcher
should define the problem should give the complete information of mechanism of virus in human
body and its symptoms. After getting all the required information from the researcher then
government will take steps in prevention of AIDS.
work, should discuss with the Chinese priest, should understand the Chinese mythology and so
on then at last researcher will have sound knowledge about CHINESE religion.
researcher wants to make survey of failure rates in LOVE marriages. Then the researcher
should attain the court secessions and find out the reason behind the failure, should discuss
openly with the expert divorce councilors, discuss with colleagues and relatives etc. Then come
to conclusion about the failure rates in LOVE marriages.
We hear that problem WELL DEFINED IS THE PROBLEM HALF SOLVED, holds a strong
even today. Proper definition of a research problem is an important prerequisite for any research
study. Often the formulation of the problem holds more significance than its solution. The
manner in which the problem is defined decides the direction for the entire research. The
problem that has to be analyzed should be defined correctly which will help to discriminate
between the relevant and the irrelevant data. A careful scrutiny of the research problem will help
in working out the research design. This ensures the smooth coordination steps involved in the
research. Lots of questions may arise during the course of research such as
Researcher finds answers to all the questions only if the problem has been properly defined. A
proper definition of the problem helps to improve the overall efficiency and quality of the study.
It is foundation of further development of the research. A carefully defined research problem
ensures the researcher does not stray from the research path that has to be followed.
Experience Survey is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Experience Survey
can be specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals. Today, experience
survey is used by a variety of different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey
research to analyze behavior, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the
media, such as, in evaluating political. A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that
is given to a sample. With a representative sample, that is one that is representative of the larger
population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the population from which the sample
was drawn. Further, one can compare the attitudes of different populations as well as look for
changes in attitudes over time. A good sample selection is key as it allows one to generalize the
findings from the sample to the population, which is the whole purpose of survey research.
A pilot study, pilot project or pilot experiment is a small scale preliminary study conducted in
order to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events, and affect size (statistical variability) in
an attempt to predict an appropriate sample size and improve upon the study design prior to
performance of a full-scale research project. Pilot studies, therefore, may not be appropriate for
case studies.
SAMPLING DESIGN
vii. Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use ie:
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact this
technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
Simple random sampling
. Simple random sampling is the form applied when the methods of selection assures each
individual or element in universe or equal chance of being chosen
Methods of drawing simple random sampling:
There are four methods in drawing out a sample. They are:
Advantages of simple random sampling
i. It is free from bias.
ii. It is generally more pre presentation.
iii. It is very simple to administer.
iv. Assessment of sampling error can be made statistically.
Disadvantages of simple random sampling
i. It is very difficult to have completely caterogued universe.
ii. Cases selected may be too widely dispersed.
iii. If units are not different in size, this method is unsuitable.
In this technique sample is not based on the probability with which a unit can enter the sample
but by other consideration, such as common sense, experience, and expertise of the sampler.
Method of drawing complex random sampling
Advantages of complex random sampling
i. There is no necessity to use much technology.
ii. Freedom is there to enumerator to select the sample.
iii. The estimate can be obtained quickly and cheaply.
iv. The service of the enumerator can be easily exploited
Disadvantages of complex random sampling
i. The reliability of the estimate is not known.
ii. It is dangerous to use this method without sufficient experience
iii. Theory of sampling cannot be applied to quota sampling
iv. Information about the precision of estimates through this method cannot be obtained
Examples of complex random sampling
Quota sampling is an example of complex random sampling. Under quota sampling interviewers
are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on how they
are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to the
interviewer‟s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively in expensive.
The quota samplings are essentially judgment samples and inferences drawn on the basis are not
amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
i. It is free from bias.
ii. It is generally more pre presentation.
iii. It is very simple to administer.
iv. Assessment of sampling error can be made statistically.
The procedures for selecting a simple random sample are
i. Lottery method
Number or names of various units of universe are written on chits, place them on a container, the
roll is shuffled and blindly draw one at a time until the sample is drawn. We can do this with
replacement of the chits drawn before next draw is made.
ii. Selection from sequential list
Under this plan, the name of universe is first arranged serially according to some particular
order, which may be alphabetical, geographical or simply serial. Example:- 7th, 17th, 27th, etc.
iii. Grid system
It is used for a sample of area. According to this method a map of the entire area is prepared.
Then the screen with squares is placed upon the map. Some of the squares are selected at
random.
A sample which is not representative of the whole is called a bias sample. A bias may be caused
in the sample by any one of the following reasons
i. Too small size.
ii. Imperfect stratification.
iii. Incomplete source list.
iv. Selection of cases by field workers
v. Purposive selection.
vi. Convenience sampling.
vii. Nature of the phenomenon.
viii. Faulty method of drawing random circle
ix. Replacement of cases.
SAMPLING DESIGN
a. A Probability Sample
b. A non-probability sample
c. A stratified sample
d. A cluster sample
A Probability sample
The form applied when the method of selection assures each individual or element in universe on
equal chance of being chosen .
A Non-probability sample
In this technique sample is not based on the probability with a unit can enter the sample but by
other consideration such as common sense, experience and expertise of the samples.
A Stratified sample
In this method the population is first divided in to a number of strated based on same
characteristic, such as age, sex, educational level etc. Then a simple random is taken from each
stratum and such samples are brought together to form a total sample.
A Cluster sample
A sampling procedure in which the sampling unit is a cluster of elements and after selecting a
sample clusters information is collected on the each element in the sampled cluster is called
cluster sampling.
The following steps have to be taken in selecting a random sample
i. Preparation of source list
The units of the definite universe should be listed out. This is called the source list. The source
list should posses the following qualities
a) The list should be exhaustive.
b) It should be up to data and valid.
c) It should contain full information about the units.
d) The units should not be repeated in the list.
e) It should be suitable for that particular study.
f) It must be reliable.
g) It must be within the reach of the researcher.
ii. Deciding the sample unit
Before drawing a sample we have to decide the unit of sample. We have to decide which type of
the following sample units to be selected.
a) Geographical units.
b) Structural units.
c) Social group units.
d) Individuals.
iii. Selecting the sampling techniques
After deciding the sampling units to be selected from the source list, we must use one of the
following sampling techniques to select the sampling units.
a) Purposive sampling.
b) Random sampling.
c) Cluster sampling.
d) Multi-stage sampling.
iv. Size of the sample
The size of the sample is an important issue as it has a direct bearing upon accuracy time, cost
and administration of the research.In Stratified sampling a population from which a sample is to
be drawn does not constitute a homogenous group , stratified sampling technique is generally
applied in order to obtain a representative sample. In brief, stratified sampling results in more
reliable and detailed information. In this method the population is first divided in to a number of
strated based on same characteristic, such as age, sex, educational level etc. Then a simple
random is taken from each stratum and such samples are brought together to form a total sample.
a) Restricted and unrestricted sampling.
b) Convenience and purposive sampling.
c) Systematic and stratified sampling.
d) Cluster and area sampling.
a) Restricted and unrestricted sampling:
Restricted sampling in probability sampling represents complex random sampling (such as
cluster sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling).
Unrestricted sampling in probability sampling represents simple random sampling.
Restricted sampling in non-probability sampling represents purposive sampling (such as quota
sampling, judgment sampling).
Unrestricted sampling in non-probability sampling represents haphazard sampling or
convenience sampling.
b) Convenience and purposive sampling:
Convenience sampling is also called as probability sampling. It is the form applied when the
methods of selection assures each individual or element in universe or equal chance of being
chosen.
Purposive sampling is also called as non-probability sampling. In this technique sample is not
based on the probability with a unit can enter the sample but by other consideration such as
common sense, experience and expertise of the samples.
c) Systematic and stratified sampling:
In Systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly and the remaining units of the
sample are selected at fixed intervals. Although a systematic sample is not a random sample in
the strict sense of the term but it SAMPLING DESIGN is often considered reasonable to treat
systematic sample as if it were a random sample.
In Stratified sampling a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogenous group , stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample. In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed
information.
d) Cluster and area sampling:
A sampling procedure in which the sampling unit is a cluster of elements after selecting a sample
clusters information is collected on the each element in the sampled cluster is called cluster
sampling.
If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is better
known as area sampling. In other words , cluster designs where the primary sampling unit
represents a cluster of units based on geographic area are distinguished as area sampling. The
plus and minus points of cluster sampling are also applicable to area sampling.
A manager evaluating the quality of a survey-based research project must estimate the accuracy
of the survey. The two major sources of survey error are:
Random sampling error: Most surveys try to portray a representative cross-section of a
particular target population. Even with technically proper random probability samples, statistical
errors will occur because of chance variation in the elements selected for the sample. Unless
sample size is increased, these statistical problems are unavoidable.
Systematic error: Results from some imperfect aspect of the research design or from a mistake
in the execution of the research. Because all sources of error other than those introduced by the
random sampling procedure are included, these errors or biases are called non sampling errors. A
sample bias exists when the results of a sample show a persistent tendency to deviate in one
direction from the true value of the population parameter. The many sources of error that in some
way systematically influence answers can be classified under two general categories i.e;
respondent error and administrative error.
Respondent error: Refers to any error introduced into the survey results due to respondents
providing untrue or incorrect information. It is a type of systemic bias. Several factors lead to
respondent error. Language and educational issues can lead to a misunderstanding of the
question by the respondent.
Administrative error: The results of improper administration or execution of the research task
are administrative errors. Such errors can be caused by carelessness, confusion, neglect,
omission, or some other blunder. Four types of administrative error are data-processing error,
sample selection error, interviewer error, and interviewer cheating.
Data processing error: A category of administrative error that occurs because of incorrect
data entry, incorrect computer programming, or other error during data analysis.
Sample selection error: Sample selection error an administrative error caused by improper
selection of a sample.
Interview error : Interviewer error Administrative error caused by failure of an interview to
record response correctly.
Interviewer Cheating : Interviewer cheating , The practice if filling in fake answer or
falsifying questionnaires while working as an Interviewer.
-sectional studies
dy
Structured and disguised questions: A structured question limits the number of response
available.
Ex: The respondent may be instructed to give one alternative response , such as “under 17”,”1835”, or” over 35”, to indicate his or her age.
An indirect type of question that assumes that the purpose of the study must be hidden from
respondents. A straight forward question like “Do you smoke marijuana on the job” assumes that
the respondent is willing to reveal the information.
Questionnaires can be categorized by their degree of structure and degree of disguise. For
example, interviews in exploratory research might utilize unstructured-disguised questionnaires.
Classifying questionnaires on temporal basis: Although most surveys are for individual
research projects conducted only once over a short time period, other projects require multiple
surveys to be made over a long period of time. Thus, it is possible to classify surveys on a
temporal basis.
Cross sectional study: A study in which various segments of a population are sampled at a
single point in time.
A nation wide survey was taken to examine different attitudes of cross-sections of the American
public towards the arts, and one aspect of the survey dealt with museums. In general, the public’s
attitudes towards museums were very positive. Museum preferences varied by demographics or
cross-sections of the population: People in towns and rural areas showed greater interest in
historical museums, whereas city and suburban residents leaned more heavily towards art
museums. The young(16-20 year olds) were more interested than others in art museums and less
interested in historical museums. Longitudinal study: A survey of residents at different points
in time, thus allowing analysis of response continuity and changes over time.
In a longitudinal study respondents are questioned at different moments in time. The purpose of
longitudinal studies is to examine continuity of response and to observe changes that occur over
time. For example, many syndicated polling services, such as Gallup, New York Times/CBS
News, and Yankelovich partners, conduct regular polls. In 1999 and again in 2000 the Gallup
poll found that Americans rate the honesty and ethical standards of nurses highest among 26
occupations. Longitudinal research from 1990-1998 found pharmacists rated highest for 9 years
in a row. The same longitudinal study showed that car salesmen held the dubious honour of
finishing dead last, as the have every time since the question was asked in 1977. However,
Gallup poll has found that two new comers, HMO managers and tele marketers- are giving car
salesmen competition at the low end of the spectrum. In 2000, 59% of respondents ranked
college teacher as an occupation high or very high in honesty and ethics
Panel study: A longitudinal study that involves collecting data from the same sample of
individuals or households over time. Consider the researcher who is interested in learning about
brand-switching behavior. A consumer panel consisting of a group of people who record their
purchasing habits in a diary over time provides continuous information about the brand and
product class. Such a longitudinal study enables the researcher to track repeat purchase behavior
as well as changes in purchasing habits that occur in response to price changes, special
promotions, or other changes in marketing strategy.
Typically, diaries recording a repetitive behavior are completed by the respondents and mailed
back to the research organization. In other cases, when panel members have agreed to participate
and evaluate a particular topic on a recurring basis(For ex, in political polling), telephone
interviews are often conducted. In recent years, internet panels have grown in popularity. The
nature of the research problem dictates which type of communication method is utilized.
Primary data collection- Primary data are information collected by a researcher specially
for a research assignment. In other words, primary data are information that a company must
gather because no one has compiled and published the information in a forum accessible to the
public. Companies generally take the time and allocate the resources required to gather primary
data only when a question, issue or problem presents itself that is sufficiently important or
unique that it warrants the expenditure necessary to gather the primary data. Primary data are
original in nature and directly related to the issue or problem and current data. Primary data are
the data which the researcher collects through various methods like interviews, surveys,
questionnaires, etc.
Secondary data- Are the data collected by a party not related to the research study but
collected these data for some other purpose and at different time in the past. If the researcher
uses these data then these become secondary data for the current users. These may be available
in return, typed or in electronic forms. A variety of secondary information sources is available to
the researcher gathering data on an industry, potential product applications and the market place.
Secondary data is also used to gain initial insight into the research problem. Secondary data is
classified in terms of its source- either internal or external. Internal , or in house data is
secondary information acquired within the organization where research is being carried out.
External secondary data is obtained from outside sources.
Covered issues such as the researcher’s obligation to protect the public from misrepresentation
and to avoid practices that may harm, humiliate, or mislead survey respondents.
Many ethical issues apply especially to survey research, such as respondents right to privacy :
The use of deception; respondent’s right to be informed about the purpose of the research; the
need for confidentiality; the need for honesty in collecting data; and the need for objectivity in
reporting data.
Human interactive media and electronic interactive media
Human interactive media personal; forms of communication in which a message is directed at an
individual (or small group), who then has the opportunity to interact with the communicator.
Electronic interactive media communication media that allow an organization and an audience to
interact using digital technology ( for ex, through the internet).
Although the history of business research is sketchy, gathering information through face-face
contact with individuals has a long history. Periodic censuses were used as a basis for tax rates
and military conscription in the ancient empires of Egypt and Rome. Later, during the middle
ages the merchant families of Fugger and Roths Child prospered in part because their for- flung
organizations enabled them to get information before their competitors could. A personal
interview is a form of direct communication in which an interviewer asks respondents questions
in a face-face situations. This versatile and flexible method is a two way conversation between
an interviewer and respondent.
-door interviews
Door-door interview is the personal interview conducted at the respondents home or place of
business.
Provides a more representative sample of the population than mail questionnaires. For ex,
Hispanics, regardless of education, frequently preferred to communicate through the spoken
rather than the return word. Response rates to mail surveys are substantially lower among
Hispanics, regardless of whether the questionnaire is printed in English or Spanish. People who
do not telephones, who have unlisted telephone numbers, or who are otherwise difficult to
contact may be reached through door-door interviews. Such interviews can help solve the non
response problem; however, they may under represent some groups and over represent others.
Personal interviews conducted in shopping malls are referred to to as mall intercept interviews(
or shopping center sampling). Interviewers generally stop and attempt to question shoppers at a
central point within the mall or at an entrance. The main reason these interviews are conducted at
this location is their lower cost. No travel is required to the respondents home-instead, the
respondent comes to the interviewer, and thus many interviews can be carried out quickly. The
incidence of refusal is high, however, because individuals may be in a hurry.
Contacting respondents by telephone to gather responses to survey questions
The practice of conducting telephone interviews from a central location, which allows effective
supervision and control of the quality of interviewing.
A type of telephone interviewing in which the interviewer reads questions from a computer
screen and enters the respondents answers directly into a computer.
A method of obtaining a representative sample for a telephone interview by using a table of
random numbers to generate telephone numbers.
A form of computer assisted interviewing in which a voice synthesized module records a
respondents single word response in a computer file.
Earlier discussions of research design and problem definition emphasized that many research
tasks may lead to similar decision making information. There is no “best form of survey. Each
has advantages and disadvantages. A researcher who must ask highly confidential questions may
conduct a mail survey, thus trading off the speed of data collection to avoid any possibility of
interviewer bias. If a researcher must have considerable control over question phrasing, central
location telephone interviewing may be selected.
To determine the appropriate technique the researcher must ask questions such as “is the
assistance of an interviewer necessary? Are respondents likely to be interested in the issues being
investigated? Will cooperation be easily attained? How quickly is the information needed? Will
the study require a long and complex questionnaire? How large is the budget?” the criteria cost,
speed, anonymity, and the like- may be different for each project.
- instantaneous 24/7
- high (world wide)
- varies depending on website, high from panels
- extremely versatile
-moderate, length customized based on answers.
non response rate- software can assure none
- high
-none
- not applicable
- respondent can be either anonymous or known
- difficult, unless e-mail address is known
-low
- streaming media software allows use of graphics and animation.
Regression Analysis
Sol: There are several methods of factor analysis, but they do not necessarily give same result
Such factor analysis is not a single unique method but a set of techniques. Important methods of
factor analysis are:
(i) the centroid method;
(ii) the principal components method;
(ii) the maximum likelihood method.
(1) The centroid method:
This method of factor analysis, developed by L.L. Thurstone, was quite frequently used until
About 1950 before the advent of large capacity high speed computers.* the centroid method
tends to
Maximize the sum of loadings, disregarding signs; it is the method which extracts the largest
sum of Absolute loadings for each factor in turn. It is defined by linear combinations in which all
weights are Either + 1.0 or – 1.0. The main merit of this method is that it is relatively simple, can
be easily Understood and involves simpler computations.
(2) The principle components method: Principal-components method (or simply P.C. method) of
factor analysis, developed by H. Hotelling seeks to maximize the sum of squared loadings of
each factor extracted in turn. Accordingly PC factor explains more varience than would the
loadings obtained from any other method of factorings. The aim of the principal components
method is the construction out of a given set of variables Xj‟s (j = 1, 2, …, k) of new variables
(pi), called principal components which are linear combinations of the Xs
p1 = a11 X1 + a12 X2 + ... + a1k Xk
p2 = a21 X1 + a22 X2 + … + a2k Xk
.....
.....
pk = ak1 X1 + ak2 X2 + … + akk Xk
(C) Maximum Likelihood (ML) Method of Factor Analysis:
The ML method consists in obtaining sets of factor loadings successively in such a way that
each, in turn, explains as much as possible of the population correlation matrix as estimated from
the sample correlation matrix. If Rs stands for the correlation matrix actually obtained from the
data in a sample, Rp stands for the correlation matrix that would be obtained if the entire
population were tested, then the ML method seeks to extrapolate what is known from Rs in the
best possible way to estimate Rp (but the pc method only maximizes the variance explained in
Rs).
Sol: 1. multiple regressions: we form a linear composite of explanatory variables
in such way that it has maximum correlation with a criterion variable. This technique is
appropriate when the researcher has a single, metric criterion variable. Which is supposed to be a
function of other explanatory variables. The main objective in using this technique is to predict
the variability the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the independent variables.
One can predict the level of the dependent phenomenon through multiple regression analysis
model, given the levels of independent variables. Given a dependent variable, the linear-multiple
regression problem is to estimate constants B1, B2, ... Bk and A such that the expression Y =
B1X1 + B2X2 + ... + BkXk + A pare rovides a good estimate of an individual‟s Y score based on
his X scores. In practice, Y and the several X variables are converted to standard scores; zy, zl, z2,
... zk; each z has a mean of 0 and standard deviation of 1. Then the problem is to estimate
constants, bi, such that z¢y = b1z1 + b2z2 + ...+ Bk zk
2. Multiple discriminant analysis: Through discriminant analysis technique, researcher may
classify individuals or objects into one of two or more mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups
on the basis of a set of independent variable.
3. Multivariate analysis of varience: Through discriminant analysis technique, researcher may
classify individuals or objects into one of two or more mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups
on the basis of a set of independent variables. Discriminant analysis requires interval
independent variables and a nominal dependent variable. For example, suppose that brand
preference (say brand x or y) is the dependent variable of interest and its relationship to an
individual‟s income, age, education, etc. is being investigated, then we should use the technique
of discriminant analysis. Regression analysis in such a situation is not suitable because the
dependent variable is, not intervally scaled. Thus discriminant analysis is considered an
appropriate technique when the single dependent variable happens to be non metric and is to be
classified into two or more groups, depending upon its relationship with several independent
variables which all happen to be metric.
3. Multivariate analysis of variance: Multivariate analysis of variance is an extension of bivariate
analysis of variance in which the ratio of among-groups variance to within-groups variance is
calculated on a set of variables instead of a single variable. This technique is considered
appropriate when several metric dependent variables are involved in a research study along with
many non-metric explanatory variables. (But if the study has only one metric dependent variable
and several nonmetric explanatory variables, then we use the ANOVA technique as explained
earlier in the book.) In other words, multivariate analysis of variance is specially applied
whenever the researcher wants to test hypotheses concerning multivariate differences in group
responses to experimental manipulations.
4. Canonical correlation analysis: This technique was first developed by Hotelling wherein an
effort is made to simultaneously predict a set of criterion variables from their joint co-variance
with a set of explanatory variables. Both metric and non-metric data can be used in the context of
this multivariate technique. The procedure followed is to obtain a set of weights for the
dependent and independent variables in such a way that linear composite of the criterion
variables has a maximum correlation with the linear composite of the explanatory variables.
Importance characteristics of multivariate techniques: Multivariate techniques are largely
empirical and deal with the reality; they possess the ability to analyse complex data. Accordingly
in most of the applied and behavioural researches, we generally resort to multivariate analysis
techniques for realistic results. Besides being a tool for analyzing the data, multivariate
techniques also help in various types of decision-making. For example, take the case of college
entrance examination wherein a number of tests are administered to candidates, and the
candidates scoring high total marks based on many subjects are admitted. This system, though
apparently fair, may at times be biased in favour of some subjects with the larger standard
deviations. Multivariate techniques may be appropriately used in such situations for developing
norms as to who should be admitted in college. We may also cite an example from medical field.
Many medical examinations such as blood pressure and cholesterol tests are administered to
patients. Each of the results of such examinations has significance of its own, but it is also
important to consider relationships between different test results or results of the same tests at
different occasions in order to draw proper diagnostic conclusions and to determine an
appropriate therapy. Multivariate techniques can assist us in such a situation. In view of all this,
we can state that “if the researcher is interested in making probability statements on the basis of
sampled multiple measurements.
The basic objective underlying multivariate techniques is to represent a collection of massive
data in a simplified way. In other words, multivariate techniques transform a mass of
observations into a smaller number of composite scores in such a way that they may reflect as
much information as possible contained in the raw data obtained concerning a research study.
Sol: This method of factor analysis, developed by L.L. Thurstone, was quite frequently used
until about 1950 before the advent of large capacity high speed computers.* The centroid method
tends to maximize the sum of loadings, disregarding signs; it is the method which extracts the
largest sum of absolute loadings for each factor in turn. It is defined by linear combinations in
which all weights are either + 1.0 or – 1.0. The main merit of this method is that it is relatively
simple, can be easily understood and involves simpler computations. If one understands this
method, it becomes easy to understand the mechanics involved in other methods of factor
analysis.
Various steps involved in this method are as follows:
(i) This method starts with the computation of a matrix of correlations, R, wherein unities are
place in the diagonal spaces. The product moment formula is used for working out the
correlation coefficients.
(ii) If the correlation matrix so obtained happens to be positive manifold (i.e., disregarding the
diagonal elements each variable has a large sum of positive correlations than of negative
correlations), the centroid method requires that the weights for all variables be +1.0. In other
words, the variables are not weighted; they are simply summed. But in case the correlation
matrix is not a positive manifold, then reflections must be made before the first centroid factor is
obtained.
(iii) The first centroid factor is determined as under:
(a) The sum of the coefficients (including the diagonal unity) in each column the correlation
matrix is worked out.
(b) Then the sum of these column sums (T) is obtained.
(c) The sum of each column obtained as per (a) above is divided by the square root of T obtained
in (b) above, resulting in what are called centroid loadings. This way each centroid loading (one
loading for one variable) is computed. The full set of loadings so obtained constitute the first
centroid factor (say A). (iv) To obtain second centroid factor (say B), one must first obtain a
matrix of residual coefficients. For this purpose, the loadings for the two variables on the first
centroid factor are multiplied. This is done for all possible pairs of variables (in each diagonal
space is the square of the particular factor loading). The resulting matrix of factor cross products
may be named as Q1. Then Q1 is subtracted clement by element from the original matrix of
correlation, R, After obtaining R1, one must reflect some of the variables in it, meaning thereby
that some of the variables are given negative signs in the sum [This is usually done by
inspection. The aim in doing this should be to obtain a reflected matrix, R'1, which will have the
highest possible sum of coefficients (T)].
Sol: One often talks about the rotated solutions in the context of factor analysis. This is done
(i.e., a factor matrix is subjected to rotation) to attain what is technically called “simple
structure” in data. Simple structure according to L.L. Thurstone is obtained by rotating the axes
until: (i) each row of the factor matrix has one zero.
(ii) Each column of the factor matrix has p zeros, where p is the number of factors.
(iii) For each pair of factors, there are several variables for which the loading on one is virtually
zero and the loading on the other is substantial.
(iv) If there are many factors, then for each pair of factors there are many variables for which
both loadings are zero.
(v) For every pair of factors, the number of variables with non-vanishing loadings on both of
them is small.
All these criteria simply imply that the factor analysis should reduce the complexity of all the
Variables.
Sol: 1. Cluster analysis: Cluster analysis consists of methods of classifying variables into
clusters. Technically, a cluster consists of variables that correlate highly with one another and
have comparatively low correlations with variables in other clusters. The basic objective of
cluster analysis is to determine how many mutually and exhaustive groups or clusters, based on
the similarities of profiles among entities, really exist in the population and then to state the
composition of such groups. Various groups to be determined in cluster analysis are not
predefined as happens to be the case in discriminant analysis.
Steps: In general, cluster analysis contains the following steps to be performed:
(i) First of all, if some variables have a negative sum of correlations in the correlation matrix,
one must reflect variables so as to obtain a maximum sum of positive correlations for the matrix
as a whole.
(ii) The second step consists in finding out the highest correlation in the correlation matrix and
the two variables involved (i.e., having the highest correlation in the matrix) form the nucleus of
the first cluster.
(iii) Then one looks for those variables that correlate highly with the said two variables and
includes them in the cluster. This is how the first cluster is formed.
(iv) To obtain the nucleus of the second cluster, we find two variables that correlate highly but
have low correlations with members of the first cluster. Variables that correlate highly with the
said two variables are then found. Such variables along the said two variables thus constitute the
second cluster.
(v) One proceeds on similar lines to search for a third cluster and so on.
2. Multidimensional scaling: Multidimensional scaling (MDS) allows a researcher to measure an
item in more than one dimension at a time. The basic assumption is that people perceive a set of
objects as being more or less similar to one another on a number of dimensions (usually
uncorrelated with one another) instead of only one. There are several MDS techniques (also
known as techniques for dimensional reduction) often used for the purpose of revealing patterns
of one sort or another in interdependent data structures. If data happen to be non-metric, MDS
involves rank ordering each pair of objects in terms of similarity. Then the judged similarities are
transformed into distances through statistical manipulations and are consequently shown in ndimensional space in a way that the interpoint distances best preserve the original interpoint
proximities. After this sort of mapping is performed, the dimensions are usually interpreted and
labeled by the researcher.
3.Maximum likelihood method of factor analysis: The ML method consists in obtaining sets of
factor loadings successively in such a way that each, in turn, explains as much as possible of the
population correlation matrix as estimated from the sample correlation matrix. If Rs stands for
the correlation matrix actually obtained from the data in a sample, Rp stands for the correlation
matrix that would be obtained if the entire population were tested, then the ML method seeks to
extrapolate what is known from Rs in the best possible way to estimate Rp
(but the PC method only maximizes the variance explained in Rs). Thus, the ML method is a
statistical approach in which one maximizes some relationship between the sample of data and
the population from which the sample was drawn. The arithmetic underlying the ML method is
relatively difficult in comparison to that involved in the PC method and as such is
understandable when one has adequate grounding in calculus, higher algebra and matrix algebra
in particular. Iterative approach is employed in ML method also to find each factor, but the
iterative procedures have proved much more difficult than what we find in the case of PC
method. Hence the ML method is generally not used for factor analysis in practice. The loadings
obtained on the first factor are employed in the usual way to obtain a matrix of the residual
coefficients. A significance test is then applied to indicate whether it would be reasonable to
extract a second factor. This goes on repeatedly in search of one factor after another. One stops
factoring after the significance test fails to reject the null hypothesis for the residual matrix. The
final product is a matrix of factor loadings. The ML factor loadings can be interpreted in a
similar fashion as we have explained in case of the centroid or the PC method.
4. Path analysis: The term „path analysis‟ was first introduced by the biologist Sewall Wright in
1934 in connection with decomposing the total correlation between any two variables in a causal
system. The technique of path analysis is based on a series of multiple regression analyses with
the added assumption of causal relationship between independent and dependent variables. This
technique lays relatively heavier emphasis on the heuristic use of visual diagram, technically
described as a path diagram. An illustrative path diagram showing interrelationships between
Fathers‟ education, Fathers‟ occupation, Sons‟ education, Sons‟ first and Sons‟ present
occupation can be shown in the Fig. 13.2.
Path analysis makes use of standardized partial regression coefficients (known as beta weights)
as effect coefficients. In linear additive effects are assumed, then through path analysis a simple
set of equations can be built up showing how each variable depends on preceding variables. “The
main principle of path analysis is that any correlation coefficient between two variables, or a
gross or overall measure of empirical relationship can be decomposed into a series of parts:
separate paths of influence leading through chronologically intermediate variable to which both
the correlated variables have links.
The merit of path analysis in comparison to correlational analysis is that it makes possible the
assessment of the relative influence of each antecedent or explanatory variable on the consequent
or criterion variables by first making explicit the assumptions underlying the causal connections
and then by elucidating the indirect effect of the explanatory variables.
Hypothesis Testing:
Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question that
he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of proposition
set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either
asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly
probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to
some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the following ones: “Students
who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving
counselling” Or “the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.” These are hypotheses
capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a hypothesis states
what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
Inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many a
time the research programs have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by Researcher in
order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other Deductions can be
made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational
Hypothesis. (iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must
remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such
hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily
understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has
nothing to do with its significance.
(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as
being the most likely.
(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use even
an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend a
life-time collecting data to test it.
(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means
that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able
to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims
to explain; it should have empirical reference.
To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data the researcher has collected) whether
or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether to
accept the null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing
refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e.,
rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing
are stated below:
(i) Making a formal statement: The step consists in making a formal statement of the null
hypothesis
(H0) and also of the alternative hypothesis (H)This means that hypotheses should be clearly
stated,
considering the nature of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil
Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be
more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypotheses as under:
Null hypothesis H
Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is
80.
To evaluate a state’s education system, the average score of 100 of the state’s students selected
on random basis was 75. The state wants to know if there is a significant difference between the
local scores and the national scores.
In such a situation the hypotheses may be stated as under:
Null hypothesis
Alternative Hypothesis
The formulation of hypotheses is an important step which must be accomplished with due care in
accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also indicates
whether we should use a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test. If H is of the type greater than (or of
the type lesser than), we use a one-tailed test, but when is of the type “whether greater or
smaller” thenwe use a two-tailed test.
(ii) Selecting a significance level: The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of
significance and as such the same should be specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or
1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are:
(a) the magnitude of the difference between sample means;
(b) the size of the samples;
(c) the variability of measurementswithin samples; and
(d) whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (A directional hypothesis is one
which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means).
In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of
enquiry.
(iii) Deciding the distribution to use: After deciding the level of significance, the next step in
hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally
remains between normal distribution and the t-distribution. The rules for selecting the correct
distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.
(iv) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value: Another step is to select a
random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test
statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical
data.
(v) Calculation of the probability: One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result
would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
(vi) Comparing the probability: Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus
calculated with the specified value the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to
or smaller than value in case of one-tailed tes in case of two-tailed test), then the null hypothesis
(i.e., accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the calculated probability is greater, then accept the
null hypothesis. In case we reject H we run a risk of (at most the level of significance)
committing an error of Type I, but if we accept then we run some risk (the size of which cannot
be specified as long as the happens to be vague rather than specific) of committing an error
As stated above we may commit Type I and Type II errors while testing a hypothesis. The
probabilityof Type I error is denoted as (the significance level of the test) and the probability of
Type II error is referred to asß . Usually the significance level of a test is assigned in advance and
once we decideit, there is nothing else we can do about But what can we say about ß ? We all
know that hypothesis test cannot be foolproof; sometimes the test does not reject
when it happens to be afalse one and this way a Type II error is made. But we would certainly
like tha(the probability ofaccepting is not true) to be as small as possible. Alternatively, we
would like that 1 – ß is not true) to be as large as possible. If 1 – ß is very much nearer to unity
(i.e., nearer to 1.0), we can infer that the test is working quite well, meaning therebythat the test
is rejecting H(the probability of rejecti when it is not true and if 1 – ß is very much nearer to 0.0,
then we infer
that the test is poorly working, meaning thereby that it is not Accordingly 1 – ß value is the
measure of how well the test is working or what is technically
described as the power of the test. In case we plot the values of for each possible value of
thepopulation parameter (say the true population mean) for which the His not true (alternatively
theis true), the resulting curve is known as the power curve associated with the given test.
Thuspower curve of a hypothesis test is the curve that shows the conditional probability of
rejecting Ha function of the population parameter and size of the sample.
The function defining this curve is known as the power function. In other words, the power
function of a test is that function defined for all values of the parameter(s) which yields the
probability that His rejected and the value of the power function at a specific parameter point is
called the power of the test at that point. As the population parameter gets closer and closer to
hypothesized value of the population parameter, the power of the test (i.e., 1 – ß ) must get closer
and closer to theprobability of rejecting H when the population parameter is exactly equal to
hypothesised value ofthe parameter. We know that this probability is simply the significance
level of the test, and as suchthe power curve of a test terminates at a point that lies at a height of
(the significance level)directly over the population parameter.
Closely related to the power function, there is another function which is known as the operating
characteristic function which shows the conditional probability of accepting H for all values of
population parameter(s) for a given sample size, whether or not the decision happens to be a
correct one. If power function is represented as H and operating characteristic function as L, then
we have L = 1 – H. However, one needs only one of these two functions for any decision rule in
the context of testing hypotheses. How to compute the power of a test
As has been stated above that hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption
(technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between two conflicting
hypotheses about the value of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to decide on the
basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or false.
Statisticians have developed several tests of hypotheses (also known as the tests of significance)
for the purpose of testing of
hypotheses which can be classified as:
(a) Parametric tests or standard tests of hypotheses; and
(b) Non-parametric tests or distribution-free test of hypotheses.
Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw
samples. Assumptions like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large,
assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variance, etc., must hold good before
parametric tests can be used. But there are situations when the researcher cannot or does not
want to make such assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing
hypotheses which are called non-parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any
assumption about the parameters of the parent population. Besides, most non-parametric tests
assume only nominal or ordinal data, whereas parametric tests require measurement equivalent
to at least an interval scale.
As a result, non-parametric tests need more observations than parametric tests to achieve the
same size of Type I and Type II errors.
In some cases the population may not be normally distributed, yet the tests will be applicable on
account of the fact that we mostly deal with samples and the sampling distributions closely
approach normal distributions.
z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of
several statistical measures, particularly the mean. The relevant test statiscompared with its
probable value (to be read from table showing area under normal curve) at aspecified level of
significance for judging the significance of the measure concerned. This is a mostfrequently used
test in research studies. This test is used even when binomial distribution ort-distribution is
applicable on the presumption that such a distribution tends to approximate normaldistribution as
„n‟ becomes larger. z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a sample tosome
hypothesized mean for the population in case of large sample, known. z-test is also used for
judging he significance of difference between means of two independent
samples in case of large samples, or when population variance is known. z-test is also used for
comparing the sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or for judging
the difference in proportions of two independent samples when n happens to be large. Besides,
this test may be used for judging the significance of median, mode, coefficient of correlation and
several other measures.
t-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance
of a sample mean or for judging the significance of difference between the means of two samples
in case of small sample(s) when population variance is not known (in which case we use
variance of the sample as an estimate of the population variance). In case two samples are
related, we use paired t-test (or what is known as difference test) for judging the significance of
the mean of difference between the two related samples. It can also be used for judging the
significance of the coefficients of simple and partial correlations. The relevant test statistic, t, is
calculated from the sample data and then compared with its probable value based on tdistribution (to be read from the table that gives probable values of t for different levels of
significance for different degrees of freedom) at a specified level of significance for concerning
degrees of freedom for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis. It may be noted that t-test
applies only in case of small sample(s) when
population variance is unknown.
We have described above some important test often used for testing hypotheses on the basis of
which important decisions may be based. But there are several limitations of the said tests which
should always be borne in mind by a researcher. Important limitations are as follows:
(i) The tests should not be used in a mechanical fashion. It should be kept in view that testing is
not decision-making itself; the tests are only useful aids for decision-making. Hence “proper
interpretation of statistical evidence is important to intelligent decisions.”
(ii) Test do not explain the reasons as to why does the difference exist, say between the means of
the two samples. They simply indicate whether the difference is due to fluctuations of sampling
or because of other reasons but the tests do not tell us as to which is/are the other reason(s)
causing the difference.
(iii) Results of significance tests are based on probabilities and as such cannot be expressedwith
full certainty. When a test shows that a difference is statistically significant, then itsimply
suggests that the difference is probably not due to chance.
(iv) Statistical inferences based on the significance tests cannot be said to be entirely correct
evidences concerning the truth of the hypotheses. This is specially so in case of small samples
where the probability of drawing erring inferences happens to be generally higher. For greater
reliability, the size of samples be sufficiently enlarged.
All these limitations suggest that in problems of statistical significance, the inference techniques
(or the tests) must be combined with adequate knowledge of the subject-matter along with the
ability of good judgement.
Definitions:- Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a statement about one or more populations. There are
research hypotheses and statistical hypotheses. Research hypotheses: A research hypothesis is
the supposition or conjecture that motivates the research. It may be proposed after numerous
repeated observations. Research hypotheses lead directly to statistical hypotheses. Statistical
hypotheses: Statistical hypotheses are stated in such a way that they may be evaluated by
appropriate statistical techniques. There are two statistical hypotheses involved in hypothesis
testing.
1. Is the null hypothesis or the hypothesis of no difference.
2. (Otherwise known as) is the alternative hypothesis or what we will believe is true if we reject
the null hypothesis.
Rules For Hypothesis Statements:1. Your expected conclusion, or what you hope to conclude as a result of the experiment should
be placed in the alternative hypothesis. 2. The null hypothesis should contain an expression of
equality, either =, or . 3. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that will be tested. 4. The null and
alternative hypotheses are complementary. This means that the two alternatives together exhaust
all possibilities of the values that the hypothesized parameter can assume. Note: Neither
hypothesis testing nor statistical inference proves the hypothesis. It only indicates whether the
hypothesis is supported by the data or not. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Example Of Test Statistic:- Testing the mean using z, = relevant statistic--sample mean =
hypothesized parameter--population mean = standard error of which is the relevant statistic This
all depends on the assumptions being correct.
Level Of Significance:- The level of significance, , is a probability and is, in reality, the
probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis. For example, with 95% confidence intervals, = .05
meaning that there is a 5% chance that the parameter does not fall within the 95% confidence
region. This creates an error and leads to a false conclusion.
Significance And Errors:- When the computed value of the test statistic falls in the rejection
region it is said to be significant. We select a small value of such as .10, .05 or .01 to make the
probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis small.
Types Of Errors:- When a true null hypothesis is rejected, it causes a Type I error whose
probability is . When a false null hypothesis is not rejected, it causes a Type II error whose
probability is designated by. A Type I error is considered to be more serious than a Type II error.
Risk Management:- Since rejecting a null hypothesis has a chance of committing a type I error,
we make small by selecting an appropriate confidence interval. Generally, we do not control,
even though it is generally greater than . However, when failing to reject a null hypothesis, the
risk of error is unknown. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Table Of Error Conditions:Hypothesis Testing And Scientific Reporting:- In science, as in other disciplines, certain
methods and procedures are used for performing experiments and reporting results. A research
report in the biological sciences generally has five sections.
1. Introduction:- The introduction contains a statement of the problem to be solved, a summary
of what is being done, a discussion of work done before and other basic background for the
paper.
2. Materials and methods:- The biological, chemical and physical materials used in the
experiments are described. The procedures used are given or referenced so that the reader may
repeat the experiments if s/he so desires.
3. Results:- A section dealing with the outcomes of the experiments. The results are reported and
sometimes explained in this section. Other explanations are placed in the discussion section.
4. Discussion:- The results are explained in terms of their relationship to the solution of the
problem under study and their meaning.
5. Conclusions:- Appropriate conclusions are drawn from the information obtained as a result of
performing the experiments. This method can be modified for use in biostatistics. The materials
and procedures used in biostatistics can be made to fit into these five categories. Alternatively,
we will use an approach that is similar in structure but contains seven sections.
HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Procedure For Hypothesis Testing:- (1) Data (2) Assumptions (3) Hypotheses (4) Test statistic
(a) Distribution of test statistic (b) Decision rule (5) Calculation of test statistic (6) Statistical
decision (7) Conclusion
Explanation Of Procedure For Hypothesis Testing:- (1) Data:- The data must be clearly
stated and understood. Sometimes certain values must be calculated before the hypothesis test
begins. The data determine what test statistic will be used. (2) Assumptions:- Confidence
intervals are determined, in part, based on what assumptions are being used. Examples include
the assumption that the population is normally distributed, that samples are randomly drawn and
independent, and whether the variances are equal. (3) Hypotheses:- Hypotheses are explicitly
stated : the null hypothesis : the alternative hypothesis (4) Test statistic:- The test statistic is a
statistic that can be computed from the data of the sample. Examples are z and t which may be
computed in several ways depending on the data and the hypotheses to be tested. (a)
Distribution of test statistic:- The key to statistical inference is the sampling distribution.
Assuming that the population is normally distributed, and the corrections are met, z follows the
standard normal distribution and t follows Student's t distribution. (b) Decision rule:- Values of
the test statistic form a distribution with a nonrejection region in the centre and a rejection
region. The values in the rejection region are less likely to occur if the null hypothesis is true.
The decision rule says to reject the null hypothesis if the value of the test statistic is in the
rejection region and not to reject the null hypothesis if it falls in the nonrejection region. (5)
Calculation of test statistic:- The test statistic is calculated from the data in the sample and the
result is compared with the rejection and nonrejection regions that have previously been
specified. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(6) Statistical decision:- The statistical decision consists of rejecting or not rejecting the null
hypothesis. It is rejected if the computed value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region,
and it is not rejected if the computed value of the test statistic falls in the nonrejection region. (7)
Conclusion:- If is rejected, we conclude that is true. If is not rejected, we conclude that may be
true. One should be careful to say " may be true" not to conclude that " is true" because there is
always a possibility that a type II error was made, meaning that a false null hypothesis was not
rejected.
Purpose Of Hypothesis Testing:Hypothesis testing is to provide information in helping to make decisions. The administrative
decision usually depends on the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, usually the
administrative decision will follow the alternative hypothesis. It is important to remember never
to base a decision solely on the outcome of only one test. Statistical testing can be used to
provide additional support for decisions based on other relevant information.
In this unit we will study hypothesis testing for six parameters. These will be the same six
parameters studied using confidence intervals. It is important to remember that hypothesis testing
and confidence intervals are closely related, like two sides of the same coin. The six parameters
are as follows: HYPOTHSIS TESTING
A hypothesis about a population mean can be tested when sampling is from any of the
following:-
--variances known
--variances unknown
applies)
‘P’ Values:- A p value is a probability that the result is as extreme or more extreme than the
observed value if the null hypothesis is true. If the p value is less than or equal to , we reject the
null hypothesis, otherwise we do not reject the null hypothesis.
One Tail And Two Tail Tests:- In a one tail test, the rejection region is at one end of the
distribution or the other. In a two tail test, the rejection region is split between the two tails.
Which one is used depends on the way the null hypothesis is written. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Confidence Intervals:- A confidence interval can be used to test hypotheses. For example, if the
null hypothesis is: : = 30, a 95% confidence interval can be constructed. If 30 were within the
confidence interval, we could conclude that the null hypothesis is not rejected at that level of
significance.
Procedure:- The procedure of nine steps is followed for hypothesis testing. It is very important
to observe several items.
details
Sampling From A Normally Distributed Population--Variance Known:- Example 1:- A
simple random sample of 10 people from a certain population has a mean age of 27. Can we
conclude that the mean age of the population is not 30? The variance is known to be 20. Let =
.05. [Note: "Yes we can, if..." A way to help solve this type of problem is to answer "Yes we
can, if..." In this case the question is, "Can we conclude that the mean age of the population is
not 30?" Answer, "Yes we can, if we can reject the null hypothesis that it is 30." Responding to
problems the same way all the time will lead to less confusion and less errors. ] (1) Data:- n = 10
= 20 = 27 = .05 (2) Assumptions:-
HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(3) Hypotheses:- : = 30 : 30 (4) Test statistic:- As the population variance is known, we use z
as the test statistic. (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the assumptions are correct and is true,
the test statistic follows the standard normal distribution. Therefore, we calculate a z score and
use it to test the hypothesis. (b) Decision rule:- Reject if the z value falls in the rejection region.
Fail to reject if it falls in the nonrejection region.
Because of the structure of it is a two tail test. Therefore, reject if z -1.96 or z 1.96. HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
(5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- We reject the null hypothesis
because z = -2.12 which is in the rejection region. The value is significant at the .05 level. (7)
Conclusion We conclude that is not 30. p = .0340 A z value of -2.12 corresponds to an area of
.0170. Since there are two parts to the rejection region in a two tail test, the p value is twice this
which is .0340. A problem like this can also be solved using a confidence interval. A confidence
interval will show that the calculated value of z does not fall within the boundaries of the
interval. It will not, however, give a probability. Confidence interval
Example 2:- A simple random sample of 10 people from a certain population has a mean age of
27. Can we conclude that the mean age of the population is less than 30? The variance is known
to be 20. Let = .05. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(1) Data:- n = 10 = 20 = 27 = .05 (2) Assumptions:-
(3) Hypotheses:- : = 30 : 30 (4) Test statistic:- As the population variance is known, we use z as
the test statistic. (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the assumptions are correct and is true, the
test statistic follows the standard normal distribution. Therefore, we calculate a z score and use it
to test the hypothesis. (b) Decision rule:- Reject if the z value falls in the rejection region. Fail to
reject if it falls in the nonrejection region. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
With = .05 and the inequality we have the entire rejection region at the left. The critical value
will be z = -1.645. Reject if z < -1.645. (5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical
decision:- We reject the null hypothesis because -2.12 < -1.645. (7) Conclusion:- We conclude
that < 30. p = .0170 this time because it is only a one tail test and not a two tail test.
Sampling Is From A Normally Distributed Population--Variance Unknown When the
population variance is unknown, which is most of the time, a slightly different approach is
necessary. The z score formula cannot be used because the population variance is unknown, so
we have to use t. The formula for t relies on the value of s, the sample standard deviation, which
can be calculated from the data of the sample. Example 1:- Body Mass Index A simple random
sample of 14 people from a certain population gives body mass indices as shown in the Table.
Can we conclude that the BMI is not 35? HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Let = .05. (1) Data:- n = 14 s = 10.63918736 = 30.5 = .05 (2) Assumptions:-
sample
(3) Hypotheses:- : = 35 : 35 (4) Test statistic:- (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the
assumptions are correct and is true, the test statistic follows Student's t distribution with 13
degrees of freedom. (b) Decision rule:- We have a two tail test. With = .05 it means that each
tail is 0.025. The critical t values with 13 df are -2.1604 and 2.1604. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
We reject if the t -2.1604 or t 2.1604. (5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:Do not reject the null hypothesis because -1.58 is not in the rejection region. (7) Conclusion:Based on the data of the sample, it is possible that = 35. p = .1375.
Sampling Is From A Population That Is Not Normally Distributed Example 2:- Maximum
oxygen uptake data Can we conclude that > 30?
Let = .05. (1) Data:- n = 242 s = 12.14 = 33.3 = .05 HYPOTHSIS TESTING
not assume normal distribution)
(3) Hypotheses:- : 30 : > 30 (4) Test statistic:- In this situation we do not know if the
population displays a normal distribution. However, with a large sample size, we know from the
Central Limit Theorem that the sampling distribution of the population is distributed normally.
With a large sample, we can use z as the test statistic calculated using s, the sample standard
deviation. (a) Distribution of test statistic:- By virtue of the Central Limit Theorem, the test
statistic is approximately normally distributed with = 0 if is true. (b) Decision rule:- This is a
one tail test with = .05. The rejection region is at the right of the value z = 1.645. HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
(5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- Reject because 4.23 > 1.645. (7)
Conclusion:- The maximum oxygen uptake for the sampled population is greater than 30. The p
value < .001 because 4.23 is off the chart (p(3.89) < .001). Note:The classical way of finding probabilities when this field was developed was by using tables.
This was in the first part of the 20th century. After the advent of hand-held calculators and
computers, it became possible to calculate a more accurate value for p. In this case, the actual
value is 1.17 x 10-5 (.0000117). This value was found using the TI-83 calculator. In many
publications even now, in the first decade of the 21st century, give values of p < .001 rather than
calculating an accurate value. These values indicate a fleetingly small probability that the effect
was due to a random chance occurrence. Such values of p are understood as such by the general
scientific community. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Hypothesis Testing Of The Difference Between Two Population Means:- This is a two
sample z test which is used to determine if two population means are equal or unequal. There are
three possibilities for formulating hypotheses:- l. : = : 2. : : < 3. : : >
Procedure:- The same procedure is used in three different situations
d populations with known variances
o population variances equal
This is with t distributed as Student's t distribution with ( + -2) degrees of freedom and a pooled
variance. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
o population variances unequal
When population variances are unequal, a distribution of t' is used in a manner similar to
calculations of confidence intervals in similar circumstances.
If both sample sizes are 30 or larger the central limit theorem is in effect. The test statistic is If
the population variances are unknown, the sample variances are used.
Sampling From Normally Distributed Populations With Population Variances Known:Example 1:- Serum Uric Acid Levels Is there a difference between the means between
individuals with Down's syndrome and normal individuals? (1) Data:- = 4.5 = 12 = 1 = 3.4 = 15
= 1.5 = .05 (2) Assumptions:-
(3) Hypotheses:- : = : HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(4) Test statistic:- This is a two sample z test. (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the
assumptions are correct and is true, the test statistic is distributed as the normal distribution. (b)
Decision rule:- With = .05, the critical values of z are -1.96 and +1.96. We reject if z < -1.96 or
z > +1.96. (5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- Reject because 2.57 >
1.96. (7) Conclusion:- From these data, it can be concluded that the population means are not
equal. A 95% confidence interval would give the same conclusion. p = .0102.
Sampling From Normally Distributed Populations With Unknown Variances With equal
population variances, we can obtain a pooled value from the sample variances. HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
Example 2:- Lung destructive index
We wish to know if we may conclude, at the 95% confidence level, that smokers, in general,
have greater lung damage than do non-smokers. (1) Data:- Smokers: = 17.5 = 16 = 4.4752 NonSmokers: = 12.4 = 9 = 4.8492 = .05 Calculation of Pooled Variance:- (2) Assumptions:-
tion variances are equal
(3) Hypotheses:- : : > (4) Test statistic:- (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the assumptions
are met and is true, the test statistic is distributed as Student's t distribution with 23 degrees of
freedom. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(b) Decision rule:- With = .05 and df = 23, the critical value of t is 1.7139. We reject if t >
1.7139. (5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- Reject because 2.6563 >
1.7139. (7) Conclusion:- On the basis of the data, we conclude that > . Actual values t = 2.6558
p = .014
These data were obtained in a study comparing persons with disabilities with persons without
disabilities. A scale known as the Barriers to Health Promotion Activities for Disabled Persons
(BHADP) Scale gave the data. We wish to know if we may conclude, at the 99% confidence
level, that persons with disabilities score higher than persons without disabilities. (1) Data:Disabled: = 31.83 = 132 = 7.93 Nondisabled: = 25.07 = 137 = 4.80 = .01 HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
independent random samples
(3) Hypotheses:- : : > (4) Test statistic:- Because of the large samples, the central limit theorem
permits calculation of the z score as opposed to using t. The z score is calculated using the given
sample standard deviations. (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the assumptions are correct and
is true, the test statistic is approximately normally distributed (b) Decision rule:- With = .01 and
a one tail test, the critical value of z is 2.33. We reject z > 2.33. (5) Calculation of test statistic:(6) Statistical decision:- Reject because 8.42 > 2.33. (7) Conclusion On the basis of these data,
the average persons with disabilities score higher on the BHADP test than do the nondisabled
persons. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Actual values z = 8.42 p = 1.91 x 10-17 Paired Comparisons:- Sometimes data comes from non
independent samples. An example might be testing "before and after" of cosmetics or consumer
products. We could use a single random sample and do "before and after" tests on each person. A
hypothesis test based on these data would be called a paired comparisons test. Since the
observations come in pairs, we can study the difference, d, between the samples. The difference
between each pair of measurements is called di. Test statistic:- With a population of n pairs of
measurements, forming a simple random sample from a normally distributed population, the
mean of the difference, , is tested using the following implementation of t. Paired comparisons:Example 4:- Very-low-calorie diet (VLCD) Treatment Table gives B (before) and A (after)
treatment data for obese female patients in a weight-loss program. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
We calculate di = A-B for each pair of data resulting in negative values meaning that the
participants lost weight. We wish to know if we may conclude, at the 95% confidence level, that
the treatment is effective in causing weight reduction in these people. (1) Data:- Values of di are
calculated by subtracting each A from each B to give a negative number. On the TI-83 calculator
place the A data in L1 and the B data in L2. Then make L3 = L1 - L2 and the calculator does
each calculation automatically. In Microsoft Excel put the A data in column A and the B data in
column B, without using column headings so that the first pair of data are on line 1. In cell C1,
enter the following formula: =a1-b1. This calculates the difference, di, for B - A. Then copy the
formula down column C until the rest of the differences are calculated. n = 9 = .05 (2)
Assumption:-
erved differences are a simple random sample from a normally distributed population
of differences
(3) Hypotheses:- : 0 : < 0 (meaning that the patients lost weight) (4) Test statistic:- The test
statistic is t which is calculated as (a) Distribution of test statistic:- The test statistic is
distributed as Student's t with 8 degrees of freedom HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(b) Decision rule:- With = .05 and 8 df the critical value of t is -1.8595. We reject if t < -1.8595.
(5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- Reject because -12.7395 < -1.8595 p
= 6.79 x 10-7 (7) Conclusion:- On the basis of these data, we conclude that the diet program is
effective. Other considerations
the variance is known or if the sample is large
HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Hypothesis Testing Of A Single Population Proportion:- When the assumptions for using a
normal curve are achieved, it is possible to test hypotheses about a population proportion. When
the sample size is large to permit use of the central limit theorem, the statistic of choice is z.
Example 1:- Four drug users and HIV
We wish to know if we may conclude that fewer than 5% of the IV drug users in the sampled
population are HIV positive. (1) Data:- n = 423 with 18 possessing the characteristic of interest
= 18/423 = .0426 = .05 = .05
(2) Assumption:-
(3) Hypotheses:- : p .05 : p < .05 If is true, p = .05 and the standard error is Note:- that the
standard error is not based on the value. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(4) Test statistic:- The test statistic is z which is calculated as (a) Distribution of test statistic:Because the sample is large we can use z distributed as the normal distribution if is true. (b)
Decision rule:- With = .05 the critical z score is -1.645. We reject if z -1.645.
(5) Calculation of test statistic:(6) Statistical decision:- Do not reject because -.6983 > -1.645
(7) Conclusion:- We conclude that p may be .05 or more. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Hypothesis Testing Of The Difference Between Two Population Proportions:- It is
frequently important to test the difference between two population proportions. Generally we
would test = . This permits the construction of a pooled estimate which is given by the following
formula. The standard error of the estimator is: Example 1:- In a study of patients on sodiumrestricted diets, 55 patients with hypertension were studied. Among these, 24 were on sodiumrestricted diets. Of 149 patients without hypertension, 36 were on sodium-restricted diets. We
would like to know if we can conclude that, in the sampled population, the proportion of patients
on sodium-restricted diets is higher among patients with hypertension than among patients
without hypertension. (1) Data:- Patients with hypertension: = 55 = 24 = .4364 Patients without
hypertension: = 149 = 36 = .2416 = .05 (2) Assumption:-
HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(3) Hypotheses:- : p1 p2 : p1 > p2 (4) Test statistic:- The test statistic is z which is calculated
as (a) Distribution of test statistic:- If the null hypothesis is true, the test statistic approximately
follows the standard normal distribution. (b) Decision rule:- With = .05 the critical z score is
1.645. We reject if z > 1.645. (5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- Reject
because 2.71 > 1.645 (7) Conclusion:- The proportion of patients on sodium restricted diets
among hypertensive patients is higher than in non hypertensive patients. p = .0034 HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
Hypothesis Testing Of A Single Population Variance Where the data consist of a simple
random sample drawn from a normally distributed population, the test statistic for testing
hypotheses about a single population variance is which, when is true, is distributed as with n-1
degrees of freedom.
Example 1:- Response to allergen inhalation in allergic primates. In a study of 12 monkeys, the
standard error of the mean for allergen inhalation was found to be .4 for one of the items studied.
We wish to know if we may conclude that the population variance is not 4. (1) Data:- n = 12
standard error = .4 = .05, df = 11 (2) Assumptions:-
(3) Hypotheses:- : = 4 : 4 HYPOTHSIS TESTING
(4) Test statistic:- The test statistic is (a) Distribution of test statistic:- When the null
hypothesis is true, the distribution is with 11 df. (b) Decision rule:- With = .05 and 11 df, the
critical values are 3.816 and 21.920. Reject if < 3.816 or > 21.920. (5) Calculation of test
statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- Do not reject because 3.816 < 5.28 < 21.920 (7)
Conclusion:- Based on these data, we cannot conclude that the population variance is not 4. p >
.05 because = 5.28 is not in the rejection region. HYPOTHSIS TESTING
Hypothesis Testing Of The Ratio Of Two Population Variances:- This test is used to
determine if there is a significant difference between two variances. The test statistic is the
variance ratio The statistic follows the F distribution with -1 numerator degrees of freedom and 1 denominator degrees of freedom. How V. R. Is Determined:-
The larger variance is put in the numerator
In a one sided test where : and : > we put / . The critical value of F is determined for using the
appropriate degrees of freedom.
In a one sided test where : and : < we put / . The critical value of F is determined for using the
appropriate degrees of freedom. Example 1:- A study was performed on patients with pituitary
adenomas. The standard deviation of the weights of 12 patients with pituitary adenomas was 21.4
kg. A control group of 5 patients without pituitary adenomas had a standard deviation of the
weights of 12.4 kg. We wish to know if the weights of the patients with pituitary adenomas are
more variable than the weights of the control group.
(1) Data:- Pituitary adenomas: = 12 = 21.4 kg Control: = 5 = 12.4 kg = .05 HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
(2) Assumptions:-
s are independent
(3) Hypotheses:- : : > (4) Test statistic:- The test statistic is (a) Distribution of test statistic:When is true, the test statistic is distributed as F with 11 numerator degrees of freedom and 4
denominator degrees of freedom.. (b) Decision rule:- The critical value is = 5.91. Reject if V.R.
> 5.91 (5) Calculation of test statistic:- (6) Statistical decision:- We cannot reject because 2.98
< 5.91. The calculated value for V.R. falls in the nonrejection region. (7) Conclusion:- The
weights of the population of patients may not be any more variable than the weights of the
control subjects. Since V.R. of 2.98 < 3.10, it gives p > .10 Actual p = .1517 HYPOTHSIS
TESTING
1. Definitions of basic terms used in Hypothesis Testing are understood.
2. The Rules for Stating a Hypothesis Statement are clearly defined and understood.
3. The importance of terms such as “Level Of Significance, Significance and Errors, Types of
Errors, Risk Management and Scientific Reporting” is clearly explained.
4. The Procedure for Hypothesis Testing is clearly explained along with examples.
5. The Purposes Of Hypothesis Testing are stated.
6. “Hypothesis Testing of a Single Population Mean” is explained in detail with the help of an
example.
7. “Hypothesis Testing of the Difference Between Two Population Means” is explained in detail
with the help of an example.
8. “Hypothesis Testing of a Single Population Proportion” is explained in detail with the help of
an example.
9. “Hypothesis Testing of the Difference Between Two Population Proportions” is explained in
detail with the help of an example.
10. “Hypothesis Testing of a Single Population Variance” is explained in detail with the help of
an example.
11. “Hypothesis Testing of the Ratio of Two Population Variances” is explained in detail with
the help of an example.
12. Conclusions are drawn from each of the Hypothesis Testing Methods.
According to “Goode and Hatt” ,a sample design is a smaller representation of large whole.
In other words, sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
While developing a sample design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
i. Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define these of
objects, technically called the universe, to be studied. There are two types of universe
Finite universe:- The number of items is certain.
Eg:-the number of workers in a factory.
Infinite universe:- The number of items is infinite.
Eg: number of stars in the sky.
ii. Sampling unit: A decision has to taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state , district ,village etc. or it may be a social
unit such as family, club, school etc. or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to
decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.
iii. Source list: It is also known as „sampling frame‟ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only).If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive , correct, reliable and
appropriate.
iv. Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. The size of sample should neither be excessively large nor too small.
It should be optimum. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
v. Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance we may be interested in
estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristics in the population or we may be
interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population. All this has
a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.
vi. Budgetary constraint: Cost consideration from practical point of view have a major impact
upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact
can even lead to the use of an non-probability sample.
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated. It is only
through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his
findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and upheld several times,
the researcher may arrive at generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. This may at times result in
new questions, leading to further researches. All this analytical information and consequential
inference(s) may well be communicated, preferably through research report, to the consumers of
research results who may be either an individual or a group of individuals or some public/private
organization.
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The
task
of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to establish continuity in research
through
linking the results of a given study with those of another, and (ii) the establishment of some
explanatory concepts. “In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the
collected data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the
study to include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”1 Thus, interpretation is the
device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in
the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception
which can serve as a guide for further researches.
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analysed, wrong
interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the
taskof interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial manner and also in correct
perspective.
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
(i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are appropriate,
trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good homogeneity;
and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process
of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to wrong
interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range
of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the like. Another major
pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the basis of confirmation
of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results accepting the hypothesis must be
interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity
of the hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false
generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped with and must know the
correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
(iii) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined with
analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of interpretation
as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions that one
usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning
the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of results.
(iv) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive observations
of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are initially
hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on proper lines. Broad
generalisation should be avoided as most research is not amenable to it because the coverage
may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such
restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within their
limits.
(v) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there should
be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and
empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.”2 He must pay
special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation
SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter of fact even the
most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most
striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated
to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to
others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains
the significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of
report as an integral part of the research process. But the general opinion is in favour of treating
the presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research
project. Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat
different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of
experts for the purpose. DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps
involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the
final
outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (c) preparation of the final
bibliography; and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a
brief
mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better understanding.
Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and
(b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often
consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.
Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the
framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”3
Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to
write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the
procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations
faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations
and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all
formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The
careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While
rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or
presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has
unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a
marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition
the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent
or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final
bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of
booksin some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those
works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically
and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets,
and the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this
pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of
reader, though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography. The entries in bibliography
should be made adopting the following order Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last
step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language,
avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing
the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations
and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they
happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to others. A research report
should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It
must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem
and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the
researcher and the reader.
TYPES OF REPORTS
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and the
form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer reports in
the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and financial
institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual
reports to their customers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their
investigations in the form of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results in symbols and
formulae. Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of some
writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the works of the author under
discussion. In the field of education and psychology, the favorite form is the report on the results
of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical tabulations. Clinical psychologists and
social pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use of the case-history form.
News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand on-the
scene accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons who were on
the scene. In such reports the first paragraph usually contains the important information in detail
and the succeeding paragraphs contain material which is progressively less and less important.
Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s intentions, his
success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or his point of
view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by
governmental bureaus, special commissions, and similar other organizations are generally very
comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important
research products. Similarly, Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing,
usually completed by students in academic institutions. (A) Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it) assumptions made
in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations
and supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem
in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in
sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary
data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the
manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the
findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This,
in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the
results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the order
of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in other words,
means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined
above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation and ready
availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such the liberal use of
charts and diagrams is considered desirable.
(B) Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with large
print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic
feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and
policy implications.
We give below a general outline of a popular report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most
practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the
study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the
specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used,
including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the
report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study
are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as
charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in
the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant
for
general public. There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be
prepared. The only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and
policy implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts
to the extent possible.
5 . What points will you keep in mind while preparing a research report? Explain.
PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS
Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the report.
A good research report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it must be
prepared keeping the following precautions in view: 1. While determining the length of the
report (since research reports vary greatly in length),
one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover the subject but short
enough to maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should not be a means to learning more
and more about less and less. 2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it
should be such as to sustain reader’s interest. 3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon
should be avoided in a research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply
as possible. This, in other words, means that report should be written in an objective style in
simple language, avoiding expressions such as “it seems,” “there may be” and the like.
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as
such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts,
graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main report in
addition to the summary of important findings. 5. The layout of the report should be well thought
out and must be appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in
accordance with the techniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of quotations,
footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes and the
like. 7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must reflect a
structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an attempt to solve
some intellectual problem. It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to
the store of knowledge. 9. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications
relating to the problem
under consideration. It is usually considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the
probable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to
be done in that particular field. 10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical
data in the report. 11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report
ORAL PRESENTATION
At times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective, particularly in cases
where policy recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of this approach lies in
the fact that it provides an opportunity for give-and-take decisions which generally lead to a
better understanding of the findings and their implications. But the main demerit of this sort of
presentation is the lack of any permanent record concerning the research details and it may be
just possible that the findings may fade away from people‟s memory even before an action is
taken. In order to overcome this difficulty, a written report may be circulated before the oral
presentation and referred to frequently during the discussion. Oral presentation is effective when
supplemented by various visual devices. Use of slides, wall charts and blackboards is quite
helpful in contributing to clarity and in reducing the boredom, if any. Distributing a board
outline, with a few important tables and charts concerning the research results, makes the
listeners attentive who have a ready outline on which to focus their thinking. This very often
happens in academic institutions where the researcher discusses his research findings and policy
implications with others either in a seminar or in a group discussion. Thus, research results can
be reported in more than one ways, but the usual practice adopted, in academic institutions
particularly, is that of writing the Technical Report and then preparing several research papers to
be discussed at various forums in one form or the other. But in practical field and with problems
having policy implications, the technique followed is that of writing a popular report.
Researches done on governmental account or on behalf of some major public or private
organizations are usually presented in the form of technical reports.
LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the
study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods
and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is
the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research
report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise (A)
preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately.
(A) Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed
by acknowledgements in the form of „Preface‟ or „Foreword‟. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody
interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report.
(B) Main Text The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all
details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then
follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page.
Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should
have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and recommendations;
(iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) The summary.
(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It
should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should be
given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief
summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in
that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed
in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report The methodology adopted
in conducting the study must be fully explained. The scientific reader would like to know in
detail about such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If the study
was an experimental one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the
data were collected by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were
asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If
measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the observers?
Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How
many were there? How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the
probable limits of Generalize ability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be
clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary
lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed,
must also be narrated.
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must
contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be
easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they
should be put in the summarized form.
(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form
of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text
of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several
chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of
the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and
splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the report. But
how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes
primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was
concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline
of his report. “Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which he
was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he
arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.
(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow
from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for
understanding the human behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations
of the inferences drawn from the study.
(c) Thc relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarises
and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be
clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a
forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which
needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the
major conclusions drawn from the research results.
(C) End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of
sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics
along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or
discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact
that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
Intellectual Property Rights
INTRODUCTION
Developments of new products and processes, brand names, content, etc. are resource intensive
and usually require huge investments. It is therefore, the expectation of the individuals or entities
creating them that they have exclusive rights over their creation to the exclusion of others.
Intellectual Property laws essentially provides this exclusivity.
Intellectual property rights are generally said to be a bundle of exclusive rights granted to the
lawful owner.
1. Industrial property:
Industrial Property describes physical matter that is the product of an idea or concept for
commercial purposes. It includes patents, trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic
indications of source.
2. Copyright.
Copyright describes the Literary & Artistic Works such as books, paintings, musical
compositions, plays, movies, radio/tv programs, performances,
It is important to be aware of what these IP rights are, how they can be protected and, in due
course, how to benefit from them
The various IP laws, their protection and registration in India and detailed below.
TRADEMARK
A trademark is the most valuable asset owned by a business. When a business is successful,
others will imitate not only the ideas and market strategy, but very often they will also imitate the
trademarks, product packaging, distinctive markings, etc. used by a successful company.
Businesses with particularly successful products or services spend considerable amounts of time,
effort and money creating, establishing and promoting their unique identities. Owners who fail to
pay sufficient attention towards the protection of their companies trademarks face a number
risks, including the inability to register or use their own marks on a future date, the dilution of
the markets recognition of their products or services, and, in some cases end up spending huge
resources in legal action to prevent unauthorized use or justify the use of their own property.
It is therefore pertinent that the trademarks be registered over all the goods and/or services over
which the mark is used. The legislations which deal with the protection and registration of
trademarks in India are The Trademark Act, 1999 and The Trademark Rules 2002. In India,
trademark registration is valid for a period of ten years. The same may be renewed from time to
time for additional periods of ten years each.
The term trademark or service mark includes any word, name, symbol, or device, or any
combination thereof to identify and distinguish goods, including a unique product, from those
manufactured or sold by others and to indicate the source of the goods.
Definition of TM: A trademark is a brand or a part of brand that give legal protection because it
is capable of exclusive appropriation . A trademark protects the sellers rights to use the brand
name and / or brand mark. TM is an exclusive mark intended to differentiate the product of one
seller with others.
A symbol, logo, word, sound, colour, design, or other device that is used to identify a business or
a product in commerce.
For registration of a mark as a trademark in India, the mark has to fulfill certain criteria. These
include the following requirements:
- The mark should be non- generic - A generic trademark is a trademark or brand name that has
become the colloquial or generic description for (or synonymous with) a general class of product
or service, rather than the specific meaning intended by trademark's holder. A trademark
typically becomes "genericized" when the products or services with which it is associated have
acquired substantial mind share.
- The mark should be non- descriptive - Descriptive trademarks are those which describe some
aspect, characteristic or quality of the products on which they are used.
- The mark is not identical or similar to existing marks- A proposed mark should not be similar
or identical to that for which the earlier trademark is registered in the name of a different
proprietor
.
- The mark should be non- deceptive - A deceptive trademark is one that wrongly indicates that
the goods over which it is used have certain qualities but they do not.
Importance of Trade Mark Registration :
1. Exclusive Rights
2. Legal action
3. Legal Evidence
4. A certificate to establish ownership of goods exported to other countries.
Registration :
1. Application for search
2. Application for registration.
3. Examination of trademark.
4. Advertisement of trademark.
5. Filing of opposition.
6. Certificate issued.
Duration of Trade mark registration is valid for ten(10) years from the date of application and
may be renewed for further period of 10 years on payment of prescribed fees.
Service mark rights are reserved exclusively for owners for 17 year & it can also be renewed.
The Govt. fees is Rs. 2,500 for each class of goods or services.
A Trade mark shall not be registered if,
(a) its identity with an earlier trade mark and similarity of goods or services covered by the trade
mark; or
(b) its similarity to an earlier trade mark and the identity or similarity of the goods or services
covered by the trade mark & there exists a likelihood of confusion on the part of the public,
which includes the likelihood of association with the earlier trade mark
A mark shall not be registered as a trade mark if ---(a) it is of such nature as to deceive the public or cause confusion:
(b) it contains or comprises of any matter likely to hurt the religious susceptibilities of any class
or section of the citizens of India;
(c) it comprises or contains scandalous or obscene matter;
(d) its use is prohibited under the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950.
A mark shall not be registered as a trade mark if it consists exclusively of(a) the shape of goods which results from the nature of the goods themselves; or
(b) the shape of goods which is necessary to obtain a technical result; or
(c) the shape which gives substantial value to the goods
TM infringement is punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six
months but which may extend to three years; and with fine which shall not be less than fifty
thousand rupees but which may extend to two lakh rupees. An injunction order restraining the
use of TM can also be obtained, Monetary Damages can also be claimed.
2. PATENT
Patent is a form of protection that provides a person or legal entity with exclusive rights for
making, using or selling a concept or invention and excludes others from doing the same, also for
claiming damages from those who infringe the invention.
Patents generally cover innovations, products or processes that include new functional or
technical aspects. It is granted by the Indian Patent Office and has a term of 20 years. After
expiration of this 20 year monopoly the product/ invention will fall in the public domain for any
third party to use it.
The legislations which deal with the protection and registration of patents in India are The Patent
Act, 1970 and The Patent Rules 2003.
The patent Act 1970 has undergone three (3) amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2005.
In the 2005 amendment introduced product patent protection for food, pharma and chemical
inventions.
Definition: A patent describes an invention for which the inventor claims the exclusive right.
In India an invention/product has to satisfy various criteria to qualify for a patent are:
- New/ Novel- The invention has a feature that sets it apart from previous inventions and is
unknown to the public.
- Non-obviousness- The invention's novelty must not be obvious to someone who has
ordinary skill in the area of invention.
- Utility- The invention is considered useful.
Like other IP laws patent protection is territorial in nature. Registration of a patent ensures
protection in all over India. If somebody wants to protect their invention in
another country they have to file application in each and every country where the Applicant
wants patent protection for their product/invention.
Non-patentable Inventions:
1. Contrary to public order or morality or which causes serious harm to human, animal or plant
life or health or to the environment.
2. The mere discovery of a scientific principle or the formulation of an abstract theory (or
discovery of any living thing or non-living substances occurring in nature).
3. The mere discovery of a new form of a known substance which does not result in the
enhancement.
4. A substance obtained by a mere admixture resulting only in the aggregation of the properties
of the components thereof or a process for producing such substance.
5. Plants and animals in whole or any part thereof other than micro-organisms
6. A literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work or any other aesthetic creation.
7. Duplication of traditional knowledge .
8. Any process for the medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic, diagnostic, therapeutic or other
treatment of human beings or any process for a similar treatment.
Registration of Patent
A Patent may be applied by , An inventor, Person/company legally assigned by the inventor,
Legal representative of any inventor or Either alone or jointly by above persons
Contents of patent
• Title
• Abstract Field Of The Invention
• Background Of The Invention
• Summary, Of The Invention.
• Detailed Description
• Claims
Steps to Process of filing a patent
1. Gather information on invention
2. Patentability Search
3. File Provisional Application
4. Within 1 yr. file Complete specifications
5. Advises serial number and filing date
6. examiner conducts patentability search
7. Examiner Issues Office Action
8. Publication of Application shortly after 18=24 m from the date of earliest filing
9. Opposition
10. Final Rejection or Rejection of opposition Process
11. Patentissues
Patent Maintenance Fees at 3years, yearly thereafter of filing a patent.
Patent Infringement:
Making, using, or selling a patented invention (Product or Process) without permission from the
patent owner is INFRINGEMENT. Infringement suit can be filed only after patent is issued
(granted) Relief includes fine or account of profit.Use for research purpose is not act of
Infringement
3. COPYRIGHT
Copyright is a right given by the law to the creators of literary, dramatic, musical and artistic
works and producers of cinematograph films and sound recordings. In fact, it is a bundle of
rights including rights of reproduction, communication to the public, adaptation and translation
of the work.
The creator of a copyrighted work has right to control/ prevent unauthorized copying or
reproduction of their work by others for a certain time period, after the said work will enter in the
public domain. The protection of copyright varies according to national legislations and the type
of work. The Indian law extends copyright protection for the work made by an individual for life
time of the author plus sixty (60) years. The Copyright Act, 1957 (Amended in 1982, 1984,
1992, 1994 & 1999 and 2012) and the Copyright Rules, 1958 provide for protection of
copyrights in India.
Some of the important amendments to the Copyright Act in 2012 are of copyright protection in
the digital environment such as
1. penalties for circumvention of technological protection measures and rights management
information,
2. liability of internet service provider;
3. introduction of statutory licences for cover versions and broadcasting organizations;
4. ensuring right to receive royalties for authors &music composers,
5. exclusive economic and moral rights to performers,
6. equal membership rights in copyright societies for authors and other right owners; and
7. exception of copyrights for physically disabled to access any works.
There are various criteria for securing copyright protection for a work. Firstly, the work must be
original and secondly, the work must be fixed or presented in tangible form such as writing,
recording, film or photography, etc. It is to be noted that, Copyright does not protect the
underlying idea but only the expression of that particular idea is protected under copyright.
Copyright is provided automatically to the author of any original work covered by the law as
soon as the work is created. Registration is not mandatory, but provides for protection of
ownership in case of dispute. Copyright registration is invaluable to a copyright holder who
wishes to take a civil or criminal action against infringement. One of the supreme advantages of
copyright protection is that unlike other IP rights, protection is available in several countries
across the world, by reason of India being a member of Berne Convention. Protection is given to
works first published in India, in respect of all countries that are member states to treaties and
conventions to which India is a member. Thus, without formally applying for protection,
copyright protection is available to works first published in India, across several countries. The
government of India vide International Copyright Order, 1999 has extended copyright protection
in India to works first published outside India
For Registration of a copyright an application form must be submitted with appropriate fee.
The Duration of Protection of Copyrights is:
1. For books and other works of arts it is 50 to 70 years after the death of the author
2. For photographic work 25 years from making the work.
3. For cinematic works 50 years after making the work available to public.
Exceptions to Protection (Free Use or Fair Deal):
1. Illustration for Teaching; and
2. Current News Reporting etc.
Free Use of a Copyright is decided by amount of work used and its economic implications to the
right holder.
Rights Covered Rights Not
Rights of a
under
covered
Copyright
Copyright
under
holder
copyright
Literary
Ideas
translation
Films
Works lacking
performance
originality
Dramatic
Facts
reproduction
Musical
Recipes
Motion picture
Artistic
Names, titles or
Broadcasting
short phrases
Sound Recording
To transfer, assign &
license
Introduction To Intellectual Property Rights
Intellectual property, very broadly, means the legal rights which result from intellectual activity
in the industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. Countries have laws to protect intellectual
property for two main reasons. One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic
rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The
second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination
and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic
and social development.
Intellectual property law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods
and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those
productions.
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), provides that Intellectual property shall
include rights relating to:
phonograms and broadcasts,
and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or
artistic fields. A Report on Intellectual Property Rights
Dept. of IEM, MSRIT, Bengaluru Page 3
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is one of the specialized agencies of the
United Nations (UN) system of organizations. The “Convention Establishing the World
Intellectual Property Organization” was signed at Stockholm in 1967 and entered into force in
1970. However, the origins of WIPO go back to 1883 and 1886, with the adoption of the Paris
Convention and the Berne Convention respectively.
1.1 Fields of Intellectual Property Protection are
A Report on Intellectual Property Rights
Dept. of IEM, MSRIT, Bengaluru Page 4
Patents
A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention – a product or process that provides a new
way of doing something, or that offers a new technical solution to a problem.
A patent is a document, issued, upon application, by a government office (or a regional office
acting for several countries), which describes an invention and creates a legal situation in which
the patented invention can normally only be exploited (manufactured, used, sold, imported) with
the authorization of the owner of the patent. Invention means a solution to a specific problem in
the field of technology. An invention may relate to a product or a process. The protection
conferred by the patent is limited in time (generally 20 years).
A patent is the right granted by the State to an inventor to exclude others from commercially
exploiting the invention for a limited period, in return for the disclosure of the invention, so that
others may gain the benefit of the invention. The disclosure of the invention is thus an important
consideration in any patent granting procedure.
Patents provide incentives to individuals by recognizing their creativity and offering the
possibility of material reward for their marketable inventions. These incentives encourage
innovation, which in turn enhances the quality of human life.
Conditions of Patentability:
An invention must meet several criteria if it is to be eligible for patent protection. These include
l Applicability (Utility)
-Obviousness)
Patentable Subject Matter
In order to be eligible for patent protection, an invention must fall within the scope of patentable
subject matter. Patentable subject matter is established by statute, and is usually defined in terms
of the exceptions to patentability as
- discoveries of materials or substances already existing in nature
- scientific theories or mathematical methods
- plants and animals other than microorganisms, and essentially biological processes for the
production of plants and animals, other than non-biological and microbiological processes
- schemes, rules or methods, such as those for doing business, performing purely mental acts or
playing games
- methods of treatment for humans or animals, or diagnostic methods practiced on humans or
animals (but not products for use in such methods).
Industrial Applicability (Utility)
An invention, in order to be patentable, must be of a kind which can be applied for practical
purposes, not be purely theoretical. If the invention is intended to be a product or part of a
product, it should be possible to make that product. And if the invention is intended to be a
process or part of a process, it should be possible to carry that process out or “use” it (the general
term) in practice.
Applicability” and “industrial applicability” are expressions reflecting, respectively, the
possibility of making and manufacturing in practice, and that of carrying out or using in practice.
The term “industrial” should be considered in its broadest sense, including any kind of industry.
In common language, an “industrial” activity means a technical activity on a certain scale, and
the “industrial” applicability of an invention means the application (making use) of an invention
by technical means on a certain scale.
Novelty
Novelty is a fundamental requirement in any examination as to substance and is an undisputed
condition of patentability. It must be emphasized, however, that novelty is not something which
can be proved or established; only its absence can be proved. An invention is new if it is not
anticipated by the prior art. “Prior art” is, in general, all the knowledge that existed prior to the
relevant filing or priority date of a patent application, whether it existed by way of written or oral
disclosure. The question of what should constitute “prior art” at a given time is one which has
been the subject of some debate.
Another viewpoint is based on the differentiation between printed publications and other
disclosures such as oral disclosures and prior use, and where such publications or disclosures
occurred. The disclosure of an invention so that it becomes part of the prior art may take place in
three ways, namely:
- by a description of the invention in a published writing or publication in other form;
- by a description of the invention in spoken words uttered in public, such a disclosure being
called an oral disclosure;
- by the use of the invention in public, or by putting the public in a position that enables any
member of the public to use it, such a disclosure being a “disclosure by use.”
Inventive Step (Non-Obviousness)
The inclusion of a requirement like this in patent legislation is based on the premise that
protection should not be given to what is already known as part of the prior art, or to anything
that the person with ordinary skill could deduce as an obvious consequence thereof. In relation to
the requirement of inventive step also referred to as “non-obviousness”, the question as to
whether or not the invention would have been obvious to a person having ordinary skill in the art
is perhaps the most difficult of the standards to determine in the examination as to substance.
If the problem is known or obvious, the examination will bear on the originality of the solution
claimed. If no inventive step is found in the solution, the question becomes whether or not the
result is obvious or whether it is surprising either by its nature or by its extent. If a person having
ordinary skill in the art would have been able to pose the problem, solve it in the manner
claimed, and foresee the result, the inventive step is lacking.
Disclosure of the Invention
An additional requirement of patentability is whether or not the invention is sufficiently
disclosed in the application. The application must disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently
clear for the invention to be carried out by a person skilled in the art. The description should set
out at least one mode for carrying out the invention claimed. This should be done in terms of
examples where appropriate, and with reference to the drawings if any.
An opposition procedure is designed to allow third parties to present objections to the grant of a
patent. So that oppositions may be filed, the public must be informed of the content of the
application, .
the Patent Office by publication of a notice in an official journal or gazette to the effect that:
- the application is open to public inspection, and/or
- the Patent Office will, unless opposition is filed within a prescribed period, grant a patent.
Drafting and Filing a Patent Application
Identification of the Invention
The first task in drafting a patent application is the identification of the invention.
This involves:
- summarizing all the necessary features which in combination solve a particular technical
problem
- an examination of this combination to determine whether it would, according to one’s own
judgment, fulfil the requirements for patentability, especially inventive step.
It is during this process that a full comprehension of the essence of the invention is obtained, and
this is important in helping to draft the description and claims.
Practical Aspects of Drafting Patent Applications
Drafting practices and requirements differ from country to country.
However, there are typically three basic requirements to be complied with in the drafting of a
patent application.
Firstly, there is a requirement that the application should relate to one invention only, or to a
group of inventions so linked as to form a single general inventive concept. A Report on
Intellectual Property Rights
Secondly, the description should disclose the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and
complete for the invention to be evaluated, and to be carried out by a person having ordinary
skill in the art. This allows for a simplified description since it can be assumed that the reader
will be an informed reader having the background knowledge which makes it unnecessary to
describe every basic detail of the invention.
Thirdly, for the application to proceed, it must contain claims which determine the scope of the
protection. The claims must be clear and concise and fully supported by the description. It is
from the claims that third parties are able to know what they may do and what they may not do.
Infringement
A patentee acquires the right, enforceable at law, to decide who shall and who shall not exploit
his patented invention. He retains this right for the term of the patent, provided he pays any
necessary renewal or maintenance fees.
To establish infringement the patent owner must prove all the following elements:
- the carrying out of a prohibited act.
- the prohibited act must have been done after the publication of the patent application, or the
issuance of the patent where no early publication occurs.
- the prohibited act must have been done in the country where the patent has been granted.
- the prohibited act must be in relation to a product or process falling within the scope of a claim
of the patent.
The remedies which may be available to the patent owner where infringement has been
established are usually provided for in the national patent law and are generally in two forms,
civil sanctions and criminal sanctions.
Exploitation of the Patented Invention
Basically, there are two methods the inventor can use to get his idea into production. He can sell
or license his product idea to a company equipped to manufacture it. Alternatively he can
become a manufacturer himself, either establishing a factory or contracting out production to a
job or machine shop if appropriate. Copyrights
Copyright deals with particular forms of creativity, concerned primarily with mass
communication. It is concerned also with virtually all forms and methods of public
communication, not only printed publications but also such matters as sound and television
broadcasting, films for public exhibition in cinemas, etc. and even computerized systems for the
storage and retrieval of information.
3.1 Rights which Copyrights provide
The creators of works protected by copyright, and their heirs and successors, have certain basic
rights under copyright law. They hold the exclusive right to use or authorize others to use the
work on agreed terms. The right holder of a work can authorize or prohibit:
c.
Similar rights of, among others, fixation (recording) and reproduction are granted under related
rights. Many types of works protected under the laws of copyright and related rights require mass
distribution, communication and financial investment for their successful dissemination (for
example, publications, sound recordings and films). Hence, creators often transfer these rights to
companies better able to develop and market the works, in return for compensation in the form of
payments and/or royalties (compensation based on a percentage of revenues generated by the
work).
The economic rights relating to copyright are of limited duration. As provided for in the relevant
WIPO treaties – beginning with the creation and fixation of the work, and lasting for not less
than 50 years after the creator’s death. National laws may establish longer terms of protection.
This term of protection enables both creators and their heirs and successors to benefit financially
for a reasonable period of time. Related rights enjoy shorter terms, normally 50 years after the
performance, recording or broadcast has taken place. Copyright and the protection of performers
also include moral rights, meaning the right to claim authorship of a work, and the right to
oppose changes to the work that could harm the creator’s reputation.
Rights provided for under copyright and related rights laws can be enforced by right holders
through a variety of methods and fora, including civil action suits, administrative remedies and
criminal prosecution. Injunctions, orders requiring destruction of infringing items, inspection
orders, among others, are used to enforce these rights.
3.2 Benefits of protecting Copyright
Copyright and related rights protection is an essential component in fostering human creativity
and innovation. Giving authors, artists and creators incentives in the form of recognition and fair
economic reward increases their activity and output and can also enhance the results. By
ensuring the existence and enforceability of rights, individuals and companies can more easily
invest in the creation, development and global dissemination of their works. This, in turn, helps
to increase access to and enhance the enjoyment of culture, knowledge and entertainment the
world over, and also stimulates economic and social development.
3.3 Advancement in Copyright along with Technology
The field of copyright and related rights has expanded enormously during the last several
decades with the spectacular progress of technological development that has, in turn, yielded
new ways of disseminating creations by such forms of communication as satellite broadcasting,
compact discs and
DVDs. Widespread dissemination of works via the Internet raises difficult questions concerning
copyright and related rights in this global medium. WIPO is fully involved in the ongoing
international debate to shape new standards for copyright protection in cyberspace. In that
regard, the Organization administers the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO
Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT), known as the “Internet Treaties”. These treaties
clarify international norms aimed at preventing unauthorized access to and use of creative works
on the Internet.
3.4 Regulations of Copyright
Copyright and related rights protection is obtained automatically without the need for registration
or other formalities. However, many countries provide for a national system of optional
registration and deposit of works. These systems facilitate, for example, questions involving
disputes over ownership or creation, financial transactions, sales, assignments and transfer of
rights.
Many authors and performers do not have the ability or means to pursue the legal and
administrative enforcement of their copyright and related rights, especially given the increasingly
global use of literary, music and performance rights. As a result, the establishment and
enhancement of collective management organizations (CMOs), or “societies”, is a growing and
necessary trend in many countries. These societies can provide their members with efficient
administrative support and legal expertise in, for example, collecting, managing and disbursing
royalties gained from the national and international use of a work or performance. Certain rights
of producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations are sometimes managed
collectively as well.
Trademark
A trademark is any sign that individualizes the goods of a given enterprise and distinguishes
them from the goods of its competitors.
Its origin dates back to ancient times when craftsmen reproduced their signatures, or “marks”, on
their artistic works or products of a functional or practical nature. Over the years, these marks
have evolved into today’s system of trademark registration and protection. The system helps
consumers to identify and purchase a product or service based on whether its specific
characteristics and quality – as indicated by its unique trademark – meet their needs.
4.1 Advantages
Trademark protection ensures that the owners of marks have the exclusive right to use them to
identify goods or services, or to authorize others to use them in return for payment. The period of
protection varies, but a trademark can be renewed indefinitely upon payment of the
corresponding fees. Trademark protection is legally enforced by courts that, in most systems,
have the authority to stop trademark infringement. In a larger sense, trademarks promote
initiative and enterprise worldwide by rewarding their owners with recognition and financial
profit. Trademark protection also hinders the efforts of unfair competitors, such as counterfeiters,
to use similar distinctive signs to market inferior or different products or services. The system
enables people with skill and enterprise to produce and market goods and services in the fairest
possible conditions, thereby facilitating international trade.
4.2 Different type of Trademarks that can be Registered
Trademarks may be one or a combination of words, letters and numerals. They may consist of
drawings, symbols or three dimensional signs, such as the shape and packaging of goods. In
some countries, non-traditional marks A Report on
may be registered for distinguishing features such as holograms, motion, colour and non-visible
signs (sound, smell or taste).
In addition to identifying the commercial source of goods or services, several other trademark
categories also exist. Collective marks are owned by an association whose members use them to
indicate products with a certain level of quality and who agree to adhere to specific requirements
set by the association. Such associations might represent, for example, accountants, engineers or
architects. Certification marks are given for compliance with defined standards but are not
confined to any membership.
They may be granted to anyone who can certify that their products meet certain established
standards. Some examples of recognized certification are the internationally accepted “ISO
9000” quality standards and Eco labels for products with reduced environmental impact.
4.3 Trademark Registration
First, an application for registration of a trademark must be filed with the appropriate national or
regional trademark office. The application must contain a clear reproduction of the sign filed for
registration, including any colours, forms or three-dimensional features. It must also contain a
list of the goods or services to which the sign would apply.
The sign must fulfill certain conditions in order to be protected as a trademark or other type of
mark. It must be distinctive, so that consumers can distinguish it from trademarks identifying
other products, as well as identify a particular product with it. It must neither mislead nor deceive
customers nor violate public order or morality.
Finally, the rights applied for cannot be the same as, or similar to, rights already granted to
another trademark owner. This may be determined through search and examination by national
offices, or by the opposition of third parties who claim to have similar or identical rights.
4.4 Extensive Protection of Trademark
Almost all countries in the world register and protect trademarks. Each national or regional
office maintains a Register of Trademarks containing full application information on all
registrations and renewals, which facilitates examination, search and potential opposition by
third parties. The effects of the registration are, however, limited to the country (or, in the case of
regional registration, countries) concerned.
To avoid the need to register separate applications with each national or regional office, WIPO
administers an international registration system for trademarks. The system is governed by two
treaties: the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks and the
Madrid Protocol. Persons with a link to a country party to one or both of these treaties may, on
the basis of a registration or application with the trademark office of that country, obtain an
international registration having effect in some or all of the other countries of the Madrid Union.
Industrial Design
Industrial design refers to the right granted in many countries, pursuant to a registration system,
to protect the original ornamental and non-functional features of an industrial article or product
that result from design activity.
It can also be defined as the ornamental or aesthetic aspects of an article. A design may consist
of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or two-dimensional
features, such as patterns, lines or colour.
Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of industrial products and handicrafts: from
technical and medical instruments to watches, jewellery and other luxury items; from house
wares and electrical appliances to vehicles and architectural structures; from textile designs to
leisure goods.
To be protected under most national laws, an industrial design must be new or original and nonfunctional. This means that an industrial design is primarily of an aesthetic nature, and any
technical features of the article to which it is applied are not protected by the design registration.
However, those features could be protected by a patent.
Need for protecting Industrial Design
Industrial designs are what make an article attractive and appealing; hence, they add to the
commercial value of a product and increase its marketability. When an industrial design is
protected, the owner – the person or entity that has registered the design – is assured an exclusive
right and protection against unauthorized copying or imitation of the design by third parties. This
helps to ensure a fair return on investment. An effective system of protection also benefits
consumers and the public at large, by promoting fair
competition and honest trade practices, encouraging creativity and promoting more aesthetically
pleasing products. Protecting industrial designs helps to promote economic development by
encouraging creativity in the industrial and manufacturing sectors, as well as in traditional arts
and crafts. Designs contribute to the expansion of commercial activity and the export of national
products. Industrial designs can be relatively simple and inexpensive to develop and protect.
They are reasonably accessible to small and medium-sized enterprises as well as to individual
artists and crafts makers, in both developed and developing countries.
How can industrial designs be protected?
In most countries, an industrial design must be registered in order to be protected under industrial
design law. As a rule, to be registrable, the design must be “new” or “original”. Countries have
varying definitions of such terms, as well as variations in the registration process itself.
Generally, “new” means that no identical or very similar design is known to have previously
existed. Once a design is registered, a registration certificate is issued Following that, the term of
protection granted is generally five years, with the possibility of further renewal, in most cases
for a period of up to 15 years. Hardly any other subject matter within the realm of intellectual
property is as difficult to categorize as industrial designs. And this has significant implications
for the means and terms of its protection. Depending on the particular national law and the kind
of design, an industrial design may also be protected as a work of applied art under copyright
law, with a much longer term of protection than the standard 10 or 15 years under registered
design law. In some countries, industrial design and copyright protection can exist concurrently.
In other countries, they are mutually exclusive: once owners choose one kind of protection, they
can no longer invoke the other. Under certain circumstances an industrial design may also be
protectable under unfair competition law, although the conditions of protection and the rights and
remedies available can differ significantly.
Extensive Protection of Industrial Design
Generally, industrial design protection is limited to the country in which protection is granted.
The Hague Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Industrial Designs, a WIPO
administered treaty, offers a procedure for international registration of designs. Applicants can
file a single international application either with WIPO or the national or regional office of a
country party to the treaty. The design will then be protected in as many member countries of the
treaty as the applicant designates.
Geographical Indication
A geographical indication is a sign used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and
possess qualities or a reputation due to that place of origin. Most commonly, a geographical
indication consists of the name of the place of origin of the goods.
Agricultural products typically have qualities that derive from their place of production and are
influenced by specific local geographical factors, such as climate and soil. Whether a sign
functions as a geographical indication is a matter of national law and consumer perception.
Geographical indications may be used for a wide variety of agricultural products, such as, for
example, “Tuscany” for olive oil produced in a specific area of Italy, or “Roquefort” for cheese
produced in that region of France.
The use of geographical indications is not limited to agricultural products. They may also
highlight specific qualities of a product that are due to human factors found in the product’s
place of origin, such as specific manufacturing skills and traditions. The place of origin may be a
village or town, a region or a country. An example of the latter is “Switzerland” or “Swiss”,
perceived as a geographical indication in many countries for products made in Switzerland and,
in particular, for watches.
Appellation of Origin
An appellation of origin is a special kind of geographical indication used on products that have a
specific quality exclusively or essentially due to the geographical environment in which the
products are produced. The term geographical indication encompasses appellations of origin.
Examples of appellations of origin that are protected in states party to the Lisbon Agreement for
the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration are “Bordeaux” for
wine produced in the Bordeaux region of France, or “Habana” for tobacco grown in the Havana
region of Cuba.
Why do geographical indications need protection?
Geographical indications are understood by consumers to denote the origin and quality of
products. Many of them have acquired valuable reputations which, if not adequately protected,
may be misrepresented by commercial operators. False use of geographical indications by
unauthorized parties, for example “Darjeeling” for tea that was not grown in the tea gardens of
Darjeeling, is detrimental to consumers and legitimate producers. The former are deceived into
believing they are buying a genuine product with specific qualities and characteristics, and the
latter are deprived of valuable business and suffer damage to the established reputation of their
products.
Difference between a Geographical Indication and a Trademark
A trademark is a sign used by a company to distinguish its goods and services from those
produced by others. It gives its owner the right to prevent others from using the trademark. A
geographical indication guarantees to consumers that a product was produced in a certain place
and has certain characteristics that are due to that place of production. It may be used by all
producers who make products that share certain qualities in the place designated by a
geographical indication
How are geographical indications protected?
Geographical indications are protected in accordance with national laws and under a wide range
of concepts, such as laws against unfair competition, consumer protection laws, laws for the
protection of certification marks or special laws for the protection of geographical indications or
appellations of origin. In essence, unauthorized parties may not use geographical indications if
such use is likely to mislead the public as to the true origin of the product. Applicable sanctions
range from court injunctions preventing unauthorized use to the payment of damages and fines
or, in serious cases, imprisonment.
Developments of new products and processes, brand names, content, etc. are resource intensive
and usually require huge investments. It is therefore, the expectation of the individuals or entities
creating them that they have exclusive rights over their creation to the exclusion of others.
Intellectual Property laws essentially provides this exclusivity.
Intellectual property rights are generally said to be a bundle of exclusive rights granted to the
lawful owner.
Intellectual Property (IP) has been traditionally categorized into
1. Industrial property:
Industrial Property describes physical matter that is the product of an idea or concept for
commercial purposes. It includes patents, trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic
indications of source.
2. Copyright.
Copyright describes the Literary & Artistic Works such as books, paintings, musical
compositions, plays, movies, radio/tv programs, performances,
It is important to be aware of what these IP rights are, how they can be protected and, in due
course, how to benefit from them
Definition of TM: A trademark is a brand or a part of brand that give legal protection because it
is capable of exclusive appropriation . A trademark protects the sellers rights to use the brand
name and / or brand mark. TM is an exclusive mark intended to differentiate the product of one
seller with others.
A Symbol, logo
Importance of Trade Mark Registration :
1. Exclusive Rights
2. Legal action
3. Legal Evidence
4. A certificate to establish ownership of goods exported to other countries.
Trade mark shall not be registered if,
(a) its identity with an earlier trade mark and similarity of goods or services covered by the trade
mark; or
(b) its similarity to an earlier trade mark and the identity or similarity of the goods or services
covered by the trade mark & there exists a likelihood of confusion on the part of the public,
which includes the likelihood of association with the earlier trade mark
A mark shall not be registered as a trade mark if ---(a) it is of such nature as to deceive the public or cause confusion:
(b) it contains or comprises of any matter likely to hurt the religious susceptibilities of any class
or section of the citizens of India;
(c) it comprises or contains scandalous or obscene matter;
(d) its use is prohibited under the Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950.
PATENT
Patent is a form of protection that provides a person or legal entity with exclusive rights for
making, using or selling a concept or invention and excludes others from doing the same, also for
claiming damages from those who infringe the invention.
Patents generally cover innovations, products or processes that include new functional or
technical aspects. It is granted by the Indian Patent Office and has a term of 20 years. After
expiration of this 20 year monopoly the product/ invention will fall in the public domain for any
third party to use it.
Contents of patent
• Title
• Abstract Field Of The Invention
• Background Of The Invention
• Summary, Of The Invention.
• Detailed Description
• Claims
Non-patentable Inventions:
1. Contrary to public order or morality or which causes serious harm to human, animal or plant
life or health or to the environment.
2. The mere discovery of a scientific principle or the formulation of an abstract theory (or
discovery of any living thing or non-living substances occurring in nature).
3. The mere discovery of a new form of a known substance which does not result in the
enhancement.
4. A substance obtained by a mere admixture resulting only in the aggregation of the properties
of the components thereof or a process for producing such substance.
5. Plants and animals in whole or any part thereof other than micro-organisms
6. A literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work or any other aesthetic creation.
7. Duplication of traditional knowledge .
8. Any process for the medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic, diagnostic, therapeutic or other
treatment of human beings or any process for a similar treatment.
Registration of Patent
Steps to Process of filing a patent
1. Gather information on invention
2. Patentability Search
3. File Provisional Application
4. Within 1 yr. file Complete specifications
5. Advises serial number and filing date
6. examiner conducts patentability search
7. Examiner Issues Office Action
8. Publication of Application shortly after 18=24 m from the date of earliest filing
9. Opposition
10. Final Rejection or Rejection of opposition Process
11. Patentissues
Patent Maintenance Fees at 3years, yearly thereafter of filing a patent.
Patent Infringement:
Making, using, or selling a patented invention (Product or Process) without permission from the
patent owner is INFRINGEMENT. Infringement suit can be filed only after patent is issued
(granted) Relief includes fine or account of profit.Use for research purpose is not act of
Infringement.
COPYRIGHT
Copyright is a right given by the law to the creators of literary, dramatic, musical and artistic
works and producers of cinematograph films and sound recordings. In fact, it is a bundle of
rights including rights of reproduction, communication to the public, adaptation and translation
of the work.
Some of the important amendments to the Copyright Act in 2012 are of copyright protection in
the digital environment such as
1. penalties for circumvention of technological protection measures and rights management
information,
2. liability of internet service provider;
3. introduction of statutory licences for cover versions and broadcasting organizations;
4. ensuring right to receive royalties for authors &music composers,
5. exclusive economic and moral rights to performers,
6. equal membership rights in copyright societies for authors and other right owners; and
7. exception of copyrights for physically disabled to access any works.
Objectives of intellectual property law
The stated objective of most intellectual property law (with the exception of trademarks) is to
"Promote progress. By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and
creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is
created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have
noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its
implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable
because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will
not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social
value of their inventions". This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property
as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent
developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international
harmonization.
Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of
intellectual property, such as:
1. Natural Rights/Justice Argument: this argument is based on Locke’s idea that a person has a
natural right over the labour and/or products which is produced by his/her body. Appropriating
these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right
applied to products of the mind,it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights,
in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's idea. Locke's argument for intellectual
property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create.
They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to
what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production.
2. Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument: according to this rationale, a society that protects private
property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in
19th century America has been said to be attributed to the development of the patent system By
providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and
other resources", intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility. The presumption is
that they promote public welfare by encouraging the "creation, production, and distribution of
intellectual works..Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of
incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize
social utility.
3. Personality" Argument: this argument is based on a quote from Hegel: "Every man has the
right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set
aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own".European intellectual property law is shaped by
this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one’s personality". Personality theorists
argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having
their ideas
and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to
do with personality.
Infringement
patentet acquires the right, enforceable at law, to decide who shall and who shall not exploit his
patented invention. He retains this right for the term of the patent, provided he pays any
necessary renewal or maintenance fees.
To establish infringement the patent owner must prove all the following elements:
- the carrying out of a prohibited act.
- the prohibited act must have been done after the publication of the patent application, or the
issuance of the patent where no early publication occurs.
- the prohibited act must have been done in the country where the patent has been granted.
- the prohibited act must be in relation to a product or process falling within the scope of a claim
of the patent.
Extensive Protection of Trademark
Almost all countries in the world register and protect trademarks. Each national or regional
office maintains a Register of Trademarks containing full application information on all
registrations and renewals, which facilitates examination, search and potential opposition by
third parties. The effects of the registration are, however, limited to the country (or, in the case of
regional registration, countries) concerned.
To avoid the need to register separate applications with each national or regional office, WIPO
administers an international registration system for trademarks. The system is governed by two
treaties: the Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks and the
Madrid Protocol. Persons with a link to a country party to one or both of these treaties may, on
the basis of a registration or application with the trademark office of that country, obtain an
international registration having effect in some or all of the other countries of the Madrid Union.
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
Industrial design refers to the right granted in many countries, pursuant to a registration system,
to protect the original ornamental and non-functional features of an industrial article or product
that result from design activity.
It can also be defined as the ornamental or aesthetic aspects of an article. A design may consist
of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface of an article, or two-dimensional
features, such as patterns, lines or colour.
S0l: All statistical techniques which simultaneously analyze more than two variables on a sample
of observations can be categorized as multivariate techniques. We may as well use the term
„multivariate analysis‟ which is a collection of methods for analyzing data in which a number of
observation are available for each object. Multivariate techniques have emerged as a powerful
tool to analyse data represented in terms of many variables.
Today, these techniques are being applied in many fields such as economics, sociology,
Psychology, agriculture, anthropology, biology and medicine. These techniques are used in
analyzing social, psychological, medical and economic data, specially when the variables
concerning research studies of these fields are supposed to be correlated with each other and
when rigorous probabilistic models cannot be appropriately used. Applications of multivariate
techniques in practice have been accelerated in modern times because of the advent of high
speed electronic computers.